Wo schack, Philip; Hellbach, Leon; Bu ollo, Flo ian
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Algo i hmic Managemen in he Food-Deli e y Sec o – a
Con es ed Te ain?
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WEIZENBAUM JOURNAL OF THE DIGITAL SOCIETY
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ISSN 2748-5625 DOI 10.34669/WI.WJDS/4.3.5
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RESEARCH PAPER
Algo i hmic Managemen
in he Food-Deli e y Sec o –
a Con es ed Te ain?
Philip Wo schack * 1,2 Leon Hellbach 1,2 Flo ian Bu ollo 1,3
1 Weizenbaum Ins i u e
2 WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
3 Technische Uni e si ä Be lin
*Co esponding au ho , [email p o ec ed]
ABSTRACT
Fo ms o algo i hmic managemen (AM) play an essen ial ole in o ganiz-
ing ood-deli e y wo k by deploying a i icial in elligence-based sys ems o
coo dina e d i e ou es. Gi en he isks o p eca i y and h ea s posed by AM,
which a e ypically ela ed o (mig an ) pla o m wo k, he ques ion a ises o
wha ex en s uc u es o co-de e mina ion can posi i ely shape his ype o
wo k and he echnologies in ol ed. Based on an in-dep h case s udy wi hin a
la ge ood-deli e y company, his a icle is guided by wo ques ions: (1) How
do companies use algo i hm-based managemen and pe o mance con ol,
and how do he cou ie s pe cei e hem? (2) Wha p io i ies, s a egies, e-
sou ces, and achie emen s do wo ks councils and ade unions ha e wi h
ega d o co-de e mina ion p ac ices? Ou analyses indica e ha algo i hmic
managemen poses p oblems o non- anspa ency and in o ma ion asymme-
y, which in u n call o new o ms o and p ocedu es o co-de e mina ion.
Ou s udy does no ind e idence ha AM p ac ices aim o indi idually p o ile
and discipline cou ie s. The main challenges o he wo ks council and ade
unions a ise om he cou ie s’ gene ally p eca ious wo king and employmen
condi ions; da a- and AM- ela ed issues do no ep esen he cen al a ea o
KEYWORDS
algo i hmic
managemen
co-de e mina ion
egula ion
pla o m wo k
ood deli e y
p eca i y
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 2
04
con lic . Howe e , ou s udy iden i ies new demands ega ding he co-de e mi-
na ion o AM and unde lines he impo ance o ins i u ional egula ion a he
legal and sec o al le el.
1 In oduc ion
The e m algo i hmic managemen (AM) e e s o he use o algo i hm-based
sys ems and ools o manage an o ganiza ion’s wo k o ce, labo p ocesses,
and wo k pe o mance (see Meije ink & Bonda ouk, 2023; Wood, 2021).
O en, AM is based on a i icial in elligence (AI) sys ems ha au oma e deci-
sion-making and echnology-based con ol (Kellogg e al., 2020), and i plays
an essen ial ole in o ganizing ood-deli e y wo k. Taking in o accoun cus-
ome demand as well as es au an and d i e a ailabili ies, AM calcula es he
sequence o deli e ies and assigns hem o cou ie s ia an app on hei mobile
phones ha op imizes hei ou es. This p ocess en ails cons an acking o he
cou ie s along hei ou es. One s eam o he scien i ic li e a u e and public
deba e on pla o m wo k emphasizes he pe o mance-con ol unc ion o
algo i hm-based managemen sys ems, o en ci ing he ood-deli e y sec o as
a ypical example (Veen e al., 2020; Woodcock, 2020). F om his pe spec i e,
wo ke s a e no only exposed o p eca ious wo king condi ions bu also o algo-
i hm-based o ms o moni o ing and con ol.
Gi en he isks o p eca i y and h ea s ha AM sys ems ypically pose in he
con ex o pla o m wo k, he ques ion a ises as o wha ex en s uc u es o
co-de e mina ion a e able o mi iga e he nega i e e ec s on wo k. Based on
an in-dep h case s udy in a la ge Ge man ood-deli e y company, his a icle
is guided by wo ques ions: (1) How does he company use algo i hm-based
managemen and pe o mance con ol, and how do he cou ie s pe cei e hem?
(2) Wha p io i ies, s a egies, esou ces, and achie emen s do wo ks councils
and ade unions ha e wi h ega d o co-de e mina ion p ac ices?
