Ma, Bei ang; K ö z, Maximilian; Win he , Es he
A icle — Published Ve sion
Domain-Linked and Domain-Speci ic Compe ence: a
Valida ion S udy o a Two-Dimensional Model o Economic
Voca ional Compe ence in Ge many
Voca ions and Lea ning
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ma, Bei ang; K ö z, Maximilian; Win he , Es he (2024) : Domain-Linked and
Domain-Speci ic Compe ence: a Valida ion S udy o a Two-Dimensional Model o Economic
Voca ional Compe ence in Ge many, Voca ions and Lea ning, ISSN 1874-7868, Sp inge
Ne he lands, Do d ech , Vol. 17, Iss. 3, pp. 459-485,
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence:
aValida ion S udy o aTwo‑Dimensional Model
o Economic Voca ional Compe ence inGe many
Bei angMa1 · MaximilianK ö z2· Es he Win he 1
Recei ed: 20 July 2023 / Accep ed: 6 July 2024 / Published online: 24 July 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
Modeling oca ional compe ence is inc easingly c ucial o moni o ing and enhanc-
ing he quali y o Voca ional Educa ional T aining (VET), pa icula ly in he con ex
o ongoing in e na ional compa a i e s udies known as "la ge-scale assessmen s" o
oca ional educa ion and aining. This s udy endea o s o p o ide well-s uc u ed
and guideline-complian empi ical e idence o he alida ion o he wo-dimen-
sional cons uc o economic oca ional compe ence, ad ancing beyond he cu en
s a e o esea ch. A sample o 1438 i s -yea app en ices om wo ede al s a es in
Ge many pa icipa ed as es - ake s. The au hen ic assessmen amewo k comp ised
24 i ems, assessing wo dimensions o oca ional compe ence: domain-linked com-
pe ence and domain-speci ic compe ence in he business/comme cial domain. Meas-
u emen in a iance was assessed ac oss (1) ede al s a es and (2) e sions o es
bookle s, and he Mul idimensional Random Coe icien Mul inomial Logi model
was employed o examine he quali y o he wo-dimensional oca ional compe ence
cons uc . The esul s suppo ed he alidi y o he s uc u e, highligh ing he di e -
en ia ion be ween domain-linked compe ence and domain-speci ic compe ence. This
p o ides a mo e subs an i ely accu a e ep esen a ion o ainees’ oca ional compe-
ence compa ed o a unidimensional model.
Keywo ds Voca ional Compe ence· Cons uc Modeling· Mul idimensional
Model· Domain-Linked Compe ence· Domain-Speci ic Compe ence
* Bei ang Ma
bei [email p o ec ed]
1 Ins i u e o Voca ional Educa ion andT aining, Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen,
Uni e si ä ss aße 2, 45141Essen, Ge many
2 A ea Economic andBusiness Educa ion, Uni e si y o Mannheim, L 4, 1, Mannheim68161,
Ge many
460
B.Ma e al.
In oduc ion
The Concep o Compe ence
Modeling and diagnosing oca ional compe ence ha e gained scien i ic in e es in
Ge many since Weine (2001) in oduced compa a i e pe o mance measu emen
in schools (Rüscho , 2019). In 2007, he Fede al Ins i u e o Voca ional T aining
(BIBB) ou lined equi emen s o an in e na ional compa a i e s udy in VET, and
he OECD is cu en ly de eloping he ounda ion o he In e na ional Voca ional
Educa ion and T aining Assessmen (PISA-VET) (BMBF, 2023). Exis ing oca-
ional compe ence models ace c i icism o hei b oad de ini ions ha include
social, oli ional, and mo i a ional aspec s, making i di icul o measu e and com-
pa e compe encies. Fu he mo e, in many ins ances, he de ini ions o oca ional
compe ence ex end well beyond he oca ional con ex . This ambigui y necessi a es
igo ous cons uc alida ion, which is cu en ly insu icien (Rüscho , 2019). One
o ou esea ch aims is o add ess his concep ual gap.
The i s s ep in cons uc ing he compe ence model is o es ablish an ope a ional
de ini ion o ansla e compe ence cons uc s in o measu able obse a ions. Acco d-
ing o he de ini ion by Klieme and Leu ne (2006) ha desc ibes "compe ence as a
cogni i e disposi ion ha is lea nable and unc ionally ela ed o speci ic si ua ions,"
we unde s and compe ence as ollows: (1) I encompasses only cogni i e aspec s,
excluding mo i a ional and oli ional elemen s; (2) I di e s om pe o mance,
which e e s o wha is ac ually done unde exis ing ci cums ances (Messick, 1984).
Compe ence is a po en ial cogni i e unc ion o ac app op ia ely in a ious si u-
a ions, which is no di ec ly obse able bu can be in e ed om obse ed beha -
io s (Win he , 2010; Win he & Ach enhagen, 2009). This de ini ion suppo s using
i em- esponse heo y o calcula e esponse p obabili ies based on es - ake ai s
and i em cha ac e is ics; (3) Compe ence is ealized h ough in e ac ion wi h spe-
ci ic pe o mance equi emen s insi ua ions (Connell e al., 2003; Whi e, 1959),
which span a ange om gene al o specialized scopes (Klieme e al., 2008). This
cha ac e is ic is essen ial o de ining oca ional compe ence in VET.
Voca ional Compe ence inVET
PISA’s indings on gene al educa ion, hough no co e ing VET-cen ic sys ems like
Ge many’s, demons a e how compe ence-o ien ed empi ical da a can d i e educa-
ional e o ms (E l, 2006). VET should no be assessed by he same c i e ia as aca-
demic educa ion, gi en ha company-based lea ning cons i u es a signi ican pa
o oca ional aining. Recen esea ch has ocused on modeling oca ional com-
pe ence s uc u es and le els o be e unde s and p o essional skills de elopmen .
