Migrant agency in an institutional context: The Akmola–Astana migration system

Du hues, Thomas e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Mig an agency in an ins i u ional con ex : The Akmola–
As ana mig a ion sys em
Eu ope-Asia S udies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Leibniz Ins i u e o Ag icul u al De elopmen in T ansi ion Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Du hues, Thomas e al. (2024) : Mig an agency in an ins i u ional con ex : The
Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em, Eu ope-Asia S udies, ISSN 1465-3427, Taylo & F ancis, London,
Vol. 76, Iss. 3, pp. 433-460,
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Mig an Agency in an Ins i u ional Con ex :
The Akmola–As ana Mig a ion Sys em
THOMAS DUFHUES, GERTRUD BUCHENRIEDER,
DAVID RUNSCHKE, SUSANNE SCHMEIDL,
THOMAS HERZFELD & GALIYA SAGYNDYKOVA
Abs ac
This a icle add esses one o he key challenges acing ansi ional and eme ging economies: managing u al–
u ban mig a ion o ackle u al decline and he associa ed apid u banisa ion. We in oduce New
Ins i u ionalism as a no el concep ual amewo k o analyse he in e ac ions be ween he ins i u ional
en i onmen and mig an agency in a u al–u ban sys em: he Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em in
no he n Kazakhs an. Ou esul s sugges ha he go e nmen migh be mo e success ul i i engages
mig an agency and incen i ises emaining in u al a eas ins ead o designing policies o discou age u al–
u ban mig a ion.
THE 2020 WORLD MIGRATION REPORT CONFIRMED THE Global end o mo e
in e nal han in e na ional mig an s: 763 million in e nal mig an s compa ed o 272
million in e na ional mig an s (IOM 2019, p. 19). Despi e he p e alence o in e nal
mig a ion, he mig a ion li e a u e has disp opo iona ely ocused on he dynamics o
in e na ional mig a ion, wi h ‘mig a ion’o en discussed synonymously wi h
‘in e na ional mig a ion’(King & Skeldon 2010, p. 1620). In e na ional and in e nal
mig a ion p ocesses a e in e ela ed and caused by simila social, economic and
poli ical ans o ma ions. Mo eo e , in e nal mig a ion o en occu s be o e
in e na ional mig a ion. Thus, he e ha e been calls o e ocus a en ion on he s udy
o in e nal mig a ion (Ellis 2012, pp. 196, 197). This a icle aims o do jus ha by
in oducing and applying a new concep ual amewo k based on New Ins i u ionalism
© 2022 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09668136.2022.2134305
We would like o hank ou esea ch assis an s a Naza baye Uni e si y, Ms Aige im Zhumakano a and
M Ye bola Assylbek. This wo k was suppo ed by he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion DFG (BU1319/16-1,
HE 5272/8-1). This a icle is a con ibu ion o he p ojec ‘New Ins i u ionalism and Bayesian Ne wo ks:
Es ablishing an Analy ical F amewo k o Model Mig a ion Decision Making in Ru al Kazakhs an’.
Disclosu e s a emen : No po en ial conflic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
EUROPE-ASIA STUDIES, 2024
Vol. 76, No. 3, Ap il 2024, 433–460
and d awing on empi ical da a om he Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em in no he n
Kazakhs an.
1
Ou ocus on u al–u ban mig a ion is imely, gi en he apid u banisa ion ha is
cu en ly aking place in many ansi ional and eme ging economies, especially in pos -
So ie s a es.
2
While u banisa ion is equen ly c edi ed wi h accele a ing economic
de elopmen and socie al well-being, unde lying u al–u ban mig a ion p ocesses also
en ail socie al cos s. On he one hand, u al ou -mig a ion has been linked o he loss o
young human capi al, known as ‘b ain d ain’, and an associa ed demog aphic shi o he
ageing o he u al popula ion. On he o he hand, u ban mig a ion can pu a s ain on
a o dable housing and he p o ision o public goods (Massey e al.1998, p. 48). This
has p omp ed some go e nmen s o design egula o y policies o manage u al–u ban
mig a ion (Beauchemin & Schoumake 2005, p. 1129). These policies usually ocus on
ei he enabling o cons aining mig an agency by p o iding incen i es o po en ial
mig an s o emain in u al a eas o by de e ing hem om mo ing o ci ies (de Haas
2011, p. 6). Since i s independence in 1991, Kazakhs an’s go e nmen , o ins ance, has
been expe imen ing wi h a ious policy in e en ions o egula e in e nal mig a ion flows,
ini ially encou aging mig a ion in o As ana, i s new capi al, ounded in 1997, and la e
ying o hal i . As ana expe ienced a pe iod o apid u banisa ion, mo e han ipling i s
popula ion om a ound 300,000 inhabi an s in he 1980s and mos o he 1990s o one
million in 2018. The highes sha e o incoming mig an s o As ana o igina ed om he
su ounding Akmola p o ince (S a Kaz 2019).
I is now well accep ed ha s uc u e/ins i u ions and agency bo h shape mig a ion
p ocesses and ha nei he has supe io explana o y powe is-à- is hese p ocesses.
3
In
ac , ocusing on he indi idual agency o mig a e wi hou conside ing he ins i u ional
en i onmen ha aims o shape mig a ion, and ice e sa, uns he isk o missing he
complexi y o mig a o y p ocesses (Cas les & Mille 2013, pp. 28, 30). Simul aneously
conside ing he in e ela ed o ces o ins i u ions and agency p o ides o a much mo e
nuanced unde s anding o how mig a ion p ocesses migh be influenced and shaped
(Lac oix 2014, p. 671). S ill, s udies on u al–u ban mig a ion do no o en explici ly
conside ins i u ions and agency simul aneously in hei analyses and he in e ac ion
be ween hem (Bakewell 2014, pp. 306, 309). Ye , he e is a need o unde s and he
complex in e ac ions be ween indi idual (mig an ) agency and he poli ical, economic
and social en i onmen ha acili a e o cons ain agency in o de o unde s and how
policy measu es a ec mig a ion p ocesses. To fill his gap, we apply New
1
In his a icle, we use he e m ‘mig a ion sys em’in a pu ely desc ip i e a he han concep ual way. We
define a mig a ion sys em as wo o mo e loca ions ha exchange people, goods, se ices and in o ma ion wi h
each o he .
2
See o example, Bisseno a (2017, pp. 642–45).
3
We define s uc u e/ins i u ions as ‘sys ems o es ablished and p e alen social ules ha s uc u e social
in e ac ions’(Hodgson 2006, p. 2). ‘Agency’ e e s o he abili y o social ac o s o make independen choices
amed by a mo e o less fixed ins i u ional en i onmen (Ma ch & Olsen 1984, p. 738; Emi baye & Mische
1998, p. 970). As he ocus o ou esea ch is on egula o y policies, we ollow he p ac ice o ins i u ionalis
li e a u e ha uses he e ms ‘s uc u e’and ‘ins i u ions’in e changeably. Al hough some schola s disag ee
wi h he synonymous use o ‘s uc u e’and ‘ins i u ions’, he deba e is no ele an in he empi ical con ex o
his a icle. Ne e heless, we ha e op ed o exclusi ely use he e m ‘ins i u ions’ o ease o eading.