To add ess he i s ques ion, we e e o he ecen sociological deba e on AM,
which emphasizes new isks o moni o ing and disciplining wo ke s and in e -
p e s hese as a new means o con ol (Kellogg e al., 2020). In his a icle, we
i s assess o wha ex en ou case s udy in he Ge man ood-deli e y sec o
subs an ia es his hypo hesis in he sense ha algo i hms a e used o indi idual
p o iling and disciplining o cou ie s. Rega ding he second ques ion, we e e o
powe esou ce heo y. This app oach p o ides a heo e ical amewo k o un-
de s anding wo ke ep esen a ion by add essing di e ences in powe esou ces.
Ou s udy aims o iden i y and explain p ac ices o co-de e mina ion and de-
mands o egula ion by e e ing o gi en powe – esou ces cons ella ions in he
ood-deli e y sec o . The a icle closes by discussing eme ging demands ela ed
o he egula ion and co-de e mina ion o AM in he ood-deli e y sec o .
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 3
04
2 Li e a u e Re iew, Resea ch Ques ions,
and Theo e ical F amewo k
Digi al pla o m companies a e a ypical ield o employmen o mig an
wo ke s, especially in he a ea o ood deli e y. Such pla o ms a e known o
p eca ious wo king condi ions in ha hey a e cha ac e ized by low-skilled
asks, high u no e , empo a y con ac s, low pay, and (un eliably) lexible
wo king hou s. Fo simila easons, howe e , hey a ac mig an wo ke s (o -
en e ugees) as hei low o mal equi emen s, low language ba ie s, and sho
ec ui men p ocedu es make hem easily accessible ( an Doo n e al., 2022).
Many a icles deal wi h pla o m wo k in e ms o p eca ious and mig an
wo k, whe eas o he s ha e ocused p ima ily on he unc ioning and impac o
AM in i m-le el case s udies. In addi ion o (loca ion-based o ms o ) pla -
o m wo k, such as ood deli e y o o he d i ing se ices (see he o e iew
by Lücking, 2019), p ominen ields o AM- ela ed esea ch include logis ics
(Bu ollo e al., 2018; S aab & Geschke, 2019), manu ac u ing (E e s e al.,
2019), and HR wo k (Spielkamp & Gießle , 2020). In he Ge man ood-deli -
e y sec o , as in o he o ms o loca ion-based pla o m wo k, he sma phone
is he ocal poin o AM. I no only ensu es pla o m wo ke s’ mobili y, bu
also enables ex ensi e collec ion o da a – in pa icula posi ional da a ia GPS
– ha can be e alua ed. Wi hin AM, his da a collec ion occu s in he o m o
“app-based managemen ” (I ano a e al., 2018) and aises issues o pe o -
mance con ol and su eillance.
Con ol issues a e a majo subjec in labo sociology wi hin which hey ha e
a long-s anding his o y. The heo e ical and empi ical o igins o con ol is-
sues lie in he so-called Labou P ocess Deba e, which was ini ia ed by Ha y
B a e man’s (1999/1974) wo k in Labou and Monopoly Capi al, whe e he
examined he con ol mechanisms o Taylo is ic p oduc ion. To his day, o he
au ho s ha e con inued o s udy cha ac e is ic o ms o con ol and hei de el-
opmen wi hin di e en egimes o capi alis ic p oduc ion (classically, Bu a-
woy, 1985, 2010/1979; Edwa ds, 1981; F iedman, 1977; in summa y, Smi h,
2015). “Di ec ” o ms o con ol “ h ough de ailed ins uc ion, e alua ion and
sanc ioning o wo ke s” (Ma s, 2010, p. 335) ha we e ini ially dominan in
he Fo dis e a, we e dis inguished om “indi ec ” s a egies o enhance wo k
pe o mance. P ominen examples a e “ esponsible au onomy” (F iedman,
1977, 1987) o “bu eauc a ic con ol” (Edwa ds, 1981) wo king ia indi ec
incen i es, o example h ough “job secu i y, oppo uni ies o ad ancemen
and scope o au onomy” (Ma s, 2010, p. 336; c . Hildeb and & Sel z, 1989).
A hi d mode o con ol, which became inc easingly p e alen a ound he mid-
1990s, is “ma ke -cen e ed con ol”: He e, he company’s ma ke p essu e and
he managemen ’s en ep eneu ial esponsibili y is passed on o he employees
(Ma s, 2010, p. 342 ; Menz & Nies, 2019).
