Zanoni, Wladimi ; Du yea, Suzanne; Pa edes, Jo ge
Wo king Pape
Explo ing gende disc imina ion: A mul i- ial ield
expe imen in u ban Ecuado
IDB Wo king Pape Se ies, No. IDB-WP-1611
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank (IDB), Washing on, DC
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Zanoni, Wladimi ; Du yea, Suzanne; Pa edes, Jo ge (2024) : Explo ing gende
disc imina ion: A mul i- ial ield expe imen in u ban Ecuado , IDB Wo king Pape Se ies, No. IDB-
WP-1611, In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank (IDB), Washing on, DC,
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Explo ing Gende Disc imina ion:
A Mul i-T ial Field Expe imen in U ban
Ecuado
Wladimi Zanoni
Suzanne Du yea
Jo ge Pa edes
WORKING PAPER No IDB-WP-1611
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
Coun y Depa men Andean G oup
Augus 2024
Explo ing Gende Disc imina ion:
A Mul i-T ial Field Expe imen in U ban
Ecuado
Wladimi Zanoni
Suzanne Du yea
Jo ge Pa edes
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
Coun y Depa men Andean G oup
Augus 2024
Ca aloging-in-Publica ion da a p o ided by he
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
Felipe He e a Lib a y
Zanoni López, Wladimi , 1975-.
Explo ing gende disc imina ion: a mul i- ial ield expe imen in u ban
Ecuado / Wladimi Zanoni, Suzanne Du yea, Jo ge Pa edes.
p. cm. — (IDB Wo king Pape Se ies ; 1611)
Includes bibliog aphical e e ences.
1. Mino i ies-Economic aspec s-Ecuado . 2. Gende mains eaming-Ecuado . 3.
Equali y-Ecuado . 4. Disc imina ion in employmen -Ecuado . 5. Labo ma ke -
Ecuado . I. Du yea, Suzanne. II. Pa edes, Jo ge. III. In e -Ame ican
De elopmen Bank. Coun y Depa men Andean G oup. IV. Ti les. V. Se ies.
IDB-WP-1611
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Gende and Disc imina ion in U ban Labo Ma ke s:
E idence om a Field Expe imen in Ecuado ∗
Wladimi Zanoni†
, Suzanne Du yea†, Jo ge Pa edes†
Augus 28, 2024
Abs ac
This s udy examines he ex en and unde lying mechanisms o gende -based dis-
c imina ion in Ecuado ’s u ban labo ma ke h ough an a i ac ual ield expe imen
in ol ing 392 human esou ce ec ui e s. The expe imen assessed whe he ec ui e s
showed a di e en ial p e e ence o male e sus emale candida es wi h iden ical ob-
se able skills. Ou indings e eal a signi ican 10% p e e ence o emale candida es
despi e ec ui e s’ assessmen s o job i being nea ly simila o bo h gende s. This
p e e ence sugges s ha ac o s beyond p oduc i i y in luence hi ing decisions, po-
en ially d i en by social no ms ha , consis en wi h su ey da a, a o inc eased
pa icipa ion o women in he labo o ce ha has been closing he employmen gap.
Fu he e idence sugges s ha he p e e ence o hi ing women p ima ily occu s in
oles adi ionally held by women, ein o cing a he han challenging occupa ional
gende seg ega ion. Da a om he census indica es ha his pa e n is p e alen
ac oss he Ecuado ian labo ma ke , which may help explain he pe sis en wage gaps
and dispa i ies in job quali y be ween men and women. These esul s con ibu e o
unde s anding how gende biases mani es in labo ma ke ou comes and unde sco e
he impo ance o conside ing socie al no ms when add essing gende dispa i ies.
JEL Codes: J16, J71, C93
Keywo ds Gende disc imina ion, Occupa ional seg ega ion, Labo ma ke , S e eo yping
∗The au ho s would like o exp ess hei hanks o Paloma Ace edo, Osmel Manzano, and Juan Ca los
de la Hoz o hei in aluable suppo o his esea ch. Thanks o Hugo He n´andez, Oma Zamb ano,
Emily D´ıaz, Nicolas Chuquima ca, Albani G anado, Ana Pa icia Mu˜noz, Ma ´ıa Ca idad O iz, as well as
o he dedica ed eams a Ano a Policy Resea ch and G upo FARO o hei wo k. This p ojec ecei ed
IRB clea ance om Uni e sidad del Rosa io.
†In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank. Co esponding au ho ’s email: [email p o ec ed].
1
1 In oduc ion
Gende inequali y in La in Ame ica’s labo ma ke s is a well-documen ed issue, wi h pe sis-
en wage gaps, employmen dispa i ies, and occupa ional seg ega ion being sha ed ac oss
he egion. Ex ensi e empi ical e idence highligh s he signi ican labo ma ke disad-
an ages aced by women, mainly due o mo he hood, which imposes a mo e subs an ial
employmen penal y compa ed o o he egions. Fo ins ance, s udies e eal ha he em-
ploymen penal y o mo he s anges om 12% in B azil o 21% in Chile, wi h an addi ional
38% inc ease in emale labo in o mali y a e he bi h o a i s child Kle en e al. (2024);
Villanue a and Lin (2020); Be niell e al. (2021). Despi e his e idence, he size and
mechanisms explaining gende disc imina ion in La in Ame ica emain unde -documen ed,
pa icula ly in e ms o how gende biases mani es in ec ui men p ac ices in he labo
ma ke .
While he pa en hood penal y is a key ac o d i ing gende dispa i ies in labo ma -
ke s o La in Ame ica, hese dispa i ies can also esul om he in e play be ween explici
gende p ejudices and deeply ing ained social no ms ha ein o ce adi ional gende oles.