434 THOMAS DUFHUES ET AL.
Ins i u ionalism o be e unde s and mig a ion p ocesses, as i p o ides an oppo uni y o
examine mig an s as social agen s who manoeu e hei way h ough complex ins i u ional
incen i es and cons ain s while exe ing, a he same ime, p essu e on ins i u ions o
change. While New Ins i u ionalism has been widely used, i has no , howe e , been
applied o he analysis o mig a ion p ocesses. Al hough he e a e mig a ion esea ch
amewo ks ha inco po a e ins i u ion and agency in e ac ion, such as anslocali y
(G eine & Sakdapol ak 2013, p. 375) o mig a ion sys ems (Bakewell 2014, p. 306),
New Ins i u ionalism is, in ou case, an ideal concep ual amewo k as he co e o he
heo y ocuses on a changing ins i u ional en i onmen . Valid easoning abou people’s
agency in a mig a ion sys em should include he in es iga ion o bo h ends— he sending
and ecei ing loca ions o he mig a ion sys em and he linkages be ween hem (Cas les
& Mille 2013, p. 27). This is e en mo e ue gi en ha he li elihoods o mos
mig an s and mig an households a e anslocal (Thieme 2008b, p. 67).
4
Ou cen al
esea ch ques ion is, he e o e, how does he ins i u ional en i onmen a ec people’s
agency in he sending and ecei ing a eas o he Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em and
ice e sa?
In he nex sec ions, we fi s ou line he me i s o New Ins i u ionalism as a concep ual
amewo k and demons a e how i helps o unde s and he in e ac ion be ween
ins i u ions and agency in mig a ion p ocesses. Second, we desc ibe he e olu ion and
ans o ma ion o Kazakhs ani mig a ion ins i u ions, unpack indi idual mig a ion
decision-making p ocesses and look a how he agency o (po en ial) mig an s has been
amed by exis ing s a e in e en ions. We will show, o ins ance, ha in eac ion o he
Kazakhs ani go e nmen a ificially aising u ban housing cos s h ough in e en ions in
he As ana housing ma ke , mig an s esponded h ough collec i e agency by aking
ad an age o hei amily ne wo ks. U ban ela i es p o ided accommoda ion and u al
ela i es financially suppo ed hei mig an amily wi h so-called e e se emi ances.
This and o he esul s sugges ha ins ead o cons aining mig an s’agency, p omo ing
ins i u ions ha expand he agency o he u al popula ion o s ay is mo e e ec i e in
mode a ing u al–u ban mig a ion.
The me i s o new ins i u ionalism in aming mig a ion p ocesses
Al hough we can look back a decades o esea ch on in e na ional and in e nal mig a ion,
no comp ehensi e heo y is a ailable o explain mig a ion p ocesses such as deciding o
mig a e o no . A numbe o enowned schola s, such as Po es (1997, p. 811) and
Cas les (2010, p. 1582), e en a gue agains he idea o an all-emb acing heo y o
mig a ion s udies. They sugges ha mig a ion esea ch should use middle- ange heo ies
ha can in eg a e he insigh s o a ious social sciences in o de o imp o e he
unde s anding o mig a ion. De Haas (2010b, p. 241) acknowledges ha hese appeals
co espond wi h a gene al pa adigm shi in con empo a y social heo y away om
g and heo ies and owa ds hyb id app oaches ha can in eg a e a ange o disciplines,
4
T anslocali y ‘desc ibes phenomena in ol ing mobili y, mig a ion, ci cula ion and spa ial
in e connec edness no necessa ily limi ed o na ional bounda ies’(G eine & Sakdapol ak 2013, p. 373).
MIGRANT AGENCY AND INSTITUTIONS 435
pa adigms and heo ies ha a e bo h flexible and disciplina ily neu al (King & Skeldon
2010, p. 1634).
A concep ual amewo k based on New Ins i u ionalism makes i possible o me ge
gene al sociological and economic assump ions abou ins i u ions and agency wi h ac ual
policies. New Ins i u ionalism is a he junc ion o poli ical science, sociology, his o y and
economics and, as poin ed ou by Ma ch and Olsen, i s ‘spi i is o supplemen a he han
o ejec al e na i e app oaches’(Ma ch & Olsen 2006, p. 16). As such, New
Ins i u ionalism has g ea powe o p o ide an in eg a i e amewo k o complex
esea ch designs (Goodin & Klingemann 1996, p. 25).
New Ins i u ionalism is able o heo e ically emb ace ins i u ional genesis, ep oduc ion
and change, and i links indi idual agency a di e en socie al le els (Thelen 2004, p. 31). A
he mac o-le el, New Ins i u ionalism can explain global and na ional p ocesses o social,
economic, poli ical and cul u al change while linking hem o agency wi hin an
ins i u ional en i onmen . The ins i u ional meso-le el is a ached o ne wo ks,
communi ies and locali ies ha a e ele an o social in e ac ion and link he mac o- and
mic o-le els wi h each o he (de Haas 2010a, p. 1591).
The e a e h ee well-es ablished schools o New Ins i u ionalism: his o ical
ins i u ionalism, sociological ins i u ionalism and a ional choice ins i u ionalism (Olsson
2016, pp. 1, 22). Al hough he schools di e somewha in hei unde s anding o he
mechanisms o ins i u ional change, hey a e uni ed in hei heo e ical co e (Pe e s 2012,
p. 184). Thus, in line wi h schola s as di e se as Jakimow (2013, p. 494), Lowndes and
Robe s (2013, pp. 40–1), Koning (2016, p. 639), and Ma ch and Olsen (2006, p. 16), we
combine elemen s om all h ee schools in o one concep ual amewo k.
Figu e 1 depic s ou concep ual amewo k o New Ins i u ionalism in he con ex o a
mig a ion sys em. Comp ehensi e conside a ion o all h ee schools ex ends ou
unde s anding o he ways in which ins i u ions a di e en socie al le els a ec
indi idual agency; in ou case, he s udy o u al–u ban mig a ion decisions (Campbell
2004, p. xi ; Jakimow 2013, p. 499). His o ical ins i u ionalism no only conside s ime
FIGURE 1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR MIGRATION SYSTEMS BASED ON NEW
INSTITUTIONALISM
Sou ce: Au ho s.
436 THOMAS DUFHUES ET AL.

bu also pa h dependencies in mig a ion sys ems, o posi i e and nega i e eedback loops, o
be e unde s and ins i u ional change o s asis ac oss ime. Sociological ins i u ionalism
deli e s an unde s anding o how a mig a ion sys em in e ac s wi h socie al no ms, belie s
and ideas; how o dina y o eli e ac o s wi hin a pa icula ins i u ion os e o inhibi
ins i u ional change, on he one hand, and how ins i u ions influence agency, on he o he .