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 4
04
In he con ex o con ol and digi aliza ion, Nies (2021) emphasizes ha com-
panies’ s a egies o ealize alo iza ion o capi al a y. Whe eas digi aliza ion
p o ides new ools o enhanced con ol, companies a e no necessa ily ocused
on maximizing indi idual wo k pe o mance h ough close-meshed con ol
sys ems, as he idea o a ein igo a ed, digi al Taylo ism would sugges . Nies
p o ides a ypology o ou di e en managemen s a egies a he company
le el ha ela e o cha ac e is ic ypes o con ol: wo k o ce- ela ed s a egies
in which echnology indeed is used o maximize indi idual wo k pe o mance
h ough sophis ica ed digi al con ol sys ems; p ocess a ionaliza ion s a e-
gies o sys emic a ionaliza ion s a egies ha ocus on he a ionaliza ion o
wo k p ocess and wo k o ganiza ion by “making in e nal unc ional p ocesses
mo e e ec i e”; ma ke and business s a egies in which companies use digi al
echnologies o s eng hen hei posi ioning and in luence on ma ke s; and inno-
a ion- o discou se-d i en digi aliza ion, which is cha ac e ized by a genuine
lack o p ecise s a egy and ollows a “sea ch o p oblems h ough echnically
a ailable solu ions” (Nies, 2021, pp. 489–491).
Wi h he ise o digi al echnology and algo i hms, new business models and
con ol op ions a e eme ging. Fo me ly in eg a ed o ganiza ional s uc u es
ha e been pa ially eplaced by loose o ganiza ional ies, p edominan ly in
he ield o digi al pla o ms (Nach wey & S aab, 2020). Va ious s udies on
ide-hailing and ood-deli e y pla o ms ha e he e o e shaped he discou se in
ecen yea s. Rega ding issues o con ol, some au ho s emphasize he con inu-
ing dominance o ma ke -based logics o con ol (Menz e al., 2019), whe eas
o he s, ollowing Edwa ds’ heo y o di ec con ol ia ins uc ion, e alua ion,
and sanc ioning, ha e pos ula ed a new quali y and ype o algo i hmic con ol
based on au oma ed, digi alized o ms o di ec , close-meshed managemen
con ol (Kellogg e al., 2020). The ques ion in which ways AM ela es o di e -
en ypes o new o ms o con ol and he ex en o which i is un olding a new
“con es ed e ain” be ween managemen and wo ke s (Edwa ds, 1981; Kel-
logg e al., 2020) a e opics ha a e s ill discussed in he scien i ic deba e.
The s udy by I ano a e al. (2018) on he managemen o ood-deli e y-pla -
o m wo k ia sma phone applica ions p o ided e idence ha acking mo e-
men gene a es an eno mous amoun o da a, which in u n enables comp ehen-
si e con ol o wo k p ocesses. Au oma ically e alua ing hese da a se es o
op imize he p ocesses and o moni o he wo k pe o mance o he “ ide s,” as
cou ie s a e called in e nally. The assignmen o wo k o de s is based on da a
e alua ion. The ac ha au oma ed decision-making occu s h ough algo i hms
o en c ea es he imp ession o echnical a ionali y and objec i i y. The app
can also be used o gene a e addi ional incen i es o mo i a ion and pe o -
mance imp o emen h ough push messages. By o e ing mino choices, he
app can os e he imp ession o au onomy and se incen i es o inc ease indi-
idual p oduc i i y gains (“digi al nudging”; Lücking, 2019).
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 5
04
Da a on wo k pe o mance a e some imes used o ini ia e compe i ion among
wo ke s, bu hey a e also used o hie a chical pu poses by di iding cou ie s
in o di e en g oups. Fo example, luc a i e shi s o o de s a e only displayed
o “bes pe o me s.” A cen al elemen o algo i hmic con ol by he app is
in o ma ion asymme y. The cou ie s emain unawa e o he exac ex en and
pu pose o he se ice. They know nei he how he summa y me ics used o
moni o hei pe o mance a e calcula ed, no how he me ics en e in o deci-
sions ega ding he shi s o o de s o e ed o hem (Sch eye & Sch ape, 2018).
Al hough he ood-deli e y sec o is o en ega ded as an example o s ong
algo i hm-based con ol and s anda diza ion o low-skilled wo k, case s udies
in he manu ac u ing and logis ics sec o s p esen a mo e ambiguous pic u e.