These no ms con ine women o lowe -paying, emale-domina ed sec o s, exace ba ing gen-
de inequali y o Labo & De elopmen (2023); Nopo and Chong (2010). In Ecuado , hese
issues a e pa icula ly acu e, wi h women acing signi ican ba ie s o accessing o mal
employmen , achie ing wage equali y, and secu ing job s abili y. Women in Ecuado a e
mo e likely o be employed in in o mal sec o s ha o e lowe wages and less secu i y Posso
(2013); Nopo and Chong (2010). Fo ins ance, social no ms, p ejudice, and s e eo ypes can
play a ole in shaping disc imina o y beha io s among decision-make s in labo ma ke s; we
do no ha e enough e idence on he magni ude o hei ele ance and ela i e impo ance
in explaining gende dispa i ies in labo ma ke s in La in Ame ica.
This pape explo es whe he human esou ce agen s ( ec ui e s) in Ecuado show a di -
e ence in hei e e al p ac ices when ecommending male e sus emale candida es who
ha e iden ical obse able skills, pa icula ly when hese candida es a e compe ing o he
same jobs. Speci ically, we in es iga e he unde lying beha io al mechanisms d i ing any
di e en ial ea men , ocusing on he po en ial oles o as e-based disc imina ion (p eju-
dices) and s a is ical disc imina ion (s e eo yping).1Addi ionally, we examine how e ol ing
social no ms ela ed o he g owing accep ance o women in he labo o ce may mani es
in gende ed job oles and in luence hi ing decisions, po en ially ein o cing occupa ional
gende seg ega ion.
Ou s udy no only explo es whe he ec ui e s ea male and emale candida es di -
e en ly bu also examines how he beha io o male and emale ec ui e s hemsel es con-
ibu es o his disc imina ion. Speci ically, we ound ha models wi h and wi hou ixed
e ec s epo ed no di e ences in ou comes o ei he men o women, indica ing ha s e eo-
yping is he p edominan d i e o disc imina ion, pa icula ly among male ec ui e s.
1He e, p ejudice ep esen s he e alua o ’s inna e biases, simila o as e disc imina ion (Becke , 1957).
S e eo ypes align wi h s a is ical disc imina ion (Phelps, 1972; A ow, 1971), whe e limi ed in o ma ion
leads ec ui e s o make s a is ical in e ences abou candida es, and wi h he ”social condi ion app oach”
by Bo dalo e al. (2016), whe e s e eo ypes a e seen as cogni i e sho cu s, oo ed in undamen al g oup
di e ences bu subjec o con ex ual dis o ion.
1
This sugges s ha men a e mo e esponsi e o social no ms ha encou age emale labo
o ce pa icipa ion, bu only in adi ionally gende ed occupa ions.
Answe ing hese esea ch ques ions is c ucial o bo h scien i ic and policy easons.
Scien i ically, he s udy con ibu es c i ical expe imen al e idence on how gende biases
in luence hi ing decisions in La in Ame ica, a egion whe e such e idence is no ably sca ce.
While esea ch in high-income coun ies has documen ed gende bias in labo ma ke deci-
sions, hese indings do no always ex end ac oss coun ies, sec o s, and ca ee s ages Goldin
and Rouse (2000). Fo policymake s in La in Ame ica, unde s anding he coun y-speci ic
mechanisms d i ing gende disc imina ion in hi ing is essen ial o designing a ge ed in-
e en ions ha can e ec i ely educe gende dispa i ies in hose labo ma ke s.
To add ess hese esea ch ques ions, we ely on da a om an a i ac ual ield expe imen
(AFE) conduc ed in Qui o, Ecuado , ha examined how ec ui e s e alua ed job applican s
who we e women, gays, lesbians, and mig an s. This pape ocuses on he da a om which
ec ui e s assessed applica ions om women and men compe ing o he same jobs. The
AFE in ol ed 392 human esou ce p o essionals ec ui ed ia LinkedIn and snowball e e al
sampling, wi h suppo om a local NGO. The ec ui e s we e unawa e ha hey we e
pa icipa ing in a ield expe imen aimed a s udying po en ial gende -based disc imina o y
beha io s.
We de eloped a cus om web-based pla o m, designed in consul a ion wi h human e-
sou ce expe s, o closely esemble a hi ing e alua ion so wa e o he ype commonly used
by i ms oday. Each ec ui e e alua ed up o h ee pai s o job applica ions, compa ing
men and women o h ee di e en occupa ions andomly assigned ac oss en job pos ings.
The candida es in each pai we e obse a ionally equi alen in e ms o p oduc i i y sig-
nals, ensu ing ha any di e ences in ec ui e e alua ions could be a ibu ed o andom
gende assignmen s.
The da a gene a ed by he expe imen is s acked a he candida e le el and nes ed
wi hin ec ui e s, wi h each ec ui e ha ing up o six associa ed obse a ions (i.e., up o
h ee pai s). The p ima y dependen a iables a e an indica o o candida e selec ion and
an o dinal a iable o job i ness assessmen . O dina y leas squa es (OLS) coe icien
es ima es o a gende indica o o emales on hese ou comes measu e disc imina ion (we
call ha es ima e a ”disc imina ion coe icien ”). The longi udinal componen o he da a
(each ec ui e sequen ially analyzes a ious pai s o candida es) allows us o measu e
disc imina ion using coe icien es ima es om OLS eg essions wi h and wi hou ec ui e s’
ixed-e ec s. Unde he assump ion ha p ejudice emains cons an du ing he expe imen ,
compa ing disc imina ion coe icien s wi h and wi hou ixed e ec s allows us o unde s and
he sepa a e oles ha s e eo yping and p ejudice play in he ec ui e s’ e e al decisions.
Ou indings e eal ha when p esen ed wi h obse a ionally equi alen candida es,
ec ui e s a o ed women o e men in job e e als. Speci ically, women we e chosen ap-
p oxima ely 10% mo e o en han hei male coun e pa s, wi h a nea ly i e pe cen age
poin di e ence in selec ion a es. This p e e ence o emale candida es was mo e p o-
nounced among male ec ui e s, who showed a s a is ically signi ican 10.35 pe cen age
poin di e ence in a o o women, compa ed o a smalle and s a is ically insigni ican
2.66 pe cen age poin di e ence among emale ec ui e s.