Ra ional choice ins i u ionalism allows us o unde s and he easoning behind decisions
ela ed o mig a ion p ocesses; o example, subjec i e cos –benefi conside a ions, he
e ec s o possession and he use o powe .
As men ioned be o e, we ollow an ins i u ionalis iew o agency whe e he ins i u ional
en i onmen (bo h in sending and ecei ing a eas) ames he abili y o ac o s o make
choices (Lowndes & Robe s 2013, pp. 16, 52). Agency possesses an i e a i e (based on
pas pa e ns o hough o ac ion), a p ojec i e (based on pe cei ed possible u u e
ajec o ies o ac ion) and an e alua i e elemen (based on he p ac ical and no ma i e
assessmen o al e na i e ac ions) (Emi baye & Mische 1998, p. 971). This implies ha
exe cising agency in ol es e alua ing a gi en si ua ion, p io expe iences and possible
solu ions, esponding o unce ain ies o challenges, in en ing new possibili ies, and
media ing be ween and con ex ualising possible consequences. This ins i u ionalis iew
o agency is classified by Lowndes and Robe s (2013, p. 106). We will use his
sys ema isa ion o agency in ou analysis o mig an decision-making in he Akmola–
As ana mig a ion sys em and use ou di e en classifica ions o agency: cumula i e
agency, when he ac ions o many independen ac o s ha e an e ec on an ins i u ion;
collec i e agency, when ac o s wo k oge he unde he same ins i u ional en i onmen ;
comba i e agency, when ac o s oppose o he ac o s and hei ins i u ions; and
cons ained agency, when ac o s a e always cons ained o some ex en . Al hough any
one o hese agency ypes may domina e in ce ain si ua ions, hey o en
exis simul aneously, demons a ing he di e si y and o e lapping agency o people (Coe
& Jo dhus-Lie 2011,p.217).
Me hodology
Ou esea ch uses an app oach ha mixes quali a i e and quan i a i e da a, collec ed be ween
2016 and 2017 in he Akmola p o ince o Kazakhs an. This a icle d aws on he 68 quali a i e
semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h po en ial and ac ual mig an s, and policymake s. The
in e iews we e conduc ed by a lead esea che , who was assis ed by domes ic esea ch
assis an s. In e iews we e held ei he in Russian o Kazakh and ook usually
30–40 minu es.
5
We conduc ed in e iews wi h 23 go e nmen o ficials a di e en
adminis a i e le els and ou mig a ion expe s and poli ical scien is s, who we e
pu posely selec ed. Mo eo e , we in e iewed 27 po en ial u al mig an s in se e al illages
in he Akmola p o ince and 14 u al–u ban mig an s in As ana in o de o unde s and he
egula o y/policy en i onmen as well as he agency o (po en ial) mig an s.
6
In e iew
5
Though he lead esea che unde s ands Russian, a Kazakh-speaking esea ch assis an was p esen o
assis wi h he in e iews held in Kazakh.
6
To ensu e he in e iew pa icipan s we e a ease, in e iews we e no eco ded. Ins ead, no es we e aken.
MIGRANT AGENCY AND INSTITUTIONS 437
pa icipan s we e iden ified using a mix o andom ou e sampling
7
and snowball sampling.
The andom ou e sampling was used o seek ou people wi h di e en li e expe iences,
pe spec i es and cha ac e is ics. In emo e illages, in e iew pa icipan s we e also asked
o hei assis ance in finding addi ional in e iew pa ne s, ha is, indi iduals wi h
mig a ion expe iences o wi h a mig an amily membe . A lis o all in e iews e e enced
in his a icle can be ound in Table A3 in he Appendix.
This a icle also d aws on da a om a quan i a i e su ey o 400 u al households (po en ial
mig an s). The quali a i e esea ch u he se ed as he basis o he design o he household
su ey. The quan i a i e su ey o u al households ollowed a h ee-s age clus e ed andom
sampling p ocedu e (dis ic s, illages, households). In each illage, en households we e
andomly iden ified ia andom ou e sampling, as household lis s we e no made a ailable.
Wi hin he households, he pe son be ween he ages o 16 and 50 who had mos ecen ly
celeb a ed a bi hday was in e iewed. On a e age, in e iews ook 80 minu es and we e
conduc ed in Russian o Kazakh depending on he p e e ence o he esponden . In hese
in e iews, ele an da a on all adul s, and on he gene al socio-economic si ua ion o he
household, we e collec ed. Su ey ques ions aimed a unde s anding he ins i u ion–agency
in e ac ion o u al dwelle s who in end o s ay pu o o mig a e.
The Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em
Du ing So ie imes, no able pa s o he popula ion mo ed o and om Kazakhs an. A e he
collapse o he So ie Union, many mig an s, mos no ably e hnic Ge mans and Russians,
e u ned o hei place o o igin o i ula s a es. In 1990, he popula ion o Kazakhs an was
es ima ed o be 16.3 million. Emig a ion ela ed o he dissolu ion all o he So ie Union
caused his numbe o d op o 14.9 million in 2003. To coun e he losses, in he la e 1990s
he Kazakhs ani go e nmen ini ia ed a e u n p og amme, he O alman P og amme, o
encou age he e u n o e hnic Kazakhs li ing, o example, in Mongolia, Uzbekis an o
China. In he yea s ha ollowed, he Kazakhs ani economy became s onge , leading o
significan ly less ou -mig a ion and a sligh ly highe e u n o e hnic Kazakhs o hei home
s a e. This esul ed in a posi i e mig a ion balance ha has been ongoing since 2004.
Combined wi h a high bi h a e amongs e hnic Kazakhs, he o al popula ion g ew o 16.3
million in 2010 and o 18.3 million in 2018 (S a Kaz 2019).
Ins i u ional en i onmen o he Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em
The ins i u ional en i onmen o he Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em can be sepa a ed in o
wo ca ego ies: u ban planning policies, especially in he con ex o na ion-building ha
e ol ed a ound he de elopmen o he new capi al As ana (see Table 1); and u al and
egional de elopmen policy measu es such as building in as uc u e and egional
educa ion and heal h acili ies aimed a slowing he u al exodus (see Table 2).
7
Random ou e sampling is a widely used me hod o each in e iew pa icipan s who a e no egis e ed on
publicly accessible eco ds. Resea che s a e gi en a s a ing posi ion, such as in a ma ke , and andom walking
ins uc ions (Baue 2014, p. 519).
438 THOMAS DUFHUES ET AL.
TABLE 1
MIGRATION INSTITUTIONS AFFECTING THE AKMOLA–ASTANA MIGRATION SYSTEM:NATION-BUILDING AND URBAN PLANNING
Ins i u ions De ailed desc ip ion
In e nal passpo and egis a ion policy
(His o ical ins i u ionalism)
The o me So ie Union used an in e nal passpo sys em and ci y egis a ion o egula e popula ion
mo emen and u banisa ion (Osmono a 2016, p. 237). A e Kazakhs an’s independence, his
ins i u ion was e o med o allow egis a ion by cu en add ess. Regis a ion a he place o esidence
is s ill manda o y bu can no longe be denied. I a pe son owns a home o shows a alid en al con ac
a he place whe e hey wish o egis e , egis a ion is g an ed. I no p ope ly egis e ed, new u ban
mig an s a e, howe e , o en ha assed by he police (Yesseno a 2005, p. 670).* Ne e heless, mos
po en ial and ac ual mig an s pe cei e his o be a nuisance a he han a de e en o u al–u ban
mig a ion. The e o e, many people in As ana emain un egis e ed despi e o going po en ial benefi s
associa ed wi h egis a ion, o example, public se ices such as ee heal hca e (Sanghe a e al.
