Diallo, Thie no Malick; Ronconi, Lucas
Wo king Pape
Compliance wi h labou egula ions in Wes A ican
coun ies: A mul i-dimensional and dynamic analysis
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 152
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Diallo, Thie no Malick; Ronconi, Lucas (2025) : Compliance wi h labou
egula ions in Wes A ican coun ies: A mul i-dimensional and dynamic analysis, ILO Wo king
Pape , No. 152, ISBN 978-92-2-042770-5, In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
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XCompliance wi h Labou Regula ions
in Wes A ican Coun ies
A Mul i-Dimensional and Dynamic Analysis
Au ho s / Thie no Malick Diallo, Lucas Ronconi
Oc obe / 2025
ILO Wo king Pape 152
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01 ILO Wo king Pape 152
Abs ac
This pape p o ides measu es o compliance wi h labou egula ions ha a y ac oss space, ime,
and ype o egula ion, allowing o a ich analysis o wo ke ulne abili y. We compu e a mul-
idimensional index o labou iola ions ha co e s minimum wages, lea e bene i s and social
secu i y in eigh Wes A ican coun ies (Benin, Bu kina Faso, Cô e d’I oi e, Guinea-Bissau, Mali,
Nige , Senegal, Togo), and measu e he pe sis ence o labou iola ions expe ienced by employ-
ees o e ime (2019 o 2022). O e all, we ind ha 88% o employees in he egion expe ience
mul iple iola ions o hei labou igh s. When es ic ing o longi udinal da a, we obse e ha
he mul idimensional labou iola ions index is pe sis en o e ime, wi h only 21.5% o employ-
ees changing s a us o e he h ee-yea pe iod. These esul s highligh he need o os e bo h
wo ke s’ wellbeing and he ule o law in Wes A ica.
Abou he au ho s
Thie no Malick Diallo is Lec u e a Gas on Be ge Uni e si y, Senegal; and has been in ol ed
in esea ch collabo a ions wi h he Pa ne ship o Economic Policy, Kenya (PEP) and he A ican
Economic Resea ch Conso ium (AERC). His esea ch cen es a ound labou economics, gende ,
po e y, and u al economics.
Lucas Ronconi is P o esso o Economics a he Uni e si y o Buenos Ai es, A gen ina. He is also
a esea ch ellow a he A gen ine Na ional Resea ch Council, CONICET, a non- esiden esea ch
ellow a he Ins i u e o he S udy o Labo (IZA), Ge many, and a PEP, Kenya. His main esea ch
in e es is labou ma ke ins i u ions in de eloping coun ies, wi h a ocus on en o cemen .
02 ILO Wo king Pape 152
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
XIn oduc ion 05
X1 Me hodology and Da a 07
Mul idimensional Labou Viola ion Index (MVI) 07
Household Su ey 08
Legal Analysis 11
Benin 11
Bu kina Faso 12
Cô e d’I oi e 12
Guinea-Bissau 12
Mali 13
Nige 13
Senegal 13
Togo 14
X2 Measu es o Compliance 15
Desc ip i e s a is ics 15
Econome ic analysis 19
X3 Pe sis ence 22
XConclusion 24
Appendix - EHCVM 25
Re e ences 26
Acknowledgemen s 28
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 152
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 1 – Mul iple Viola ions Index (MVI) weigh ing 07
Figu e 2 – Mul idimensional Labou Viola ions Index, whole sample 17
Figu e 3 – Mul idimensional Labou Viola ions Index, by coun y-yea 18
Figu e 4 – Pe sis ence o Mul iple Labou Viola ions Index (MVI) o e ime 23
04 ILO Wo king Pape 152
Lis o Tables
Table 1. Labou o ce desc ip i e s a is ics, WAEMU coun ies (2019 & 2022) 08
Table 2. Cha ac e is ics o Employees, WAEMU coun ies (2019 & 2022) 10
Table 3. P e alence o labou law iola ions in Wes A ican coun ies (%) 16
Table 4 – Es ima es o he de e minan s o Mul idimensional Labou Viola ions Index 21
Table 5 – Pe sis ence o MVI by sex 23
05 ILO Wo king Pape 152
XIn oduc ion
Decen wo king condi ions o all wo ke s is a cen al objec i e o mode n socie ies. To achie e
his objec i e, go e nmen s implemen labou egula ions ha p o ide p o ec ions o wo ke s.