In e es ingly, ou esul s show ha he e a e no signi ican di e ences be ween models
2
wi h and wi hou ec ui e ixed e ec s o bo h male and emale candida es. This inding
unde sco es ha he p ima y beha io al mechanism leading o disc imina ion is s e eo yp-
ing, pa icula ly by male ec ui e s. This aspec o gende disc imina ion, whe e men a e
mo e in luenced by social no ms ha p omo e emale labo pa icipa ion ye con ine women
o gende ed oles, is no o en highligh ed in he li e a u e.
The analysis also shows ha disc imina ion coe icien s, wi h and wi hou ec ui e s’
ixed e ec s, a e nea ly iden ical, indica ing ha s e eo yping is he p ima y d i e o dis-
c imina ion. Signi ican posi i e disc imina ion was obse ed owa d emale candida es
in s e eo ypically emale-domina ed oles, such as cleaning and call cen e ope a ions. In
con as , nega i e disc imina ion pe sis ed in adi ionally male-domina ed jobs like main-
enance. This pa e n unde sco es gende -d i en occupa ional seg ega ion, whe e women
a e inc easingly hi ed in o adi ional oles, ein o cing exis ing occupa ional gende s uc-
u es a he han b eaking hem down.
Mo eo e , ou indings sugges ha he disc imina ion obse ed is hea ily in luenced
by male ec ui e s adhe ing o socie al expec a ions ha women should pa icipa e mo e
in he labo o ce bu in oles ha align wi h adi ional gende no ms. This aspec o
gende disc imina ion—whe e no only he gende o he candida e ma e s bu also he
gende o he ec ui e —adds a c i ical dimension o ou scien i ic unde s anding o how
social no ms shape di e en ial hi ing p ac ices by gende .
Ou s udy makes a signi ican con ibu ion o he li e a u e on gende disc imina ion by
documen ing ha inc easing pa icipa ion o women in he labo o ce appea s o be in lu-
enced by occupa ionally d i en s e eo ypes held by ec ui e s in a La in Ame ican con ex ,
a egion and esea ch opic ha has ecei ed less a en ion compa ed o high-income coun-
ies. While p e ious esea ch has documen ed bias agains women in speci ic sec o s and
popula ions B a o e al. (2008); A ceo-Gomez and Campos-Vazquez (2014) in OECD coun-
ies, ou s udy uniquely highligh s he gende -d i en na u e o ec ui e choices and he
ole o social no ms in shaping hese decisions. By expe imen ally dis inguishing be ween
p ejudices and s e eo yping, his s udy o e s a deepe unde s anding o he mechanisms
d i ing gende biases in hi ing in La in Ame ica.
The indings ha e impo an policy implica ions. Unde s anding ha s e eo yping is a
c ucial d i e o gende disc imina ion in hi ing allows o he de elopmen o mo e a ge ed
in e en ions. Beha io al in e en ions aimed a co ec ing misin o ma ion o challenging
en enched w ong belie s may be e ec i e in educing gende disc imina ion, pa icula ly
in highe -wage occupa ions, he eby con ibu ing o closing he wage gap. Neuma k (2018)
emphasizes ha unde s anding disc imina ion in hi ing is c ucial because i o en mani es s
in gende -seg ega ed occupa ions whe e wages a e lowe o oles ypically held by women.
This insigh is key o be e unde s anding he mechanisms behind pe sis en wage gaps.
These could include nudging ec ui e s o ecognize and coun e ac implici biases ega ding
occupa ional sec o s. Addi ionally, add essing social no ms ha ein o ce gende oles is
c ucial o educing occupa ional seg ega ion and p omo ing gende equali y in he labo
ma ke .
In e alua ing he ex e nal alidi y o ou indings, we apply he SANS amewo k (Selec-
ion, A i ion, Na u alness, and Scalabili y) as p oposed by Lis (2020). Fo Selec ion, ou
da a encompasses 392 expe ienced human esou ce ec ui e s om a con enience sample in
3
Qui o, Ecuado . Compa ed o na ional occupa ional s a is ics (ENEMDU), ou sample is
younge , mo e educa ed, and p edominan ly emale. Rega ding A i ion, ou s udy exhib-
i ed high pa icipan commi men , wi h 315 ou o 392 ec ui e s comple ing all h ee ials,
esul ing in 2,176 obse a ions. This high comple ion a e minimizes he isk o a i ion
bias.
Fo Na u alness, ou expe imen was conduc ed ia an online pla o m, mi o ing mod-
e n ec ui men p ac ices, whe e emo e candida e e alua ion is inc easingly common.2
This app oach aligns wi h cu en ends, whe e many companies ou sou ce hei ec ui -
men se ices o hi d-pa y p o ide s, making i inc easingly common o ec ui e s o
in e ac wi h such pla o ms in hei daily wo k.3The use o online ools o candida e
assessmen is no unusual, and he lexibili y o hese pla o ms allows o a ious e alu-
a ion me hods, including e iewing candida es in pai s. This mi o s ac ual ec ui men
p ac ices, whe e ec ui e s may assess candida es sequen ially o in pa allel.4Thus, he en-
i onmen we c ea ed is bo h amilia and c edible, enhancing he alidi y o ou indings.
Las ly, conce ning Scalabili y, as will be e e ed o in he documen , no only does ou
expe imen ’s design e lec he ends in Ecuado ’s hi ing p ac ices o o mal employmen ,
bu he esul s align wi h he occupa ional dis ibu ion o jobs. I can be expanded o
moni o e ol ing disc imina ion dynamics beyond gende , making i a lexible and eliable
ool in he con ex o inc easing emo e ec ui men p ac ices.
This pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2 p o ides a e iew o he ele an li e -
a u e, laying he g oundwo k o he s udy’s heo e ical amewo k. Sec ion 3 desc ibes
he me hodology employed in ou ield expe imen s, including he design, sampling ech-
niques, and da a collec ion p ocesses. Sec ion 4 p esen s he esul s o ou expe imen s,
o e ing de ailed s a is ical analyses and in e p e a ions o he indings. Sec ion 5 discusses
he implica ions o he esul s o unde s anding gende disc imina ion in hi ing p ac ices,
in eg a ing insigh s om bo h he empi ical da a and es ablished heo ies. Finally, Sec ion
6 concludes wi h a summa y o ou key indings, ecommenda ions o u u e esea ch, and
po en ial policy implica ions a ising om ou s udy.
2 Labo Ma ke Dispa i ies by Gende : Su ey E i-
dence om Ecuado
Ecuado has expe ienced no able p og ess in inc easing he labo supply o women (Mah´e
e al., 2022). Da a om yea ly household su eys p oduced by he Ecuado ian Census and
S a is ics O ice (Ins i u o Nacional de Es ad´ıs ica y Censos; INEC) om 2008 o 2023
show ha he dispa i y in labo o ce pa icipa ion a es be ween gende s dec eased om
29.8 o 23.7 pe cen age poin s, while he gap in employmen a es na owed om -3.2 o
2McKinsey Company, ”The u u e o emo e wo k: An analysis o 2,000 asks, 800 jobs, and 9 coun ies”,
h ps://www.mckinsey.com/ u u e-o - emo e-wo k
3Financial Times, ”The ise o he pla o m economy”, h ps://www. .com/con en /
pla o m-economy-2024
4Financial Times, ”The ise o he pla o m economy”, h ps://www. .com/con en /
pla o m-economy-2024
4
on a Like - ype scale o 1 o 10 summa izing assessmen s o he candida e sui abili y o
he ad e ised posi ion. The a iable Di is an indica o o whe he he candida e being
e alua ed was a woman, in which case i has he alue o one (and ze o i his is no he
case). Xi is a ec o o con ols, which we will explain in de ail in he empi ical sec ion,
and he a iable ϵi ep esen s unobse ed he e ogenei y.
Ou subjec o in e es is he δcoe icien om equa ion 1 ( he disc imina ion coe i-
cien hence o h), which we es ima e o he en i e sample and o selec ed subsamples by
gende o he ec ui e , occupa ion, and ials. The esul s we e alida ed by s udying he
coe icien es ima es o job ixed e ec s in e ac ed wi h he gende indica o .
We p oposed wo empi ical models o analyze he unde lying mechanisms o disc imi-
na ion: one ha cap u es he combined e ec o p ejudice and s e eo yping and ano he
ha isola es he impac o s e eo yping alone. This dis inc ion is c i ical o unde s anding
he nuanced dynamics be ween inhe en biases and s e eo ypical judgmen s in hi ing deci-
sions. To isola e he impac o s e eo yping, we add ec ui e s’ ixed e ec s o he model
speci ica ion in equa ion 1. Because we exposed each ec ui e o mul iple e alua ion pai s,
he da a has a longi udinal dimension, and we can employ a ec ui e ixed-e ec s o di e -
en ia e ou ime in a ian p ejudice as a sou ce o bias. The model speci ica ion now akes
he o m:
Yi =β0+δ eDi +βXi +γT +λR +i .(2)
In his o mula ion, R ep esen s a ec o o indica o s o ec ui e ixed e ec s, and
δ e measu es explici ly he impac o s e eo yping on disc imina ion, adjus ing o bo h
ec ui e p e e ences and ial-speci ic ac o s. By compa ing δ om he i s model and δ e
om he second model, we can deduce he di ec in luence o p ejudice on disc imina ion,
wi h δ e isola ing he s e eo yping e ec . This app oach p o ides a clea e pic u e o how
s e eo ypical judgmen s, independen o inhe en biases, in luence ec ui e s’ choices o
candida es and assessmen s o job i ness.
3.2 Da a
Table 2 compa es male and emale applican s ac oss a ious a ibu es such as age, p e ious
jobs, employmen expe ience, and educa ional quali ica ions. Consis en wi h he balanc-
ing o obse able a ibu es buil in o ou esea ch design, he da a in he Table show
ha he e a e negligible di e ences be ween he gende s in mos ca ego ies, indica ing a
balanced ep esen a ion (none o he di e ences a e s a is ically signi ican a con en ional
le els o p ecision). Speci ically, he a e age age, numbe o p e ious jobs, and yea s o
employmen expe ience a e nea ly iden ical be ween male and emale candida es, demon-
s a ing ha he pool om which candida es a e d awn is uni o m wi h ega d o expe ience
and age. Addi ionally, p o essional s a us and le els o educa ion ( anging om seconda y
o p o essional deg ees) show no signi ican a iance be ween gende s. This balance in ob-
se ables sugges s ha he ec ui men p ocess is equi able and ha bo h male and emale
candida es ha e simila quali ica ions and backg ounds. The absence o disc imina ion and
andomiza ion o gende should lead o unbiased selec ion and assessmen s o p oduc i i y
on he pa o he ec ui e s. O he 392 ec ui e s, 11 comple ed one ial, 66 ec ui e s
11
comple ed wo ials, and 315 comple ed all h ee ials, yielding an analy ic sample o 2176
obse a ions.