2012, pp. 15, 28). This in u n os e s he anslocali y o mig an s as hey ha e o e u n o hei place
o egis a ion o access ce ain public se ices.
As ana ‘ci y o mode ni y’and poli ical/cul u al cen e
(Sociological ins i u ionalism)
The So ie na a i e ha ci ies a e he c adle o mode nisa ion and p og ess is s ill in e ec and
pe pe ua ed in oday’s Kazakhs an (Alexande e al.2007, p. 2). The na a i e p omo ed by he
go e nmen is ha As ana is ‘ca ching up wi h he wo ld’and p o ides a chance o o dina y Kazakhs
o pa icipa e in mode ni y (Anacke 2004, p. 531; Laszczkowski 2016b, p. 149). Abou hal o he
illage s in he household su ey s a ed ha compa ed o ci ies like As ana he e was no social o
cul u al li e in he illage and ha hei child en would ha e a be e li e in he ci y. Mo eo e ,
a ac i e new highe educa ion acili ies we e es ablished in As ana, which culmina ed in he
es ablishmen o he Naza baye Uni e si y, p obably he mos p es igious uni e si y in Kazakhs an;
see, o example, Koch (2014b, p. 51). F equen ly, s uden s who mo e o he ci y o educa ion
de elop aspi a ions o an u ban ca ee and li es yle. This weakens hei amilial and emo ional
a achmen o hei u al home egion. Thus, many do no e u n (Buchen iede e al.2020). The e o e,
he As ana mig a ion sys em is cha ac e ised by he accele a ed u al–u ban mig a ion o young
people om he coun yside and a lack o well-educa ed young p o essionals and an o e -ageing o
he seden a y popula ion in u al a eas. Abou h ee-qua e s o he household su ey esponden s
s a ed ha , in ci ies like As ana, hei child en would ha e access o be e educa ion acili ies and
40% o hem s a ed ha lack o educa ion acili ies is a majo cons ain o emaining in si u.
†
U ban job ma ke (Ra ional choice ins i u ionalism) Mo ing he capi al o As ana c ea ed a ib an job ma ke wi h ela i ely high sala ies compa ed o he
su ounding u al a eas. Po en ial mig an s in u al a eas o en acknowledge in bo h quali a i e
in e iews and in ou household su ey ease o finding high-paying jobs in As ana. Abou hal o he
household su ey esponden s s a ed ha hey belie ed hei ca ee p ospec s would imp o e and hey
could achie e a highe s anda d o li ing in he ci y.
(Con inued)
MIGRANT AGENCY AND INSTITUTIONS 439
TABLE 1 (Con inued)
Ins i u ions De ailed desc ip ion
Kazakhifica ion (His o ical ins i u ionalism) Mo ing he capi al ci y om Alma y o As ana lies a he hea o Kazakhs an’so ficial na ion-building
p ojec (Anacke 2004, p. 515; Bekus 2017, p. 806; Ca on 2019, p. 183). The go e nmen ans o med
he na a i e o a mul i-e hnic coun y in o one o a coun y o (e hnic) Kazakhs. This includes
ecognising Kazakh ( oge he wi h Russian) as he na ional language (Go ReKaz 1997; Ca on 2019,
p. 201).
(Sociological ins i u ionalism) Kazakhifica ion is an uno ficial ( he o ficial discou se desc ibes i as ‘ha monisa ion’) bu on many
le els obse able policy, o example, h ough he enaming o s ee s e e ing o Kazakh adi ions
o his o ical figu es and he disman ling o So ie monumen s (Bekus 2017, pp. 797, 800; Ca on 2019,
pp. 186–87, 196). Mo e impo an ly, speaking Kazakh has become mo e ele an in businesses and, in
pa icula , wi hin he public adminis a ion (Wol el 2002, p. 501; Pey ouse 2007, pp. 484–85;
Bisseno a 2017, p. 652). Public employees mus be able o speak bo h languages a a su ficien ly high
le el. Howe e , only 10% o e hnic Russians su eyed s a ed ha hei le el o Kazakh was su ficien
o find a job in he ci y. Thus, he e is a s ong u al–u ban mig a ion cons ain along e hnic lines. This
is also eflec ed in he ac ha e hnic Russians o igina ing om he coun yside and s udying a highe
educa ion acili ies in As ana ha e a much highe e u n in en ion han e hnic Kazakhs (Buchen iede
e al.2020).
Housing ma ke /
ci y de elopmen (His o ical ins i u ionalism)
Ini ially, mig an s we e welcomed o fill he new emo e capi al ci y, As ana. Following a slow s a ,
As ana g ew quickly un il he ea ly 2000s, when he ci y go e nmen ound i sel needing o es ic
he influx because he u ban in as uc u e could no keep pace. As he Ci y Planning Depa men
egula es he designa ion o building land, cons uc ion planning and building pe missions, i
de e mines he size o he housing ma ke . By a ioning he numbe o cons uc ion pe mi s o new
housing, i in en ionally d o e housing p ices up. Abou 70% o he household su ey esponden s
s a ed ha hey could no find a o dable housing in he ci y (see Table A1 in he Appendix).
‡
(Sociological ins i u ionalism) As a coun e balance o he high p ope y p ices and en s, he go e nmen se up housing p og ammes
o s a e employees. These subsidised housing p og ammes allow people wi h low-income
occupa ions o gain access o a o dable housing in As ana (Bisseno a 2017, p. 644). Howe e , he
p ocess can ake up o se en yea s om applica ion o alloca ion.
¶
(Con inued)
440 THOMAS DUFHUES ET AL.
hei wo child en coun ed as uppe middle class in As ana. Despi e losing con ac s because
o he go e nmen p e e ence o Kazakh speake s, he company managed o adap i s
cus ome base and he couple emained in As ana. Simila ly, Blackbu n (2019, p. 227)
p o ides e idence ha Russian speake s a e pushed owa ds he p i a e sec o in
Kazakhs an.
Cons ained agency e e s o he ac ha ac o s a e always aced wi h cons ain s ha
a ec hei agency. This is o cou se also ue o (po en ial) mig an s, who may find hei
in en ions o mo e o s ay cons ained o a ious easons. In ou household su ey, many
esponden s s a ed ha he lack o good educa ion acili ies in u al a eas was a majo
cons ain o emaining in si u (see Table A1 in he Appendix). An example o his is he
case o Nu lan, who wo ked as a secu i y gua d in As ana. P e iously, he had li ed and
wo ked in Baikonu and his amily had no in en ion o mo ing. Howe e , a e his wi e
isi ed As ana, she was con inced ha he ci y would o e he bes educa ional acili ies
and p ospec s o hei child en, and hey mo ed o As ana.