Much o he academic and policy discussions ha e cen ed on how much labou p o ec ion is
g an ed by he law, also called he le el o labou p o ec ion. Some o he key con ibu ions sup-
po ing he iew ha labou p o ec ion inc eases wel a e a e Galli and Kuce a (2004), Deakin and
Sa ka (2008), Deakin e al. (2014), and Adams e al. (2019); while o he s a gue ha he e ec s
a e mos ly nega i e (Bo e o e al., 2004; Djanko and Ramalho, 2009; Heckman and Pages, 2004).
Howe e , how he law is obse ed in p ac ice – he deg ee o compliance – has pa adoxically e-
cei ed less a en ion. This is pa icula ly p oblema ic in low-and-middle-income coun ies (LMIC),
whe e he e is usually a la ge gap be ween s a u o y equi emen s and hei e ec i e imple-
men a ion (Diallo and Ronconi, 2024). Noncompliance wi h labou p o ec ions unde mines he
c edibili y o go e nmen s and espec o he law. Mo e impo an ly, i hu s he well-being o
wo ke s and hei amilies. Noncompliance wi h legally manda ed labou bene i s is he ocus
o he pape . We use he e ms ‘ iola ion’ as synonymous wi h noncompliance.
We compu e a mul idimensional index o labou iola ions ha co e s minimum wages, lea e
bene i s and social secu i y in eigh Wes A ican coun ies (Benin, Bu kina Faso, Cô e d’I oi e,
Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Nige , Senegal, Togo); and measu es he pe sis ence o iola ions o e ime.
Tha is, we co e a ia ion in compliance ac oss space, ime, and ype o egula ion. This allows
o a much iche analysis o wo ke ulne abili y.
Because in o mali y is a dominan ea u e o he labou ma ke in hese coun ies, he ini ial li -
e a u e was no conce ned wi h labou iola ions, bu a he wi h he low p oduc i i y o he in-
o mal sec o , which was unde s ood as a mani es a ion o po e y and unde de elopmen . Fo
his eason, ea ly de ini ions o in o mali y (o a he , he in o mal sec o ) included subsis ence
sel -employees (own-accoun wo ke s) as well as employees wo king in small i ms, ega dless o
access o labou bene i s (Ha 1973; Tokman 1978). Mo e ecen ly, esea ch on in o mali y has
begun es ima ing he ex en o iola ion o wo ke s’ igh s, measu ed ei he as he sha e o em-
ployees wi hou con ibu ions o legally manda ed social secu i y, o as he sha e o employees
wi h ea nings below he minimum wage (Williams and Schneide (2016), Gindling e al. (2015),
Rani e al. (2013), and Ronconi (2010)). Few o hese s udies, howe e , ha e co e ed A ican coun-
ies due o da a es ic ions; bu his is changing hanks o he wo k o Bho a e al. (2015, 2017)
who co e Kenya, Namibia, Mali, Sou h A ica, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia; and Badaoui and
Walsh (2022) who co e Bu kina Faso, Cô e d’I oi e, Mali, and Nige . See also he es ima es in
ILO (2020) o he whole con inen .
Ha ing p ecise es ima es o compliance is a clea imp o emen in ou unde s anding o in o -
mali y. Bu a common cha ac e is ic o his li e a u e is he ocus on only one dimension a a
ime ( ypically minimum wages o social secu i y). This is limi ed om a policy pe spec i e since
addi ional s a u o y p o ec ions, such as lea e bene i s, hou s o wo k, sa e and heal hy wo k-
ing condi ions, and p o ec ion agains un ai dismissal, a e o conce n o wo ke s. Once we ake
his b oade pe spec i e se e al ques ions eme ge. Do labou iola ions co-occu ? A e he same
wo ke s who su e wage he also excluded om social secu i y and paid lea e; ha is, a e
wo ke s subjec o mul iple iola ions o hei igh s? To answe hese ques ions, i is necessa y
o analyse many dimensions and hei dis ibu ion ac oss wo ke s.