On he one hand, algo i hm-based wo k go e nance a indus ial wo kplaces is
also c i icized o i s po en ial o ga he da a on wo ke p oduc i i y and hence
closely moni o ac i i ies (Falkenbe g, 2018; Schaupp, 2021). In pa icula , in
assembly wo k and logis ics, algo i hm-based assis ance sys ems a e applied
o guide wo ke s h ough he assembly p ocess o in he selec ion o pa s. On
he o he hand, s udies demons a e ha hese sys ems can, indeed, be deployed
wi h e y di e en concep s o wo k. Algo i hm-based assis ance sys ems can
p o ide lexible, si ua ional in o ma ion o employees, o hey can be used o
imp o e he anspa ency o wo k p ocesses, op imize indi idual wo k pe o -
mance and wo k o ganiza ion, and inc ease he quali y o asks and enhance
skills (Klippe , 2020).
The li e a u e on AM in he indus y sec o highligh s he ac ha s uc u es o
co-de e mina ion can be a c ucial ac o in his ambiguous ield. Se e al s udies
show he impo ance o co-de e mina ion wi h ega d o bo h he in oduc ion
o new (digi al) echnology and issues o pe o mance egula ion o ecognize
aspec s o he human-o ien ed design o assis ance sys ems (Alb ech & Gö -
li z, 2021; E e s e al., 2019; K zywdzinski e al., 2023). One no able esul is
he ela i ely high accep ance o digi al assis ance sys ems, e en wi hin highly
s anda dized indus ial p ocesses. In Ge many, which has a s ong adi ion o
co-de e mina ion in he indus ial sec o , he e a e no ably ew con lic s; his is
also due o he s ong ole o wo ks councils in secu ing da a p o ec ion c i e-
ia and p e en ing pe o mance moni o ing and beha io al con ol. Mo eo e ,
he e is e idence ha wo ke s’ accep ance o algo i hm-based assis ance sys-
ems (such as sma wea ables) ela es o issues o anspa ency and co-de e -
mina ion. Employees end o accep such sys ems i hey e ain con ol o e he
da a and da a usage and i doing so has a clea bene i o hei wo k, especially
in e ms o educing wo kload (E e s e al., 2019).
In Ge many, whe e ou s udy was conduc ed, we ind an o e all lack o o -
malized egula ions ha explici ly ocus on AM issues on he one hand. On he
o he hand, a ela i ely la ge numbe o es ablished legal egula ions, sec o al
and company ag eemen s, and union and wo ks council ac i i ies a e al eady
indi ec ly go e ning he ield o AI and AM applica ion. They add ess issues o
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 6
04
da a p o ec ion, pla o m wo k, co-de e mina ion, o disc imina ion. Howe e ,
in many espec s, exis ing na ional egula ions do no co e speci ic issues ha
a ise in he con ex o AM (see A bei sg uppe “Algo i hmisches Managemen ”,
2023; K zywdzinski e al., 2023; Molina e al., 2023). Mo eo e , s uc u es and
mechanisms o co-de e mina ion a e less p onounced in he ood-deli e y sec-
o , whe e wo k and employmen a e o en o ganized ia pla o ms, ba gaining
co e age is low, and wo ks councils end o be he excep ion, a he han he
ule. The business models and managemen s a egies in his sec o a e s ongly
based on cheap labo , p eca ious employmen condi ions, and ma ke -based in-
cen i e sys ems. A he same ime, he decen alized cha ac e o wo k and high
deg ee o labo u no e challenges bo h managemen demands and co-de e -
mina ion p ac ices. Because pla o m wo ke s a e sepa a ed in e ms o space
and ime (due o a ying shi imes), o ganizing hem p esen s pa icula di -
icul ies. In addi ion, pla o m companies a emp o p e en con ac and com-
munica ion among wo ke s, and hey igh he es ablishmen o wo ks councils
(Kluge, 2022). Ne e heless, g owing o ganiza ion among pla o m wo ke s is
inc easingly causing p oblems o he managemen in he Ge man deli e y-se -
ice sec o . Alongside exis ing p ac ices o indi idual esis ance by wo ke s
and g ass- oo s mo emen s (Cini, 2023), we see a g owing numbe o a emp s
o es ablish ins i u ionalized collec i e in e es ep esen a ions. The cou ie s
a Lie e ando (Ge many’s leading deli e y se ice) ep esen a p ominen
example, as hey ounded a wo ks council in 2018 – he i s o i s kind in his
sec o (Cabanis, 2021). Cu en ly, se e al wo ks councils exis , many o which
coope a e wi h he ade union. In his way, hey combine new and es ablished
o ms o esis ance, o ganizing, and nego ia ion in labo con lic and in e es
ep esen a ion. Howe e , o he bes o ou knowledge, he ole and impo ance
o AM- ela ed issues in wo ke s’ in e es ep esen a ion has no ecei ed much
a en ion in p e ious esea ch.