24
In con as , a subs an ial
numbe o he household su ey esponden s hough o hemsel es as ‘ o ced s aye s’
(25%). Many o hem s a ed ha hey would find i di ficul o mo e because hey had o
ake ca e o amily membe s, including elde ly ela i es who we e unwilling o unable o
mo e. E en hough nu sing homes exis ed in bo h u al and u ban a eas, almos all o ou
household su ey esponden s said i was s ill socially unaccep able o place elde ly
ela i es in o hese homes.
Ne e heless, he majo i y o ou household su ey esponden s (68%) did no wish o
mo e and we e olun a y s aye s. Mos we e qui e con en wi h hei li e in he
coun yside and belie ed ha wi h ha d wo k hey could s ill make a decen li ing in he
illage (see Table A1 in he Appendix o de ails). E en i he mig a ion sys em did no
encou age hem o s ay, nei he did i o ce hem o mo e. Many people we e also
emo ionally a ached o he coun yside. They p e e ed he u al li es yle and app ecia ed
he na u al en i onmen and he adi ional social no ms, as shown by s a emen s such as,
‘Na u e is so beau i ul’;‘I lo e fishing and hun ing’; and ‘All my iends and amily li e
he e’.
25
No su p isingly, 71% o ou household su ey esponden s s a ed ha hey
enjoyed he u al way o li e and almos 90% men ioned ha g owing hei own ood was
impo an o hem.
26
Howe e , despi e his posi i e pe cep ion o li e in he coun yside,
many esponden s wan ed hei child en and g andchild en o mo e o he ci y because
li e he e was pe cei ed o be mo e com o able and o ha e be e educa ional and job
p ospec s (see Table A1 in he Appendix).
27
This was equen ly he s a ing poin o
eloca ing he whole amily. In ou in e iews, we epea edly hea d he s a emen : ‘We
24
The name has been changed o main ain he anonymi y o ou in e iewee (in e iew 30, Nu lan, As ana
mig an , As ana, 2 Ma ch 2017).
25
In e iews: 19, illage , mig an household, Sho andy dis ic , 17 Sep embe 2016; 31, illage , mig an
household, Sho andy dis ic , 16 Sep embe 2016; 32, illage , Akkol dis ic , 20 Sep embe 2016.
26
Which was also suppo ed by ou quali a i e in e iews, o example, in e iew 32, illage , Akkol
dis ic , 20 Sep embe 2016.
27
In e iews: 3, illage mayo , S epnogo sk dis ic , 27 May 2016; 19, illage , mig an household,
Sho andy dis ic , 17 Sep embe 2016; 26, mig a ion expe , As ana, 28 May 2016; 33, illage , mig an
household, Sho andy dis ic , 16 Sep embe 2016; 34, illage , mig an household, Sho andy dis ic , 16
Sep embe 2016; 35, illage , mig an household, Sho andy dis ic , 18 June 2016.
MIGRANT AGENCY AND INSTITUTIONS 447

will s ay un il ou child en finish school (seconda y/high school), and hen we will all mo e
o he ci y’.
28
U ban a eas loca ed in no h Kazakhs an we e hea ily Russified du ing So ie imes,
wi h he esul ha many u ban Kazakhs speak be e Russian han Kazakh (Wol el 2002,
p. 490). Al hough Russian is s ill impo an as a business language, he poli ical
en i onmen is such ha fluen command o Kazakh is a demanded skill, and one can
obse e a change in language use in a ou o Kazakh, especially amongs young
Kazakhs (Smagulo a 2016, p. 101). As men ioned be o e, public jobs equi e a
ce ifica e o p oficiency in Kazakh and p i a e companies in u ban cen es o en seek
na i e Kazakh speake s as con ac pe sons o s a e au ho i ies.
29
This is shown in he
case o Alexand , an e hnic Russian. He s udied accoun ing in As ana bu could no find
a job in his p o ession as he lacked he necessa y Kazakh language skills. His iends
om uni e si y all emained in As ana e en i i mean ha ing o ake on jobs un ela ed
o hei educa ion, which he e used o do. Fo his eason and because he liked he u al
li es yle, he decided o e u n o his illage.
30
A he ime o ou fieldwo k i had been
oughly 20 yea s since he issuance o Law No.151-I on languages ha defined Kazakh
as he s a e language (Go ReKaz 1997). Despi e ee language cou ses o e ed by he
go e nmen , howe e , e hnic Russians o e whelmingly had no lea n he language.
Ne e heless, many Russians conside Kazakh-language p oficiency o be linked o be e
economic oppo uni ies (Smagulo a 2016, p. 101). I is he e o e possible ha lack o
Kazakh p oficiency de e s some e hnic Russians om mo ing o he ci y. S udies sugges
se e al easons o his linguis ic sho all, including he nega i e eelings o many
Russians in ela ion o a pe cei ed loss o s a us as he e hnic majo i y and poli ical eli e
(Lai in 1998, p. 155; Wol el 2002, p. 501; Blackbu n 2019, p. 224). Ne e heless,
Russian-speaking u ban Kazakhs s ill ha e a e y posi i e a i ude owa ds Russian-
speaking mino i ies (Blackbu n, 2019, p. 230).
This in e p e a ion is suppo ed by ou finding ha e hnic Russians we e mo e inclined o
s ay in he coun yside compa ed o e hnic Kazakhs. Only 15% o e hnic Russians in ou
household su ey in ended o mo e wi hin he nex h ee yea s compa ed o 30% o e hnic
Kazakhs. Simila ly, findings by Aldashe and Die z (2014, p. 393) indica ed ha e hnic
Russians we e less mobile wi hin Kazakhs an. This may in pa be explained by he ac
ha e hnic Russians who emig a ed om Kazakhs an a e he collapse o he So ie
Union we e mos ly young people. Thus, he e hnic Russian popula ion is on a e age olde
han he e hnic Kazakh popula ion (Pey ouse 2007, p. 493) and i is well known ha olde
people a e less mobile (see Oh 2003). Howe e , a he same ime, e hnic Russian
uni e si y g adua es in e iewed in a quan i a i e su ey had a much g ea e in en ion o
e u n o he coun yside han hei Kazakh coun e pa s (Buchen iede e al.2020). Also,
28
Fo ins ance, in e iews: 27, illage , mig an household, S epnogo sk dis ic , 26 May 2016; 33,
illage , mig an household, Sho andy dis ic , 16 Sep embe 2016; 36, illage , mig an household,
Sho andy dis ic , 18 June 2016.
29
In ou analysis we do no dis inguish be ween Russian and Eu opean e hnici ies ( ha is, Uk aine, Polish
and Ge man), as hey a e all s ongly Russified.
30
The name has been changed o main ain he anonymi y o ou in e iewee (in e iew 37, Alexand ,
illage , mig an household, Sho andy dis ic , 18 June 2016).