12 ILO Wo king Pape 152
Bu kina Faso
●F om 2012 o 2023 MW was 34,664 CFA Wes A ican F anc pe mon h. Du ing ha ime MW
was he same o a m and non- a m wo ke s. Since 2023, MW is 45,000 CFA pe mon h (o
260 CFA pe hou ) o non- a m wo ke s, and 240 CFA pe hou o a m wo ke s. App en ices
a e excluded om he minimum wage p o isions. The s anda d wo king day is 8 hou s, 40
pe week.
●Annual Paid Lea e: Yes. Employees a e en i led o paid lea e a he a e o wo and a hal cal-
enda days pe mon h o ac ual se ice, unless mo e a ou able p o isions a e made in col-
lec i e ag eemen s o in he indi idual con ac (a . 156).
●
Ma e ni y/Pa e ni y Paid Lea e: Women a e en i led o ou een weeks o ma e ni y lea e. The
p o isions ela ing o ma e ni y lea e in he labou code co e all women excep ci il se an s,
magis a es, mili a y pe sonnel, and local au ho i y employees (who ha e be e bene i s).
The e is no speci ic p o ision o pa e ni y lea e.
●Paid Sick Lea e: The labou code p o ides o paid sick lea e o all employees (du a ion and
amoun o paymen depends on he leng h o se ice).
●Con ibu ions o Social Secu i y a e compulso y o all employees.
Cô e d’I oi e
●MW om 2014 o 2023 was ( o non-ag icul u al sec o s) 60,000 CFA Wes A ican F ancs pe
mon h. In he ag icul u al sec o i is 36,000 CFA pe mon h and has no been e ised since
1994. The s anda d wo kweek is es ablished a 40 hou s.
●Annual Paid Lea e: Employees a e en i led o paid lea e a he a e o 2.2 wo king days pe
mon h o ac ual se ice.
●
Ma e ni y/Pa e ni y Paid Lea e: Female employees a e en i led o paid ma e ni y lea e o ou -
een consecu i e weeks, including six weeks be o e he expec ed da e o deli e y and eigh
weeks a e he da e o deli e y. The e is no pa e ni y lea e.
●
Paid Sick Lea e: Employees mus be paid compensa ion equal o he amoun o emune a ion
du ing he absence, wi hin he no mal limi o he no ice pe iod. I he illness equi es long-
e m ea men , he employe mus p o ide pay o a pe iod o wel e mon hs. EPLex no es
no legal exclusion in Co e d’I oi e in 2019 based on i m size and sec o o ac i i y.
●Con ibu ions o Social Secu i y a e compulso y o all employees.
Guinea-Bissau
●MW was 19,200 CFA in 2018 and inc eased o 59,000 CFA in 2022 (A icanews). The minimum
wage should be supplemen ed wi h a bag o ice pe mon h. The s anda d wo king week is 40
hou s. Fo wo ke s unde 16 yea s, he MW is 60%; o wo ke s 16 and 17 yea s old, i is 80%.
●Annual Paid Lea e: I applies o all employees. I a ixed- e m con ac is below one yea , hen
2 days o paid lea e o each mon h o wo k a e equi ed.
●Ma e ni y/Pa e ni y Paid Lea e: Women a e en i led o 60 days o paid ma e ni y lea e. The e
is no s a u o y pa e ni y lea e.
●Paid Sick Lea e: Employees a e en i led o paid sick lea e (du a ion and amoun o paymen
depends on he leng h o se ice).
13 ILO Wo king Pape 152
●Con ibu ions o Social Secu i y: Employees a e en i led o his bene i unde Law 2/1986,
which does no apply o public employees who ha e a speci ic egime wi h he same, o be -
e bene i s.
Mali
●The cu en minimum wage in Mali is CFA 40,000 pe mon h since Janua y 2016. The s and-
a d wo king week is 40 hou s.