The sec o al cha ac e is ics ou lined abo e es ablish pa icula con ol demands
o managemen due o he decen alized cha ac e o wo k and high labo
u no e . Mo eo e , he mains eam deba e on AM pos ula es oppo uni ies o
a new quali y and le el o con ol based on algo i hms. Gi en hese condi ions,
we migh expec signi ican a emp s by managemen o use AM o con ol
pu poses. Howe e , he ways in which and he ex en o which di e en o ms
o con ol a e applied – anging om (indi ec ) ma ke -based con ol o e he
a ionaliza ion o wo k p ocesses o (di ec ) pe o mance con ol – emains an
empi ical ques ion ha depends on gi en managemen s a egies, he o gani-
za ional con ex , ins i u ional egula ion, and indi idual and collec i e in e es
ep esen a ion and powe ela ions. Ou s udy will econs uc hese con ex ual
cha ac e is ics by s udying he case o a la ge Ge man ood-deli e y company.
We pay pa icula a en ion o he ole o wo ke s’ in e es ep esen a ion in he
Ge man egula o y con ex .
Powe esou ce heo y p o ides a ui ul app oach o unde s anding co-de e -
mina ion p ac ices as hey ela e o a ailable powe esou ces. As a concep , i
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 7
04
was i s spelled ou by E ik Olin W igh (2000) and Be e ly Sil e (2003; c .
Schmalz e al., 2018, p. 114) and u he de eloped by a ious au ho s, building
on he “basic p emise ha he wo k o ce can success ully de end i s in e es s
by collec i e mobilisa ion o powe esou ces in he s uc u ally asymme ic
and an agonis ic ela ionship be ween capi al and labou ” (Schmalz e al., 2018,
p. 115). Mode n app oaches speak o (a leas ) ou ypes o powe esou ces.
Schmalz and Dö e (2014) summa ize hese as: s uc u al powe , e e ing
o he posi ion o wo ke s wi hin he economic sys em (W igh , 2000, p. 962;
Sil e , 2005, p. 30 ) and consis ing o ma ke place ba gaining and p oduc-
ion powe ; associa ional powe , measu ed by he collec i e ep esen a ion o
wo ke s’ in e es s (e.g., h ough wo ks councils, ade unions, and wo ke s’
pa ies); ins i u ional powe , de ined by ag eemen s be ween capi al and labo ,
which a e usually he esul o he en o cemen o s uc u al and o ganiza ional
powe , ha can es ablish a - eaching igh s, bu may also es ic he poli ical
au onomy o ade unions; and socie al powe , which esul s om success ul
coope a ion wi h o he social ac o s and o ganiza ions, as well as suppo om
b oade sec ions o socie y and he gene al public sphe e, hus bene i ing om
ex e nal o ganiza ional esou ces and suppo in public discou ses (Schmalz &
Dö e, 2014, pp. 222–233). This heo e ical app oach has been used o a ious
s udies in he ield o pla o m wo k and deli e y se ices (e.g., Goods e al.,
2023; Pas uh & Geppe , 2020; Pe ò & Downey, 2022; Vandaele, 2021), bu o
he bes o ou knowledge, i has no ye been employed o unde s and wo ke
ep esen a ion s a egies ela ed o AM usage in his sec o .
3 E idence om he Case S udy
The ollowing esul s a e based on an in-dep h, i m-le el case s udy conduc ed
in 2022–2023 in a la ge ood-deli e y company in Ge many. Wo k o ce cha -
ac e is ics include p eca ious employmen condi ions, low-skilled wo k, high
labo u no e , and a la ge sha e o mig an wo ke s. The engagemen o ade
unions and co-de e mina ion a e s ill young and con es ed in he ood-deli e y
se ice sec o . In con as o many o he companies and a eas o he pla o m
economy, he company we examined issues ixed- e m and pe manen con ac s
o hei cou ie s. A e long pe iods o labo dispu es, his company in oduced
s uc u es o co-de e mina ion. This speci ic o ganiza ional se ing gi es us he
oppo uni y o s udy he ole o co-de e mina ion in he ood-deli e y sec o ,
which he academic li e a u e has no p e iously co e ed.