Table 2: Candida es’ Balance Table
Va iable
(1)
Male
(2)
Female
(3)
Di e ence (1) - (2)
Demog aphics and Educa ion
Age (yea s) 29.6912 29.8171 0.1259
(3.8306) (3.8326) (0.1643)
P e ious Jobs 2.9715 2.9715 0
(0.7805) (0.7805) (0.0335)
Is candida e conside ed a p o essional? (Yes == 1) 0.5827 0.5827 0
(0.4933) (0.4933) (0.0212)
Employmen Expe ience (yea s) 4.6504 4.6431 -0.0074
(1.4697) (1.4154) (0.0619)
Educa ion: Seconda y Educa ion 0.114 0.114 0
(0.3179) (0.3179) (0.0136)
Educa ion: Technical Deg ee 0.3033 0.3033 0
(0.4599) (0.4599) (0.0197)
Educa ion: P o essional 0.5827 0.5827 0
(0.4933) (0.4933) (0.0212)
Applied Job Posi ion:
Job Posi ion: Come cial Ad iso 0.0956 0.0956 0
(0.2942) (0.2942) (0.0126)
Job Posi ion: Gene al Se ices Assis an - Cleaning 0.114 0.114 0
(0.3179) (0.3179) (0.0136)
Job Posi ion: Wa ehouse Keepe 0.1002 0.1002 0
(0.3004) (0.3004) (0.0129)
Job Posi ion: Ce i ied Public Accoun an (CPA) 0.1039 0.1039 0
(0.3052) (0.3052) (0.0131)
Job Posi ion: So wa e De elope 0.0928 0.0928 0
(0.2903) (0.2903) (0.0124)
Job Posi ion: Sys ems Enginee 0.0956 0.0956 0
(0.2942) (0.2942) (0.0126)
Job Posi ion: P ojec Technical Manage 0.0983 0.0983 0
(0.2979) (0.2979) (0.0128)
Job Posi ion: Call Cen e Ope a o 0.1048 0.1048 0
(0.3064) (0.3064) (0.0131)
Job Posi ion: P oduc ion Supe ision (Manu ac u ing) 0.0965 0.0965 0
(0.2954) (0.2954) (0.0127)
Job Posi ion: Main enance Technician 0.0983 0.0983 0
(0.2979) (0.2979) (0.0128)
Obse a ions 1088 1088 2176
No e: This able exhibi s he a ibu es o male and emale syn he ic candida es. No s a is ical
signi icance in he a ibu es means ha male and emale candida es a e equi alen in e ms o
a speci ic cha ac e is ic. S a s indica e he s a is ical signi icance o di e ences in means ac oss
g oups a a ious signi icance le els: * p< .10, ** p< .05, *** p< .01.
3.3 Cha ac e is ics o he ec ui e s
Tables 4, 5, and 6 in he appendix A p o ide a comp ehensi e o e iew o he cha ac e is-
ics o ec ui e s di ided in o h ee ypes: (1) demog aphics and educa ion, (2) sco es on
s anda dized es s, and (3) ime-pe o mance in he expe imen .
As we can see in column 1 o able 4 in appendix A, he ec ui e s we hi ed mainly we e
young (a e aging 31 yea s old), and he majo i y we e women (70% o he sample). Mos
o hem had college deg ees (92%), and some had mas e ’s deg ees (21%). In e ms o hei
wo k expe ience, hey a e aged a ound 7 yea s, wi h nea ly 5 o hose yea s spen wo king
as HR ec ui e s.
12
When examining di e ences in hose dimensions acco ding o he sampling me hod—
columns 2–4—we i s obse e ha ec ui e s hi ed using RDS we e, on a e age, wo yea s
younge han hei LinkedIn coun e pa s. Rec ui e s in he o me g oup also had 1.6 ewe
yea s o o e all wo k expe ience, a di e ence ha almos ma ches he di e ences in yea s
o expe ience wo king as HR ec ui e s be ween hem and hose hi ed using he LinkedIn
me hod. In e ms o educa ional c eden ials, ec ui e s hi ed by us using he snowball
sampling me hod we e 11% less likely han hei coun e pa s o ha e a bachelo ’s deg ee.
Table 4 in Appendix A shows some socioeconomic a iables ha cha ac e ize ec ui e s
by hi ing me hod. As can be seen, ega dless o he me hod, ec ui e s we e simila in
e ms o gende , age, na ionali y, and p opo ion ha ing an HR- ocused uni e si y deg ee10.
The LinkedIn ec ui e s had sligh ly highe le els o educa ion, mo e yea s o expe ience,
and be e knowledge o he Qui o labo ma ke . Howe e , a highe p opo ion o RDS
ec ui e s esponded ha hey we e employed.
4 Resul s
In able 3, we p esen ou main esul s. The able p esen s OLS disc imina ion coe icien
es ima es o δand δF E om equa ions 1 and 2, espec i ely. They show he a e age
di e ences in ou comes be ween women and men. In Panel A, he dependen a iable
(Choice o Candida e) is an indica o o whe he he ec ui e chose a candida e. In Panel B,
he dependen a iable is he candida e’s pe cei ed “ i o he job,” a ed on a 1 o 10 scale.
The model con ols o ial ixed e ec s, accoun ing o he o de in which he ec ui e
e iewed candida e pai s, and occupa ion ixed e ec s, which include indica o s o he
speci ic occupa ion associa ed wi h he job pos ing ( he e we e en possible occupa ions).
Addi ional con ols include he sampling me hod (whe he he ec ui e was sou ced ia
LinkedIn o snowball sampling) and indica o s o whe he he ec ui e e iewed speci ic
abs in he web pla o m —Pe sonal In o ma ion, Expe ience, Addi ional Income, and
Educa ion—du ing he e alua ion. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he ec ui e le el and
a e obus o he e oskedas ici y, wi h signi icance le els indica ed as ollows: * p< .10, **
p< .05, *** p< .01.
The esul s p esen ed in Table 3 e eal ha , on a e age, ec ui e s showed a p e e ence
o women o e men in hei hi ing decisions. Speci ically, as indica ed by he disc imina-
ion coe icien in column 1 o Panel A, women we e selec ed o jobs a a a e 10.4% highe
han male applican s when conside ed as a p opo ion o male candida es chosen. This
bias a o ing women pe sis ed e en hough he ec ui e s assessed male and emale candi-
da es as ha ing nea ly equi alen p oduc i i y, as e idenced by he small and s a is ically
insigni ican di e ences in he job i sco es p esen ed in Panel B.