●Annual paid lea e: The labou code p o ides annual lea e o an employee a e 12 mon hs
o se ice. Sou ce: §148-162 o he Labou Code, 1992 (Law No. 92–020 o he 23 Sep embe
1992); §86 (11 & 23) & 133 (6) o he Dec ee n° 1655/MEFPT-SG ega ding special p o isions
in he applica ion o he labou code.
●
Ma e ni y/Pa e ni y Paid Lea e: Female employees a e en i led o 14 weeks o ma e ni y lea e,
upon p ope ly documen ed eques , a e nine mon hs o con inued se ice wi h an employ-
e . Male employees a e en i led o 3 days o ully paid pa e ni y lea e on he bi h o a child.
●
Paid Sick Lea e: An employee is en i led o sick lea e upon p esen a ion o medical ce i ica ion
(s essing he necessi y o lea e) by a doc o app o ed by he employe . Du ing sick lea e, 100%
o he employee’s ea nings is paid du ing he i s yea o employmen o a pe iod o eigh
days o h ee mon hs depending on he collec i e ag eemen s o he ype o employmen .
●Con ibu ions o Social Secu i y a e compulso y o all employees.
Nige
●
In 2024, he s a u o y minimum wage was aised o Wes A ican CFA ancs 42,000 pe mon h.
Back in 2018 and 2022, when he su eys we e ca ied ou , he amoun was CFA 30,047. No mal
wo king hou s a y by indus y bu gene ally s a a 42 hou s pe week.
●The labou code p o ides o annual lea e o all employees on comple ion o one yea o se -
ice. An employee is en i led o 30 calenda days o paid annual lea e a he a e o 2.5 calen-
da days pe mon h. Schedule o annual lea e is de e mined by mu ual ag eemen be ween
employee and employe .
●
Ma e ni y/Pa e ni y Paid Lea e: Female employees a e en i led o 98 days ( ou een weeks) o
ully paid ma e ni y lea e, including eigh weeks o pos na al lea e. The e is pa e ni y lea e;
immedia ely a e deli e y o misca iage, male employees a e en i led o one wo king day
lea e om wo k (consul ed A ica Deploymen s L d).
●Paid Sick Lea e: The labou code p o ides o paid sick lea e o all employees (du a ion and
amoun o paymen depends on he leng h o se ice).
●Con ibu ions o Social Secu i y a e compulso y o all employees.
Senegal
●
In Senegal, he go e nmen di ides employees in o 2 ca ego ies: ag icul u al and non-ag icul-
u al. F om 2018 o 2022, when he su eys o ou s udy we e ca ied ou , he amoun was CFA
302.89 pe hou o he non-ag icul u al sec o and CFA 213.39 pe hou o he ag icul u al
sec o . No sec o o i m size is legally excluded excep o sea a e s (who ha e highe MW).
In Senegal, he s anda d wo king hou s a e 40 hou s pe week o e a maximum o 6 days.
14 ILO Wo king Pape 152
●Annual Lea e mus be p o ided o all employees on comple ion o one yea o se ice. I is
illegal o p o ide compensa ion in lieu o annual lea e excep in he case o e mina ion o
employmen con ac .
●Ma e ni y/Pa e ni y Paid Lea e: Female employees a e en i led o 14 weeks (98 days) o ma-
e ni y lea e including 8 weeks o pos -na al ma e ni y lea e. Fo male employees, he e is
no p o ision in he law on pa e ni y lea e.
●Paid Sick Lea e: The labou code p o ides o paid sick lea e o all employees (du a ion and
amoun o paymen depends on he leng h o se ice).
●Con ibu ions o Social Secu i y a e compulso y o all employees.
Togo
●The cu en minimum wage in Togo is se a Wes A ica CFA ancs 52,500 pe mon h, an
inc ease ha came in o e ec on Janua y 1, 2023. Be o e 2023, he minimum wage had e-
mained unchanged o a decade a CFA 35,000 pe mon h. No mal wo king hou s a e 40
hou s pe week.
●The labou code p o ides o annual lea e o all wo ke s on comple ion o one yea o se -
ice. Employees may also enjoy his igh (wi h educed lea e) a e 6 mon hs o se ice, on
employe ’s consen .