The empi ical da a unde lying his pape we e collec ed wi hin a la ge quali-
a i e esea ch p ojec examining he use o AM sys ems in a ious coun ies
and sec o s. The case s udy p esen ed he e ocused on a la ge ood-deli e y
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 8
04
company in a me opoli an a ea. In o al, 14 expe in e iews, las ing be ween
30 and 120 minu es, we e conduc ed wi h 11 unique in e iewees.
Table 1: O e iew o In e iew Pa ne s
G oup Indi idual Posi ion Numbe o In e iews
Managemen o
Public Rela ions
Co po a e Communica ions Manage 1
Manage o Public A ai s and Go e nmen
Rela ions; Co po a e Communica ions
Manage
2
Ride s and Wo k
Council membe s
Chai man o he Wo ks Council 3
Ride and Wo ks Council membe #1
(p o– ade union coope a ion) 2
Ride and Wo ks Council membe #2
(c i ical o union coope a ion) 1
Ride 2
Human
Resou ces
Managemen
Rec ui e 1
T ade union T ade union sec e a y 1
Ex e nal
p o essionals PhD esea che 1
To gain a di e en ia ed iew on he in oduc ion and impac o AM and i s
ele ance wi h he company, we in e iewed a ious g oups o ac o s. The in-
e iews di e ed sligh ly in hei ocus and cou se, depending on he g oup o
ac o s. Ou semi-s uc u ed in e iew app oach ocused on h ee co e opics:
(1) he objec i es, unc ionali ies, and a eas o applica ion, as well as he in o-
duc ion p ocess; (2) he e ec s o AM wi h ega d o wo k p ocesses; and (3)
he s uc u es and s a egies o wo kplace ep esen a ion and he ela ionships
be ween employees, wo ks council, ade unions, and managemen ega ding
AM and o he p e alen issues.
The da a we e e alua ed by means o quali a i e con en analysis (Kucka z,
2018, p. 92 ; Sch eie , 2014, p. 170 ). We de eloped a deduc i ely s uc u ed
code sys em wi h de ailed e e ence o he h ee co e opics and ans e ed
his o he MAXQDA analysis so wa e. The in e iew ma e ial was hen ana-
lyzed on his basis, and u he codes we e added induc i ely.
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 15
04
mean occupancy o d i e s. Su p isingly, he ide s, who a e in e es ed
in bonus paymen s, do no o en con es his. The insecu i y abou he
ai ness o o de assignmen and he dis ibu ion o wo k shi s is mo e
con o e sial o hem. Al hough he managemen s ongly objec s o he
suspicion o using da a anspa ency o disciplining wo ke s, he wo ks
council claims ha he managemen is doing his in o mally.
O e all, ou indings sugges ha hose engaged in he scien i ic deba e
should use he e m algo i hmic con ol mo e ca e ully. Nei he a e AM
sys ems implemen ed p ima ily o he sake o indi idual pe o mance
con ol in he case we examined, no do we ind an AI-based subs i u-
ion o managemen unc ions. Bo h aspec s a e o e -emphasized in he
deba es abou AM ha end o pain he pic u e o an au oma ed digi al
panop icon ha does no co espond o he indings o ou s udy. How-
e e , as long as he cou ie s emain unce ain and suspicious abou he
possibili y o being moni o ed, AM has an indi ec discipling e ec based
on opaci y, and hus i con ibu es o eelings o s ess and insecu i y.
The ambigui y and unce ain y ela ed o he algo i hmic sys em and i s
e ec s unde sco e he need o encoun e he “black-box” cha ac e and
in o ma ion asymme y ha goes along wi h AM.