448 THOMAS DUFHUES ET AL.
ewe e hnic Russians in ou household su ey ha e suppo i e amily ne wo ks in As ana
(only 16% compa ed o 33% o e hnic Kazakhs) and hese ne wo ks a e also smalle ( h ee
ela i es o e hnic Russians and en ela i es o e hnic Kazakhs). This may esul in less
amily suppo o new a i als and also a ec he e e se emi ances sen . Al hough
e hnic Russians in ou household su ey send ewe e e se emi ances (as ewe o hem
mo e), he a e age amoun hey send is subs an ially highe (abou 20%) compa ed o he
a e age amoun sen by u al e hnic Kazakh amilies. I ou esul s hold ue also o a
la ge sample, his could mean ha he Kazakhifica ion o he no he n coun yside migh
e e se in he long un. Howe e , he e hnic Russian popula ion is s ill sh inking due o
low bi h a es and o e -ageing (La uelle 2018, p. 71), which may o se he ac ha mo e
e hnic Kazakhs om he no h a e mo ing o he ci ies.
Discussion o in e ac ion esul s be ween ins i u ions and agency in he Akmola–As ana
mig a ion sys em
Kazakhs an was he only So ie successo s a e whose i ula g oup was an e hnic mino i y
(Scha z 2000, p. 489). The mos impo an ask o he newly independen go e nmen was
hus o es ablish a Kazakh concep ion o na ionhood in which he e hnic composi ion o
he popula ion played an impo an ole. The goal was o inc ease he e hnic Kazakh
popula ion in Kazakhs an o abo e 50% (Kesici 2011, p. 32) and o claim he land as
his o ically Kazakh e i o y. Today, e hnic Kazakhs ep esen he majo i y due o he
emig a ion o e hnic Russians and o he mino i ies, a high bi h a e amongs e hnic
Kazakhs, and he ese lemen o e u ning e hnic Kazakh mig an s (Al 2012, p. 6).
Regional imbalances do howe e s ill exis . Thus, he go e nmen p omo ed he in e nal
eloca ion o e hnic Kazakhs in o he no he n egions, such as Akmola p o ince, whe e
adi ionally Kazakhs had been a mino i y (Smailo 2011, p. 19). The ounda ion o
As ana as he capi al ci y in 1997 in Akmola p o ince was a defining poin o he
Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em, one ha significan ly influenced in e nal mig a ion
p ocesses in Kazakhs an. A e As ana became he capi al ci y, people mo ed he e om
all o e Kazakhs an, abo e all, om he su ounding no he n a eas. Al hough, as poin ed
ou by Anacke (2004, p. 524), i is an open sec e ha his was a geopoli ical decision o
finally claim he no he n pa s o he coun y as e hnic Kazakh e i o y, he o mal
jus ifica ion o a ac ing Kazakhs o Akmola and, mo e p ecisely, o As ana was he
c ea ion o a ocal poin o economic g ow h in he no he n e i o y o Kazakhs an
(Anacke 2004, pp. 523, 528; Koch 2013, p. 144). A possible downside o na ion-building
and Kazakhifica ion policies, al hough no in hemsel es an i-So ie o an i-Russian,
31
is
ha he agency o non-Kazakhs, especially e hnic Russians, could be cons ained due o
hei o en insu ficien command o Kazakh. Howe e , he Kazakhifica ion p ocess has
slowed in ecen yea s (Blackbu n 2019, p. 217). Despi e hese cons ain s, e hnic Russians
only complained abou i in wo o ou quali a i e in e iews
32
and, as poin ed ou by
31
See o example, Kaşikçi (2019, p. 1362).
32
In e iews: 29, Se gei and Ma ia, As ana mig an s, As ana, 1 Ma ch 2017; 37, Alexand , illage ,
mig an household, Sho andy dis ic , 18 June 2016.
MIGRANT AGENCY AND INSTITUTIONS 449
Speh and Kasseno a (2012, p. 146), he majo i y o non-Kazakhs a e p oud o be
Kazakhs ani (whe he his holds ue in con empo a y Kazakhs an is unce ain; howe e ,
looking a he cu en in asion o Uk aine by Russia, we assume ha his has a he
s eng hened any Kazakhs ani emo ion).
T ans o ming As ana in o a capi al ci y pe pe ua ed olde ideas. The go e nmen amed i s
na a i e o As ana on he So ie na a i e o cen alisa ion and ci ies as c adles o mode ni y
(Laszczkowski 2011b,p.96,2016a, p. 61; Koch 2014a, p. 434). In gene al, Kazakhs ani
cul u al li e is cen ed on he u ban wo ld and u al li e is a ely celeb a ed.
33
Ne e heless,
u al mig an s and isi o s a e imp essed by he spec acula a chi ec u e and he ongoing
cons uc ion boom, a iew sha ed by mos As ana esiden s (Osmono a 2016,p.241;
Laszczkowski 2016b,pp.153–54, 157). These ins i u ional changes and he compa ably high
sala ies s eng hened cumula i e agency by c ea ing an eno mous d aw o people in he
su ounding coun yside, pulling hem owa ds As ana. Ne e heless, he e is o en
disappoin men once u al newcome s a e con on ed wi h he eali ies o li e in As ana,
which o en do no co espond wi h hei ideals. Subsequen ly, hey o en unde epo he
ha sh li ing condi ions and high cos s o li ing when alking wi h hei u al amily and iends.
34
Un il he popula ion g ew o a ound 500,000 people in 2003, he ci y go e nmen o
As ana welcomed he influx o mig an s. A e ha poin , he ci y go e nmen began o
change ce ain public se ice ins i u ions, o ins ance, only egis e ed ci y ci izens
gained access o ee heal h ea men o educa ional se ices because he de elopmen o
he u ban in as uc u e could no longe keep pace wi h he influx o people. O ficials
om he ci y’s mig a ion depa men
35
e e ed o a si ua ion o ‘sel -de ence’because
cen al go e nmen egula ions we e missing and he e o e, hey had o in en
coun e measu es.
36
Despi e calls by senio Kazakh poli icians o mo e con ols o e
in e nal mig a ion, in he pos -So ie e a, ci izens ha e e e y igh o choose hei place
o se lemen , as s ipula ed in he cons i u ion, and such a e e sal o So ie -s yle
con ols would be unen o ceable.
37
The Ci y Planning Depa men was ans o med om
a se ice agency p o iding anspo , educa ion and heal h se ices in o a ga ekeepe
ins i u ion ( his in o mal and di use p ocess is ha d o pinpoin bu i began a leas since
he yea 2011). Since i con ols de elopmen , land-use designa ion and planning
pe mission, i e ec i ely egula es he housing ma ke .
38
As a esul , in spi e o he
33
Fo an excep ion see La uelle (2015, p. 337).
34
See o example, Laszczkowski (2011a, pp. 85–6, 88; 2016a, p. 48).
35
The ci y mig a ion depa men was o iginally in cha ge o he in eg a ion o O alman Kazakhs bu is
now in cha ge o all in e nal mig a ion o he ci y.