●
Ma e ni y/Pa e ni y Paid Lea e: The labou code p o ides 14 weeks (98 days) o ma e ni y lea e
o emale employees, including 6 weeks o pos -na al lea e. The ma e ni y lea e is awa ded
wi h ull pay. The e is no p o ision in he law on pa e ni y lea e.
●Paid Sick Lea e: The labou code p o ides o paid sick lea e o all employees (du a ion and
amoun o paymen depends on he leng h o se ice).
●Con ibu ions o Social Secu i y a e compulso y o all employees.
15 ILO Wo king Pape 152
X2 Measu es o Compliance
Desc ip i e s a is ics
In his sec ion we p esen measu es o compliance using he whole c oss-sec ional sample o
employees aged 15 o 64 in he eigh WAEMU coun ies du ing he wo analysed yea s (2019
and 2022). The sample includes almos 50,000 indi iduals. In he nex sec ion we es ic o em-
ployees who a e ollowed o e ime (i.e., longi udinal sample).
Table 3 shows he le el o non-compliance wi h each o ou i e measu es sepa a ely, o each
coun y and yea . The measu es pe ain speci ically o a wo ke ’s p ima y employmen and a e
legally manda ed.
Fo cap u ing Minimum Wage Viola ions, we use he p e ailing mon hly minimum wage se by
each coun y, combined wi h he s anda d wo king hou s. Fo he lea e bene i s, we use su ey
ques ions ha ask esponden s a simple ‘yes/no’ ques ion o each ype o lea e en i lemen and
whe he he employee has comple ed 12 mon hs o se ice o quali y o paid annual lea e. To
assess Social Secu i y con ibu ions, we use a s aigh o wa d ques ion asking esponden s o
indica e wi h a 'yes' o 'no' whe he hei employe con ibu es o social secu i y.
The esul s show ha labou s anda ds a e sys ema ically iola ed in all eigh coun ies. The sha e
o employees wi h legally manda ed annual lea e is only 25%, and access o he o he manda -
ed lea es as well as social secu i y is e en lowe .
Ou indings o minimum wage iola ions a e simila o p e ious es ima es. Using household
su ey da a om he 2010s, ILO (2020) es ima es ha 21% o employees ea n less han he
minimum wage in 11 A ican coun ies (Came oon, Cape Ve de, Cô e d’I oi e, Egyp , Gambia,
Madagasca , Malawi, Namibia, Nige , Tunisia, Tanzania).
16 ILO Wo king Pape 152
XTable 3. P e alence o labou law iola ions in Wes A ican coun ies (%)
Paid below mini-
mum wage
No paid annu-
al lea e No sick lea e No social secu i y
con ibu ion
No ma e ni y/
pa e ni y lea e
Benin
2019 27.9 67.0 79.1 83.3 80.0
2022 20.6 71.6 73.1 86.7 79.6
Bu kina Faso
2019 22.4 63.7 72.2 78.9 67.2
2022 18.2 74.9 79.8 85.7 76.0
Cô e d'I oi e
2019 37.0 77.2 76.2 85.7 79.2
2022 20.9 76.8 72.6 86.3 77.6
Guinea-Bissau
2019 3.8 74.1 81.4 94.8 85.2
2022 21.4 68.7 83.5 94.6 82.7
Mali
2019 20.8 68.4 66.8 79.4 76.7
2022 11.1 77.5 79.0 89.6 83.4
Nige
2019 20.0 58.1 69.0 87.5 77.3
2022 15.2 68.8 78.7 86.9 81.4
Senegal
2019 21.8 80.1 84.3 93.0 83.2
2022 16.1 81.6 87.6 95.3 86.4
Togo
2019 33.2 67.3 73.6 84.7 74.9
2022 24.3 69.3 74.1 84.6 79.4
WAEMU o al
2019 25.7 71.5 76.6 77.0 81.2
2022 22.7 74.2 79.7 80.8 83.5
Sou ce: Own calcula ions using EHCVM 2018/19 and 2021/22.