2) In o ma ion asymme ies and limi s o co-de e mina ion ega ding AM
(i.e., he “black-box” p oblem): When ying o ackle issues o AM, he
wo ks council aced di icul ies in ge ing necessa y in o ma ion om he
managemen and in unde s anding how he algo i hmic sys em a ec s
wo k pe o mance (i.e., lack o knowledge esou ces). The wo ks council
membe s we in e iewed emphasized he di icul ies in unde s anding
he ope a ions o algo i hmic sys ems and exp essed hei inabili y o
moni o and shape he use o echnology. Consequen ly, he wo ks coun-
cil is hea ily engaged in demanding co-de e mina ion igh s ha also
a ec echnology de elopmen . They used he op ion p o ided by he
new Wo ks Councils Mode niza ion Ac (“Be iebs ä emode nisie ungs-
gese z”) o consul an ex e nal AI expe . Mo eo e , he membe s ha e
collec ed in o ma ion on he ope a ion o he app and exe ed p essu e on
managemen o disclose documen a ion ela ed o i . The p oblem o he
so wa e’s echnological opaci y is complica ed by he p oblem o “so-
cial opaci y,” as managemen , in he wo ks council’s iew, is no willing
o sha e in o ma ion on he app in a meaning ul way. Co-de e mina ion
ela ed o echnological issues is con es ed, which e lec ed he gene al-
ly hos ile ela ionship be ween he wo ks council and he managemen
o he company we in es iga ed. Consequen ly, and despi e a he ich
co-de e mina ion igh s and ecen e o ms (Wo ks Council Mode niza-
ion Ac ) in he Ge man con ex , he wo ks council aces di icul ies in
ob aining he in o ma ion on he pa ame e s ha eed in o he AM sys-
em ha is necessa y o unde s and hei unc ioning and in e ac ion and
o e alua e he e ec s o possible changes and al e na i e usages. This
aises a c ucial ques ion ega ding he ex en o which employee ep e-
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 16
04
sen a i es a e able o co-de e mine AI- o AM-based sys ems hemsel es,
an issue ha has o en been sugges ed in he cu en deba e, and one ha
unde sco es he need o anspa ency, (ex e nal) expe ise, and p oces-
sual co-de e mina ion igh s h ough which changes and upda es o AM
sys ems can be ackled.
3) Impo ance o ins i u ional egula ion o AM a he sec o al and legal le el:
The union and wo ks council ep esen a i es s ess he impo ance o and
need o mo e o mal egula ion o AI and AM sys ems, unde sco ing he
impo ance o ins i u ional powe . In hei iew, he isk o moni o ing
o employees and misuse o da a emains high and canno be p e en -
ed by he wo ks councils, due o bo h he lack o esou ces and lack o
coope a ion by he company. Among he wo ks council membe s, he
ole o collec i e ag eemen s is con o e sial. A conside able p opo ion
o he membe s coope a es closely wi h he union and s i es o a col-
lec i e ag eemen , al hough he majo i y – who come om he cou ie s’
g ass oo s mo emen – a o s new legal egula ions o he en o cemen
o exis ing egula ions. Union ep esen a i es in he ood-deli e y sec o
exp ess a s ong in e es in de ining de ailed and binding equi emen s
ega ding AI and AM usage a he sec o al le el, as hey o en lack he
powe o egula e hese issues a he company le el (i.e., lack o asso-
cia ional powe ). In e es ingly, we ind some e idence ha coope a ion
wi h es au an ope a o s migh become an addi ional sou ce o powe .
Mo eo e , wo ks councils and ade unions also con inue o expand hei
p esence in social media ( hus unde sco ing he impo ance o socie al
powe ) and success ully use i as a ehicle o ne wo king and building
b oad alliances, including g ass oo s mo emen s.
4) Compe ing demands o labo policies: O e all, ou indings do no sup-
po he idea o a dominan labo con lic ega ding issues o AM in he
company we in es iga ed. P oblems and con lic s p ima ily a ise om he
cou ie s’ gene ally p eca ious wo k and employmen condi ions. Labo
policies and con lic s a e mainly conce ned wi h adi ional issues in e ms
o pay, wo king hou s, wo k equipmen , and sa e y issues. Despi e he
wo ks council’s engagemen and ( ixed- and long- e m) employmen con-
ac s, classic elemen s o p eca ious employmen in he low-wage sec o
end o pe sis , such as low pay, a lack o p o ision o co e wo k equip-
men , bad and o en dange ous wo king condi ions, and insecu e employ-
men p ospec s, due o high ma ke luc ua ions. S ill, o many wo ke s
– especially mig an s, who o en a e pa icula ly elian on ini ial labo
ma ke access – his o m o wo k o e s low- h eshold job oppo uni ies.