Mo eo e , a compa ison be ween he coe icien s δand δ e sugges s ha his p e e -
ence o hi ing women may be d i en, a leas in pa , by s e eo yping. The ac ha
he inclusion o ixed e ec s does no subs an ially al e he disc imina ion coe icien s
implies ha he obse ed bias is no solely due o measu able ac o s ela ed o he can-
10The p opo ions o he LinkedIn and he RDS samples holding a deg ee in human esou ces (o ela ed)
we e 75% and 74%, espec i ely
13
Table 3: Disc imina ion Ra e Di e ences: Women s. Men
(1)
Coe .δ
(2)
Coe .δF E
(3)
Male Rec ui e δ
(4)
Female Rec ui e δ
(5)
Male Rec ui e δF E
(6)
Female Rec ui e δF E
A. Choice o Candida es
Disc imina ion Coe . 0.0494** 0.0494** 0.1037** 0.0267 0.1035** 0.0266
(0.0215) (0.0238) (0.0403) (0.0257) (0.0447) (0.0283)
Mean Male Candida e (on ha subsample) 0.4752 0.4752 0.4479 0.4864 0.4479 0.4864
Obse a ions 2176 2176 634 1542 634 1542
B. Fi o he job:
Disc imina ion Coe . 0.0383 0.0388 0.0312 0.0466 0.0326 0.0434
(0.0503) (0.041) (0.0867) (0.061) (0.0732) (0.0493)
Mean Male Candida e (on ha subsample) 8.5754 8.5754 8.6341 8.5512 8.6341 8.5512
Obse a ions 2176 2176 634 1542 634 1542
Model speci ica ion:
T ial and occupa ion ixed e ec s (1) YES YES YES YES YES YES
Rec ui e s’ sampling me hod indica o (2) YES YES YES YES YES YES
In o ma ion e iewed (indica o s) (3) YES YES YES YES YES YES
Rec ui e s’ FE NO YES NO NO YES YES
No e: The able p esen s OLS disc imina ion coe icien es ima es o he a e age di e ences in
ou comes be ween women and men. In Panel A, he dependen a iable is an indica o o whe he
he ec ui e chose a candida e. In Panel B, he dependen a iable is he candida e’s pe cei ed
“ i o he job,” a ed on a 1 o 10 scale. (1) T ial ixed e ec s accoun o he o de in which
he ec ui e e iewed candida e pai s; occupa ion ixed e ec s a e indica o s o he speci ic
occupa ion associa ed wi h he job pos ing ( he e we e en possible occupa ions); (2) Sampling
me hod is an indica o o whe he he ec ui e was sou ced ia LinkedIn o snowball sampling.
(3) Indica o s o whe he he ec ui e e iewed speci ic abs in he web pla o m —Pe sonal
In o ma ion, Expe ience, Addi ional Income, and Educa ion—du ing he e alua ion. S anda d
e o s a e clus e ed a he ec ui e le el and a e obus o he e oskedas ici y, wi h signi icance
le els indica ed as ollows: * p< .10, ** p< .05, *** p< .01.
dida es’ job- ele an cha ac e is ics. Ins ead, i sugges s ha ec ui e s may be applying
gende s e eo ypes when making hei hi ing decisions, leading o a sys ema ic p e e ence
o women e en when male and emale candida es a e simila ly quali ied.
Finally, i is plausible ha social no ms encou aging he inc eased pa icipa ion o
women in he labo ma ke also play a ole in shaping hese ou comes. The posi i e dis-
c imina ion owa d emale candida es could e lec a b oade socie al e o o co ec his-
o ical gende imbalances, whe eby ec ui e s de i e u ili y no only om selec ing he mos
p oduc i e candida e bu also om adhe ing o hese p e ailing no ms. This in e p e a ion
aligns wi h he no ion ha ec ui e s a e in luenced by mo e han jus classical measu es
o p oduc i i y, inco po a ing conside a ions ha a o he ad ancemen o women in he
wo k o ce.
The analysis also shows ha disc imina ion coe icien s, wi h and wi hou ec ui e s’
ixed e ec s, a e nea ly iden ical, indica ing ha s e eo yping is he p ima y d i e o
disc imina ion. By compa ing he disc imina ion coe icien s p esen ed in Table 3, we
obse e he di e ences be ween models wi h and wi hou occupa ion and ial ixed e ec s.
The compa ison e eals ha he majo i y o he obse ed disc imina ion can be a ibu ed
o s e eo yping a he han di ec p ejudice. This inding aligns wi h b oade social no ms,
as e idenced by da a om he Gende Social No m Index o Ecuado , which shows ha
nea ly 61% o he popula ion disag ees wi h s a emen s such as ”Men should ha e mo e
14
igh o a job han women” and ”Men make be e business execu i es han women do”
UNDP (Uni ed Na ions De elopmen P og amme) (2023). These socie al a i udes sugges
ha ou esul s may be in luenced by a social p e e ence o p omo ing gende equi y,
e lec ing a b oade na ional commi men o educing gende dispa i ies in he labo ma ke .
In Table 3, signi ican posi i e disc imina ion was obse ed owa d emale candida es in
s e eo ypically emale-domina ed oles, such as cleaning and call cen e ope a ions, while
nega i e disc imina ion pe sis ed in adi ionally male-domina ed jobs like main enance.
This pa e n, as illus a ed in Figu e 3, unde sco es gende -d i en occupa ional seg ega ion,
whe e women a e signi ican ly a o ed o oles like Gene al Se ices Assis an - Cleaning
(disc imina ion coe icien o 0.337***) and Call Cen e Ope a o (0.1644*), e lec ing a bias
aligned wi h adi ional gende oles. Con e sely, women ace nega i e disc imina ion in
oles such as Comme cial Ad iso and Main enance Technician, wi h co esponding nega-
i e coe icien s (-0.1204 and -0.2945**, espec i ely). In o he occupa ions, like Wa ehouse
Keepe , Ce i ied Public Accoun an (CPA), and So wa e De elope , he disc imina ion
coe icien s a e close o ze o, indica ing li le o no bias in hi ing based on gende .