Minimum wage iola ions a e usually lowe han o he iola ions o labou egula ions la gely
because he s anda ds a e se qui e low. Fo example, he s a u o y minimum wage (PPP) does
no p o ide an income ma ching he po e y line o US$5.50 (PPP) pe day in Guinea-Bissau,
Nige and Togo (ILO, 2020).
Figu e 2 p esen s he Index o mul idimensional labou iola ions co e ing all coun ies and yea s.
We ind a clea spike a 0.67, indica ing ha almos 60% o employees ecei e only one hi d o
manda ed labou bene i s. The mos usual combina ion is ha he employee ge s a sala y abo e
he legal minimum bu does no ecei e any o he h ee paid lea es, no con ibu ions o so-
cial secu i y. The o he spike occu s a 1, indica ing ha 20% o employees a e excluded om
all he analysed s anda ds. Applying he 0.5 h eshold o ca ego ize each employee as ‘mul iply
17 ILO Wo king Pape 152
dep i ed’ o no , implies ha he es ima ed o e all Viola ion Ra e equals 88% in he egion. This
analysis could be complemen ed wi h he Adjus ed Headcoun Ra io.
XFigu e 2 – Mul idimensional Labou Viola ions Index, whole sample
Figu e 3 p esen s he Index o each coun y-yea sepa a ely. The igu es ha e se e al co e simi-
la i ies. In e e y coun y-yea sample he main spike occu s a 0.67; and in all cases mos employ-
ees a e se e ely excluded om labou bene i s. The dis ibu ion o he index is always s ongly
nega i e (o le -skewed). An in e es ing di e ence is ha some coun ies p esen a hi d spike,
al hough smalle , a 0, p oducing a W-shaped cu e dis ibu ion o labou iola ions. This is no
he case, howe e , in Guinea-Bissau, Nige and Senegal.
18 ILO Wo king Pape 152
XFigu e 3 – Mul idimensional Labou Viola ions Index, by coun y-yea
19 ILO Wo king Pape 152
Econome ic analysis
In his sec ion we econome ically explo e how he mul idimensional labou exclusion Index
a ies ac oss wo ke s’ and i ms’ cha ac e is ics, sec o s, occupa ions, and coun ies. The basic
model we es ima e is in equa ion 2:
whe e Wo ke _Ci is a ec o o wo ke ’s i cha ac e is ics including Age, Age squa ed, Sex ( emale=1),
Educa ional a ainmen , and place o esidence ( u al=1); Fi m_C
i
is a ec o o cha ac e is ics o he
i m and occupa ion whe e wo ke i is employed. We i s un a eg ession whe e we include he
whole sample o employees (and include coun y ixed e ec s); and hen compu e sepa a e mod-
els o wo ke s in each coun y. All models a e compu ed using OLS wi h obus s anda d e o s.
20 ILO Wo king Pape 152
The esul s a e in Table 4. All he esul s we ind a e consis en wi h indings o o he de eloping
coun ies (Kanbu e al., 2013). We ind ha he e is a U-shaped ela ionship be ween age and
he index o labou exclusions, whe ein bo h young and old employees a e mo e likely o su e
exclusions compa ed o middle-aged wo ke s.
Women a e mo e likely o su e exclusions compa ed o men, al hough he esul s a e no sig-
ni ican in all coun ies. Employees wi h mo e yea s o schooling, wo king in u ban a eas, and
in he public sec o a e, as expec ed, signi ican ly less likely o su e labou iola ions. The only
esul ha di e s compa ed o LMIC in o he egions, is ha employees wo king in he manu-
ac u ing sec o a e no less likely o su e labou iola ions compa ed o ag icul u al employ-
ees (Kanbu e al., 2013). Mo eo e , in some coun ies such as Bu kina Faso, Guinea-Bissau and
Senegal, wo king in he manu ac u ing sec o is posi i ely and signi ican ly co ela ed wi h su -
e ing om labou exclusion. This is mos ly because in hese coun ies he e a e mo e la ge and
p oduc i e i ms in he ag icul u al sec o compa ed o he manu ac u ing sec o .