36
In e iew 5, go e nmen o ficial, ci y mig a ion depa men , As ana, 21 Ap il 2016.
37
‘“Begs o iz aula”: ch o dela ` s masso oi mig a siei sel`chan go oda?’,Cen al Asia Moni o ,16
Oc obe 2019, a ailable a : h ps://camoni o .kz/33769-begs o-iz-aula-ch o-dela -s-masso oy-mig aciey-
selchan- -go oda.h ml, accessed 23 May 2022; ‘Plan Tokae a i plan Sagin ae a: kakim idi sya budushee
Nu -Sul an i Alma y’,Fo bes/Kazakhs an, 9 Oc obe 2019, a ailable a : h ps:// o bes.kz/p ocess/u bani y/
kak_sdela _iz_alma yi_manhe en/, accessed 23 May 2022; ‘Pochemu ne s oi pe eezsha ` Nu -Sul an’,
Ku si , 9 Oc obe 2019, h ps://kz.ku si .media/2019-10-09/pochemu-ne-s oi -pe eezzha - -nu -sul an/,
accessed 23 May 2022; ‘Bozhko: Nu -Sul an p o s e ae , a sel`chanin ne znae , kak p o es i eche ’,
Teng inews, 9 Oc obe 2019, a ailable a : h ps:// eng inews.kz/kazakhs an_news/bojko-nu -sul an-
p o s e ae -selchanin-znae -p o es i- eche -381142/, accessed 23 May 2022.
38
In e iew 7, go e nmen o ficial, ci y planning depa men , Cen e o Sus ainable De elopmen ,
As ana, 27 Sep embe 2016.
450 THOMAS DUFHUES ET AL.
cons uc ion boom, he housing ma ke is a ioned and As ana has, oge he wi h Alma y,
he highes housing p ices in he coun y (Osmono a 2016, p. 241). In his case, he high
p ices a e a desi ed e ec o educe he influx o poo e in e nal mig an s.
39
As a
consequence, he wage su plus paid in As ana compa ed o he su ounding coun yside
is o en ea en up by he highe u ban housing cos s, gi en he sho age o a o dable fla s
(OECD 2017, p. 55). To coun e balance he ising cos s, he go e nmen se up a housing
subsidisa ion p og amme o i s employees mos ly in he 2010s (Bisseno a 2017, p. 644).
The e is, howe e , a long wai ing lis .
40
Thus, esiden s in As ana o en call upon he
collec i e agency o hei ex ended amily o comba he se e ely a ioned housing
ma ke . The u al-based amily may o e financial suppo ( ha is, e e se emi ances)
and he u ban-based amily, i a ailable, may p o ide accommoda ion, no only
inc easing he chances o mig an s s aying in he ci y bu also ein o cing he ex ended
amily ne wo k i sel . Poo e mig an s wi hou amily ne wo ks a e o ced by hese
in e en ions in he housing ma ke in o p eca ious housing as Yesseno a (2010, p. 21)
has shown in he wo k on Alma y.
Ano he o m o comba i e agency is o build illegally, o example, on amily land, in
he hope ha hese buildings will in he end ecei e a legal s a us. These illegal buildings,
ound equen ly on he ou ski s o As ana, a e o en o low quali y.
41
They a e popula ed
mainly by poo e people, who o en ace addi ional insecu i y as hese buildings, which
we e cons uc ed wi hou a pe mi , ace he possibili y o demoli ion o de s by
go e nmen o ficials. Ano he nega i e ou come is ha co up ion and aud h i e in
such an ana chical clima e, as, o example, in he case o Aige im.
42
He amily sold
all hei p ope y in he no h and used he money o buy land close o As ana. They
had se e al mee ings wi h local go e nmen o ficials, who p omised hem a
cons uc ion pe mi . A e paying o he land, hey applied o planning pe mission, as
p omised and lea ned ha hei a ea had ne e been designa ed o esiden ial
de elopmen . They now li e in di e ci cums ances in a e y small apa men elsewhe e
in he ci y.
The se e e housing si ua ion has no caused he ci izens o As ana o openly p o es . Fi s
o all, hose who al eady own p ope y p ofi ed handsomely om he high p ices. Second,
u ban esiden s, bo h e hnic Kazakhs and Russians, a e unified in hei opposi ion o u al
a i als (Laszczkowski 2016a, p. 65; Blackbu n 2019, p. 230). Laszczkowski (2011b,
p. 95) and Koch (2014a, pp. 437–38) epo he s igma isa ion o new a i als, especially
om he u al sou h, who a e la gely seen as uncul u ed illage s. This phenomenon is
also ound in o he pos -So ie ci ies, such as Bishkek (Ha che & Thieme 2016,
p. 2182). Thus, on he one hand, poo e u al mig an s a e disliked and looked down
39
A side e ec may be he c ea ion o a p ope y bubble as desc ibed by Yesseno a (2010, p. 35) in
Alma y, o ins ance.
40
In e iew 5, go e nmen o ficial, ci y mig a ion depa men , As ana, 21 Ap il 2016.
41
‘U baniza siya Kazakhs ane usugublyae so sp oblemy—depu a ’,ZonaKz, 18 Decembe 2019,
a ailable a : h ps://zonakz.ne /2019/12/18/u banizaciya- -kazaxs ane-usugublyae -socp oblemy-depu a /,
accessed 25 May 2022.
42
The name has been changed o main ain he anonymi y o ou in e iewee (in e iew 38, Aige im,
As ana mig an , As ana, 22 Sep embe 2016).
MIGRANT AGENCY AND INSTITUTIONS 451
upon by he longe - e m esiden s while, on he o he , hei labou and he economic su plus
hey c ea e a e dea ly needed.
43
The collapse o he So ie educa ion sys em in he 1990s led o a d ama ically educed
numbe o egional colleges (OECD 2007, p. 36). Only he la ge educa ion acili ies in
he majo ci ies emained in ac (Toleubaye e al.2010, p. 368), and we e e en
supplemen ed by new acili ies, o e ing p og ammes in c a s and ades (Buchen iede
e al.2020). As a esul , young people we e d awn in o bigge ci ies (cumula i e agency)
and o en s ayed on a e g adua ion, as hey g ew accus omed o ci y ameni ies and hei
social bonds o hei home egion weakened. This mig a ion beha iou is known as he
‘mig a ing- o-lea n’–‘lea ning- o-mig a e’chain (Ré a 2016, p. 279). Ne e heless, he
inc eased u al–u ban mig a ion o young people esul s in a lack o p o essionals wi h
highe educa ion in u al a eas, wi h flow-on e ec s o he quali y o public se ice
in as uc u e in hose a eas; o example, in heal h and educa ion. Ch onic public
unde in es men may also play a ole. Thus, he elde ly o amilies wi h olde child en in
u ban cen es a e also likely o eloca e o owns as hei agency o s ay in he u al a ea
o o igin becomes cons ained.