No ice also ha , consis en wi h he esul s o e e als, o he ou come o job i in
Figu e 3, he coe icien s a e la ge and posi i e o cleaning jobs and call cen e posi ions.
This pa e n sugges s ha he o e all ze o a e age di e ences be ween men and women in
e ms o job i esul om a e aging nega i e and posi i e i s (along wi h ze oes) ac oss
di e en occupa ions. These indings ein o ce ou indings ega ding he pe sis ence o
adi ional gende oles wi hin he labo ma ke , pa icula ly in oles his o ically domina ed
by women.
The analysis unde sco es ha while women a e inc easingly a o ed in hi ing decisions,
pa icula ly in adi ionally emale-domina ed oles, his bias does no ex end uni o mly
ac oss all occupa ions. The simila i y be ween he disc imina ion coe icien s wi h and wi h-
ou ec ui e s’ ixed e ec s sugges s s e eo yping plays a cen al ole, pa icula ly in oles
aligned wi h adi ional gende no ms. Al hough posi i e disc imina ion owa d women
may e lec socie al e o s o ec i y his o ical gende imbalances, i also ein o ces exis ing
occupa ional seg ega ion by channeling women in o s e eo ypical oles, he eby main aining
a he han disman ling en enched gende s uc u es in he labo ma ke .
4.1 Robus ness es s
We conduc some obus ness es s o bols e con idence in he eliabili y o ou esul s.
Fi s , we e alua e whe he he beha io o ec ui e s was consis en h oughou he en
ials o he expe imen by es ing he di e ences in magni udes o he disc imina ion
coe icien s when assessed ac oss he expe imen (in ials 1–3, 4–6, and 7–9). These esul s
a e also shown in igu e 3. Se ing aside he esul s o ials 1–3, associa ed wi h he
g ea es e ec s, we ind no s a is ically signi ican di e ences in disc imina ion coe icien s
o women h oughou he expe imen . This speaks o he p o essionalism wi h which
ec ui e s app oached he ask; b oade and inconsis en es ima es would ha e sugges ed
a lack o se iousness. Despi e he du a ion o he expe imen , ec ui e s emained ocused
and e icien in hei e alua ions.
A he same ime, i should be no ed ha h oughou he da a collec ion expe imen ,
15
Figu e 3: Disc imina ion agains Women Coe icien Plo
No e: This igu e p esen s es ima es o disc imina ion coe icien s o a ious subg oups, accom-
panied by 90% con idence in e als. The disc imina ion coe icien s p esen ed come om he hi d
speci ica ion, which con ains co a ia es as design co a ia es ( ecollec ion me hod, i he ec ui e
opened he in o ma ion abs, he ial ixed e ec s), posi ion ixed e ec , and a ec ui e ixed
e ec . Dimensions analyzed include ial g oups, Venezuelan mig an s, and placebo g oup.
16
disc imina ion coe icien s did exhibi a ia ion in sign and magni ude ac oss he e alua ed
g oups (namely, women, mig an s, gays, and lesbians). A companion pape u ilizing he
same da a sou ce inds dis inc disc imina ion coe icien s o gays and lesbians (-0.0796 and
0.1681, espec i ely), bo h s a is ically signi ican a he 95% con idence le el (Zanoni e al.,
2024). In igu e 3, we illus a e ha mig an s also ace disc imina ion in he Ecuado ian
labo ma ke (Fab egas and Zanoni, 2024).
The inding ha he disc imina ion coe icien s a y ac oss di e en g oups when all he
g oups a e subjec o p ejudice u he unde sco es he alidi y o ou esul s. By obse ing
di e en a es o disc imina ion ac oss a ious g oups, ou s udy p o ides e idence ha
disc imina ion is no a monoli hic, uni o m beha io ; ins ead, i a ies in complex ways
ha a e likely in luenced by s e eo ypes ega ding he a ibu es judged. This a iabili y
is consis en wi h es ablished psychological heo y and sugges s ha ou me hod cap u es
hese nuances e ec i ely.11
To assess whe he expe imen e demand e ec s could ha e in luenced ou indings, we
included a placebo ound in he expe imen , which e ealed no e idence o disc imina ion
among iden ical applican s. One o he en expe imen al ials se ed as a placebo g oup,
whe e pai membe s we e equally quali ied o he job and o he same gende . We compu e
he disc imina ion coe icien o he ials consis ing o placebo g oups and ind no s a is i-
cally signi ican coe icien s. The absence o disc imina ion obse ed in he disc imina ion
coe icien es ima e a he bo om o 3 in his placebo g oup u he suppo s he c edibili y
o ou expe imen al indings.
Fu he mo e, a obus indica o o ec ui e s’ dedica ion o he ask can be de i ed
om hei app oach o e alua ing candida es’ Fi o he job. As p e iously men ioned,
he alignmen o candida es’ skills wi h he job equi emen s se es as a p oxy a iable o
he expec ed alue o he ma ginal p oduc o hei labo . Consis ency in how ec ui e s
e alua ed candida es ac oss ha me ic, as shown in able 3, sugges s he ec ui e s ook
he ask se iously.