Finally, a posi i e inding is ha , a e con olling o obse ables, he coe icien o he yea 2022
dummy is nega i e and s a is ically signi ican o mos coun ies, indica ing ha labou iola-
ions ha e declined o e ime, al hough he size o he educ ion is a he modes .
21 ILO Wo king Pape 152
XTable 4 – Es ima es o he de e minan s o Mul idimensional Labou Viola ions Index
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
WAEMU Benin Bu kina Faso Cô e d’I oi e Guinea-Bissau Mali Nige Senegal Togo
Age -0.012*** -0.012*** -0.017*** -0.010*** -0.003** -0.016*** -0.011*** -0.012*** -0.014***
Age squa e 0.0001*** 0.0001*** 0.0002*** 0.0001*** 0.00001 0.0002*** 0.0001*** 0.0001*** 0.0001***
Female 0.013*** 0.017 0.052*** 0.022*** -0.012*0.023*** 0.013 0.028*** -0.003
Educa ion
Seconda y -0.105*** -0.103*** -0.135*** -0.159*** -0.0266*** -0.127*** -0.140*** -0.134*** -0.0724***
Te ia y -0.153*** -0.128*** -0.128*** -0.209*** -0.0683*** -0.168*** -0.125*** -0.180*** -0.114***
Ru al 0.015*** 0.014 0.018 0.011 0.024*** 0.002 0.078*** 0.011*0.059***
Occupa ional s a us
Skilled wo ke s 0.038*** 0.070** 0.008 0.054** 0.055*** 0.075*** 0.030 0.015 0.069*
Unskilled wo ke s 0.181*** 0.182*** 0.185*** 0.261*** 0.177*** 0.177*** 0.131*** 0.115*** 0.275***
Employed p i a e sec o 0.274*** 0.290*** 0.309*** 0.311*** 0.223*** 0.323*** 0.261*** 0.243*** 0.304***
Sec o ac i i y
Mining -0.006 0.011 -0.024 -0.050 0.010 -0.017 -0.017 0.312***
Manu ac u ing 0.038*** -0.006 0.045** 0.010 0.056*** 0.032** 0.017 0.044*** 0.057*
Se ices 0.054*** -0.026*0.054*** 0.067*** 0.035*** 0.039*** 0.039** 0.081*** 0.024
Yea 2022 -0.008*** -0.060*** -0.012 -0.068*** 0.070*** 0.001 -0.023*0.002 -0.044***
_cons 0.551*** 0.617*** 0.545*** 0.436*** 0.335*** 0.501*** 0.493*** 0.571*** 0.507***
N32,334 2,531 2,526 6,787 5,500 4,393 1,675 7,478 1,594
R20.520 0.503 0.599 0.578 0.478 0.626 0.598 0.473 0.539
No es: Each column ep esen s a di e en eg ession. In all cases he dependen a iable is he mul idimensional Index o labou iola ions. The eg ession in column (1),
which uses he whole sample, includes coun y FE. The omi ed ca ego ies a e: ‘P ima y educa ion o less’; ‘Senio manage s’; and ‘Ag icul u e’. * S a is ically signi ican a he
10%, ** a he 5%, *** a he 1%.
28 ILO Wo king Pape 152
Acknowledgemen s
We hank Janine Be g, Abdoulaye Dieye, Fabiola Mie es, and Thiané Tall o hei use ul com-
men s and he ILO o he suppo .
Resea ch Depa men (RESEARCH)
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion
Rou e des Mo illons 4
1211 Gene a 22
Swi ze land
T +41 22 799 6530
esea [email p o ec ed]
www.ilo.o g/ esea ch
XAd ancing social jus ice, p omo ing decen wo k
The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion is he Uni ed Na ions agency o he wo ld o wo k. We b ing oge he go e nmen s, employe s and wo ke s
o imp o e he wo king li es o all people, d i ing a human-cen ed app oach o he u u e o wo k h ough employmen c ea ion, igh s a wo k,
social p o ec ion and social dialogue.
I S B N 9789220427705
9HSTCMA*echha +
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