5) New ba gaining cons ella ions in digi al business models? Finally, we
ound e idence ha gi en egula ions ouching issues o da a p o ec ion
and echnology can p o ide wo ks councils wi h powe ul means o
achie e goals in o he a eas o ac ion. In he digi al-pla o m economy,
bo h e icien day- o-day business and quick inno a ion depend g ea ly
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 17
04
on he collec ion and p ocessing o da a, as well as on apid and con inu-
ous de elopmen o (globally used) so wa e. Pu ing p essu e on he col-
lec ion o p ocessing o da a can he e o e quickly h ea en companies’
co e business in e es s and ampli y hei coope a i eness in ba gaining
p ocesses. In his espec , exis ing co-de e mina ion igh s ela ed o AM
issues can p o ide a new ba gaining esou ce o employee ep esen a-
ion in AM-based business models in he Ge man con ex . To he bes o
ou knowledge, his ac has no ye ecei ed much a en ion in p e ious
esea ch. I unde sco es he need o s udy ba gaining p ocesses, powe e-
sou ces, and nego ia ion s a egies in he a ea o AM mo e sys ema ically.
Fu u e esea ch in his ield should ake a b oade pe spec i e on AM- e-
la ed policies in o ganiza ions, also conside ing issues and con lic s in
o he , “ adi ional” a eas o ac ion.
P e ious s udies ha e iden i ied challenges o policymake s and he egula ion
o AM in h ee a eas o he Ge man wo kplace. Ou s udy con i ms hese: (1)
T anspa ency issues: Employe s o en do no p o ide su icien in o ma ion
on he me hods used in AI applica ions; (2) Con ol issues: Acco ding o he
exis ing da a-p o ec ion egula ions, employe s may collec and p ocess indi-
idual da a when his in o ma ion is used o ul ill he speci ic wo k pu pose.
Because his egula ion lea es oom o in e p e a ion, companies can misuse
i . (3) Co-de e mina ion issues: P ocessual o ms o co-de e mina ion gain
impo ance (K zywdzinski e al., 2023), because go e nance and moni o ing
o AI and AM a e becoming pe manen asks in he con ex o sys ems ha
a e equen ly upda ed. Righ s o co-de e mina ion a e less e ec i e as soon
as such sys ems ha e been in oduced, ampli ying he impo ance o employ-
ees, wo ks councils, and HR manage s possessing he app op ia e skills and
in o ma ion o d aw he igh conclusions and o an icipa e possible long- e m
e ec s and unin ended consequences. Conside ing hese challenges, ou s udy
unde sco es he demand o use ul policy measu es ega ding he use o AM,
such as anspa ency in e ms o he key unc ions o hese sys ems (e.g., wi h
he help o independen expe s), ag eemen s on in es men s in AM p oduc s
be ween employee ep esen a i es and managemen , he in ol emen o em-
ployee ep esen a i es in implemen a ion p ocesses, and egula access igh s
o hem o p e en he expansion (o misuse) o algo i hmic sys ems in he
wo kplace (Rol , 2024).
Finally, ega ding he egula ion o AM, ou s udy emphasizes he impo ance
o conside ing sec o al di e ences in e ms o powe esou ces and in o ma-
ion asymme ies. In he ood-deli e y sec o , we obse e a highe demand o
egula ions a he ins i u ional (legal and sec o al) le el as compa ed wi h, o
example, he Ge man indus ial co e sec o . To cope wi h he ou lined in o ma-
ion and skill asymme ies (be ween managemen and wo ks councils) ega ding
AM issues, i migh also be a use ul app oach o co-de e mina ion o pu mo e
emphasis on egula ing he e ec s o AM-based sys ems o p e en nega i e ou -
ALGORITHMIC MANAGEMENT IN THE FOOD-DELIVERY SECTOR 18
04
comes in e ms o s a ing, wo k hou s, wo kload, and sa e y. Such an app oach
would ely on classical ields and ins umen s o employee ep esen a ion.
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Acknowledgemen
This s udy was pa o he Eu opean esea ch p ojec “Democ acy a Wo k
h ough T anspa en and Inclusi e Algo i hmic Managemen ” (INCODING
unded by he Eu opean Commission unde EaSI (h ps://incoding-p ojec .eu).
A p elimina y e sion o his pape was published in he P oceedings o he
Weizenbaum Con e ence 2023: AI, Big Da a, Social Media and People on he
Mo e.
Da e ecei ed: Ma ch 2024
Da e accep ed: Augus 2024