A eassessmen o he educa ion sys em ook place in he ea ly 2000s. In a eac ion o
coun e he lack o well-educa ed p o essionals in u al a eas, he cen al go e nmen se
up schola ship p og ammes and decen alised highe educa ion acili ies (Buchen iede
e al.2020). Mo eo e , he p e ious ocus on u ban de elopmen p og ammes was
complemen ed by a mo e decen alised u al and egional de elopmen app oach.
Howe e , he con inua ion o hese u al and egional de elopmen p og ammes
c ucially depends on he na ional budge , which is hea ily dependen on he p ice o
ossil ene gy (Gallo 2021, p. 19). I he na ional budge is hi by an ex e nal shock
such as low commodi y p ices— o example, o oil and gas expo s— he policy
pendulum may swing back o ocus again on u ban de elopmen , whe e he powe
eli e esides.
Conclusion
I is impo an o mig a ion s udies o sys ema ically desc ibe he in e ac ion o
ins i u ions and agency a he egion o o igin and des ina ion when explaining
mig a ion p ocesses. Ou concep ual app oach he e o e emb aces ins i u ions and
agency in an egali a ian manne by applying a New Ins i u ionalism amewo k. Ou
case s udy is he Akmola–As ana mig a ion sys em in Kazakhs an. This mig a ion
sys em is in iguing because he Kazakhs ani go e nmen has p oac i ely and
eac i ely al e ed ins i u ions in Akmola and/o As ana, hus al e ing he agency o
po en ial and/o ac ual mig an s.
Ini ially, he cumula i e agency o u al people mo ing o As ana was welcomed and
p omo ed by c ea ing a na a i e o As ana as a ‘cen e o mode ni y’and an ‘economic
g ow h pole’. Howe e , he influx o people o e whelmed he ci y’s in as uc u e. On
43
See o example, Yesseno a (2006, p. 54) on he bazaa in Alma y and Laszczkowski (2016a, p. 38) on
As ana.
452 THOMAS DUFHUES ET AL.

behal o he ci y go e nmen , which wan ed o educe mig a ion, he Ci y Planning
Depa men changed i s policies o es ic he housing ma ke , which led o highe
housing p ices. Mig an s wi h unc ioning amily ne wo ks could coun e his h ough
collec i e agency, ei he by s aying wi h ela i es in As ana o by ecei ing e e se
emi ances om hei u al ela i es o finance an apa men o hei own. Using
comba i e agency, mig an s wi hou a p onounced social (mos ly amily) ne wo k
mi iga ed high housing cos s wi h measu es esul ing in p eca ious housing si ua ions and/
o highly insecu e li elihoods ( isk o e ic ion/demoli ion). Howe e , he ‘As ana
na a i e’is as s ong as e e and mig an s a e s ill a ac ed o he ci y, e en in he ace
o an un a ou able income–cos a io.
In he coun yside o Akmola, some people we e cons ained in hei agency o s ay,
especially young adul s in sea ch o highe educa ion. In esponse, he Kazakhs ani
go e nmen decen alised highe educa ion acili ies, se up special schola ship p og ammes
o a ac qualified young p o essionals as s a e employees o u al a eas, and implemen ed
u al economic s imuli p og ammes o imp o e he u al job ma ke . Ideally, hese
ins i u ional changes will help o de elop a posi i e na a i e o u al and small- own
economic a eas and help disman le he belie ha mig a ion is a p econdi ion o success. As
discussed, he Kazakhs ani go e nmen c ea ed a ious na a i es o p omo e i s goals.
Ne e heless, i would p obably be mo e e ec i e o he s a e media o show he li e and
li ing condi ions o e e yday u ban ci izens in As ana, including p eca ious housing, he
high cos o li ing and he s uggle o make ends mee ( o example, he need o ake on
mo e han one job) and no only idealised pic u es o he mode n me opolis. This would
gi e many u al dwelle s a mo e ealis ic pic u e o wha o expec in As ana. The s ong use
o amily ne wo ks o housing and e e se emi ances is also a esul o he some imes
ill-p epa ed o e en i a ional decisions o younge people o eloca e. This is also shown in
he se e e misma ch be ween he jobs young people o en wo k in and hei le el o
educa ion. Many o he mig an s wo king in menial jobs a e o e qualified, as ou quali a i e
esea ch e ealed. I hey do no p og ess in hei ca ee , hei subs an ial in es men in hei
educa ion may no p oduce he expec ed e u n. Thus, p o iding young adul s in he
coun yside wi h app op ia e in o ma ion on u ban jobs, qualifica ions, po en ial income and
housing cos s may be a mo e p omising app oach han simply ying o cons ain hei
agency. This would also lessen he need o e e se emi ances o suppo unsus ainable
li elihoods in u ban a eas.
One e ec o he Kazakhifica ion policy is ha speaking Kazakh has become mo e
impo an bo h in he p i a e sec o and, e en mo e so, o public employees, who mus
now mas e bo h Kazakh and Russian. Since e hnic Russians o en do no speak Kazakh
well enough, hey a e unde ep esen ed in he u ban labou ma ke , pa icula ly in public
adminis a ion. This has had an in e es ing side e ec . E hnic Russians ha e a highe
in en ion o s ay in u al a eas compa ed o hei Kazakh neighbou s. I ou analysis holds
ue, in he long e m his may e en lead o a pe sis en ( e-eme ging) Russifica ion o he
no he n coun yside.
By de eloping a concep ual guide on he basis o New Ins i u ionalism o he
decons uc ion o mig a ion sys ems, his s udy has wide significance ha ex ends
beyond Kazakhs an. The analysis o ins i u ions and agency unde a c oss-school New
MIGRANT AGENCY AND INSTITUTIONS 453
Ins i u ionalism amewo k is ideal o sys ema ically in es iga e mig a ion p ocesses and he
inhe en ins i u ion–agency in e ac ion in mig a ion sys ems.
THOMAS DUFHUES, Ex e nal En i onmen o Ag icul u e and Policy Analysis, Leibniz
Ins i u e o Ag icul u al De elopmen in T ansi ion Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale),
06120, Ge many. Email: [email p o ec ed]
THOMAS HERZFELD, Ex e nal En i onmen o Ag icul u e and Policy Analysis, Leibniz
Ins i u e o Ag icul u al De elopmen in T ansi ion Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale),
06120, Ge many. Email: [email p o ec ed]
GERTRUD BUCHENRIEDER, Uni e si ä de Bundesweh , Depa men o Poli ical and
Social Sciences, RISK Resea ch Cen e , We ne -Heisenbe g-Weg 39, Neubibe g, 85579,
Ge many. Email: [email p o ec ed]
DAVID RUNSCHKE, Ex e nal En i onmen o Ag icul u e and Policy Analysis, Leibniz
Ins i u e o Ag icul u al De elopmen in T ansi ion Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale),
06120, Ge many. Email: [email p o ec ed]
SUSANNE SCHMEIDL, School o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o New Sou h Wales, Sydney,
NSW 2052, Aus alia. Email: [email protected]
GALIYA SAGYNDYKOVA, Depa men o Economics, School o Sciences and Humani ies,
Naza baye Uni e si y, Nu -Sul an, Kazakhs an. Email: [email p o ec ed]
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