Finally, we highligh ha he pa e ns o ec ui e s’ choices by occupa ion iden i ied in
ou ield expe imen in Figu e 3 closely align wi h he na ional employmen pa e ns by
occupa ion as analyzed om he 2022 Census mic oda a in Figu e 4. No ably, Figu e 4
includes wo se s o da a: one o he en i e coun y o Ecuado and ano he o a andom
sample o indi iduals om Qui o, selec ed o ma ch he age dis ibu ion o job candida es
in ou expe imen . Bo h he occupa ional dis ibu ions in hese da ase s and hose in
ou ield expe imen a e simila , unde sco ing he obus ness o ou indings. Speci ically,
he ield expe imen e eals ha disc imina ion agains women a ies signi ican ly ac oss
occupa ions, wi h s onge biases obse ed in oles such as main enance echnician and
sys ems enginee , which a e adi ionally male-domina ed. This end is mi o ed in he
b oade employmen pa e ns, whe e he Census da a shows lowe employmen a es o
women in hese same occupa ions. Con e sely, in oles such as call cen e ope a o and
gene al se ices assis an (cleaning), whe e ou expe imen indica ed a p e e ence o emale
candida es, he Census da a simila ly e lec s highe employmen a es o women. The
11Le i and Lis (2007) ci e mul iple examples in he ea ly psychological li e a u e on beha io al consis-
ency ha sugges beha io , including disc imina ion, is no uni o mly consis en ac oss di e en si ua ions
o con ex s (Mischel (1968); Ross and Nisbe (1991); Ha sho ne and May (1928)).
17
s ong alignmen be ween ou expe imen al da a and he Census da a, bo h na ionally and
wi hin Qui o s a i ied by age acco ding o he candida es’ da a in ou expe imen , p o ides
compelling suppo o he ex e nal alidi y o ou indings, indica ing ha he biases
obse ed in ou con olled expe imen a e indeed e lec i e o b oade sys emic pa e ns o
occupa ional seg ega ion in Ecuado ’s labo ma ke .
(a) Gende Gap in Employmen Ra e o Ecuado (b) Gende Gap in Employmen Ra e o Qui o Subsample
Figu e 4: In his igu e, we p esen he in panel A he gende gap in employmen a e o
he whole census da a and in panel B he gende gap in employmen a e o a andom
sample il e ed o Qui o ma ching he dis ibu ion o he ages o he syn he ic candida es
o he ield expe imen .
5 Discussion and conclusion
6 Conclusions
Ou AFE in ol ing ec ui e s in Ecuado ound a p e e ence o emale candida es, pa -
icula ly d i en by male pa icipan s, e lec ing signi ican gende -d i en biases wi hin he
hi ing p ocess. This end, aligning wi h adi ional gende oles, e eals a o m o posi i e
disc imina ion a o ing women in ela ion o mos o he occupa ions ha we e included in
he AFE. No ably, hese biases seem less ela ed o in e ences abou unobse ed p oduc i -
i y, as e idenced by negligible di e ences in job i ness assessmen s be ween gende s. This
sugges s ha cu en hi ing p e e ences may s em mo e om socie al no ms a he han
classical iews o ma ginal p oduc i i y. Impo an ly, ou indings highligh ha he lack o
di e ences be ween models wi h and wi hou ixed e ec s sugges s ha s e eo yping, a he
han explici p ejudice, is he p edominan d i e o disc imina ion in his con ex . This
18
s e eo yping beha io is especially p onounced among male ec ui e s, who appea o be
mo e esponsi e o socie al no ms ha endo se inc eased emale labo o ce pa icipa ion
bu wi hin adi ionally gende ed occupa ions.
Ou analysis also unde sco es he a ied na u e o gende disc imina ion ac oss di e en
occupa ions, indica ing ha such biases a e highly con ex -dependen and p ima ily d i en
by s e eo ypes a he han objec i e assessmen s o p oduc i i y. The inding ha male
ec ui e s, in pa icula , a e mo e likely o adhe e o adi ional gende no ms in hei hi ing
decisions adds complexi y o he ongoing challenges o achie ing genuine gende equali y
in he labo ma ke . While he e has been p og ess in na owing gende dispa i ies in
labo o ce pa icipa ion ( hough less in wages), ou indings sugges ha occupa ional
seg ega ion by gende could be a con ibu ing ac o o he exis ing gap in wages.
Ou s udy employs a no el mul i- ial ield expe imen me hodology, whe e ec ui e s
wo king emo ely and by con ac a ed obse a ionally equi alen male and emale candi-
da es. This app oach enables us o analyze gende disc imina ion ac oss di e en job oles
and wi h e e ence o ec ui e s’ cha ac e is ics, yielding a deepe unde s anding o gende
biases in hi ing p ac ices han wha CS can achie e. Unlike p e ious s udies ha p i-
ma ily ocus on high-income coun ies, ou esea ch b ings e idence om u ban Ecuado ,
hus b oadening he geog aphical and cul u al scope o labo ma ke disc imina ion e-
sea ch (Neuma k e al. (1996); Be and and Mullaina han (2004)). This con ex allows
o unde s anding how gende disc imina ion mani es s in di e en economic en i onmen s
and ac oss ime, pa icula ly in de eloping coun ies. By inco po a ing he dimension o
how male ec ui e s’ suscep ibili y o s e eo yping ein o ces adi ional gende no ms, we
p o ide a iche iew o he mechanisms behind gende bias in hi ing.
By p esen ing empi ical e idence om a de eloping economy, ou s udy con ibu es o
illing a speci ic gap in he exis ing li e a u e, which has p edominan ly ocused on high-
income coun ies (??Schae e e al. (2023)). Ou indings challenge adi ional iews o
gende bias by demons a ing a signi ican p e e ence o emale candida es in he Ecuado-
ian labo ma ke . The e olu ion o socie al no ms ad oca ing o gende equali y may
play a mo e subs an ial ole in hi ing decisions han p e iously hough . By linking hese
indings o b oade heo e ical amewo ks, ou s udy can sugges di ec ions o hink abou
he mechanisms o labo ma ke disc imina ion.
Mo eo e , he iden i ica ion o male ec ui e s as key agen s in pe pe ua ing gende
s e eo ypes in hi ing decisions unde sco es he need o in e en ions ha speci ically a ge
his g oup. Add essing he ways in which socie al no ms in luence male ec ui e s’ decisions
could be pi o al in b eaking down occupa ional seg ega ion and ad ancing gende equali y
in he labo ma ke .
19
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