Ins umen s ha e been de eloped o a ious p o essions, including comme cial
and echnical aining (Abele e al., 2014; Nickolaus e al., 2008, 2012, 2015), bank
cle ks (Lehmann & Seebe , 2007; Rosendahl & S aka, 2011), and indus ial cle ks
(Deu sche & Win he , 2018; Win he & Ach enhagen, 2009). Mos cons uc s deal
461
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
wi h oca ional specialized compe encies, wi h some including c oss-domain com-
pe encies diagnosed in he a ea o oca ional aining (Rüscho , 2019). Fo exam-
ple, Win he (2011) dis inguished be ween ma hema ical and li e acy ace s o
gene al compe ence in comme cial aining, while Ziegle e al. (2016) measu ed
gene al eading, ma h, and science compe ence in oca ional con ex s. Nine pe cen
in ol e ans e sal compe encies like social-communica i e skills (Die zen e al.,
2016; Dö ing e al., 2016). This s udy ocuses on occupa ional specialized compe-
ence, dis inguishing i om gene al o ans e sal compe ence.
The Concep ion o Domain‑Linked Compe ence andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence
VET esea ch shows ha c oss-domain compe ence, including gene al basic knowl-
edge and sel - egula o y skills, in luences occupa ion-speci ic compe ence ac oss
a ious aining occupa ions (e.g., Lehmann & Seebe , 2007; Win he & Ach enha-
gen, 2008). Howe e , his in luence is limi ed and canno be gene alized. Fo exam-
ple, basic ma hema ical skills co ela e wi h pe o mance in ma hema ically ocused
p o essional si ua ions like con olling bu no in gene al business adminis a ion
(Win he , 2010; Win he & Ach enhagen, 2008), me acogni i e knowledge and sel -
egula o y skills ha e low p edic i e powe o comme cial p o ession skills (Seebe ,
2008; Win he , 2006). The e o e, in VET, domain-linked compe ence, also known
as job- ela ed li e acy, is assumed o be mo e p edic i e han c oss-domain gene al
compe ence. Domain-linked compe ence pe ains o gene al aspec s ele an o a
speci ic p o essional domain, linking c oss-domain compe ence o speci ic si ua ions
(Win he e al., 2013). Addi ionally, domain-speci ic compe ence, which in ol es
speci ic ules, p inciples, skills, and ac ion plans ela ed o a pa icula subjec ma e ,
add essing ypical and conc e e equi emen s in p o essional si ua ions wi hin spe-
ci ic occupa ional g oups (Deu sche & Win he , 2016).
To explain he ela ionship be ween gene al compe ence, domain-linked compe-
ence, and domain-speci ic compe ence, Gelman & G eeno’s heo y (1989) p o ides
aluable insigh s. Domain speci ici y, oo ed in con en cen al o a pa icula occu-
pa ion, con as s wi h domain- ela edness, which encompasses con en suppo ing
he occupa ional ield bu also applies o gene al o basic educa ion in a b oade con-
ex . Fo example, inancial li e acy, as de ined by OECD (2020), includes knowl-
edge and skills essen ial o making signi ican inancial decisions— om selec ing
bank accoun s and mo gages o in es men s and e i emen planning. While inan-
cial li e acy and digi al li e acy a e c ucial 21s -cen u y skills applicable o daily
li e o e e yone and se es as a ounda ional educa ional concep in comme cial
p o essions, i lacks he subjec -speci ic ocus necessa y o economic occupa ions.
One assump ion, which has been empi ically alida ed (Ap ea e al., 2016), is ha
li e acy signi ican ly p omo es ongoing lea ning in comme ce- ela ed p o essions.
G eeno e al. (1984) in oduced he dis inc ion be ween domain-linked and
domain-speci ic compe ence. They p oposed a amewo k wi hin he domain o
coun ing se s o objec s, iden i ying h ee componen s o compe ence: (1) Concep-
ual compe ence in ol es an implici unde s anding o gene al p inciples wi hin he
ask domain, such as ca dinali y, one- o-one co espondence, and o de . (2) P oce-
du al compe ence encompasses unde s anding gene al p inciples ela ed o goals and
462
B.Ma e al.
ac ions wi hin he ask domain. Fo example, coun ing is linked o numbe because
i in ol es de e mining he numbe o objec s in a se . I also includes unde s anding
ela ionships be ween necessa y condi ions and ac ions, such as equali y in o m-
ing equal se s as a p e equisi e o coun ing. (3) U iliza ional compe ence ocuses
on unde s anding he ela ionships be ween speci ic ask ea u es and pe o mance
equi emen s. Fo ins ance, i conside s how objec s o be coun ed a e a anged in a
s aigh line wi hin he ask se ing.
Applying G eeno e al.’s (1984) concep ual amwo k o VET esea ch p o ides a
aluable amewo k o analyzing p oblem-sol ing compe ence wi hin speci ic p o-
essional domains. Simila o he conc e e ask se ing o coun ing objec s, ac ions
in comme cial domains in ol e h ee key componen s: ac i a ing decla a i e knowl-
edge o gene al p inciples (concep ual compe ence), selec ing and execu ing ac ion
schema a based on ask-speci ic logic (p ocedu al compe ence), and in eg a ing
speci ic equi emen s o a de ined si ua ion by aligning gene al concep s and ac ion
p inciples wi h si ua ional ea u es (u iliza ional compe ence).
G eeno e al. (1984) desc ibed he implici cogni i e p ocesses in ol ed in
domain-speci ic asks, dis inguishing be ween unde s anding gene al p inciples in
a domain and applying hem o speci ic ask se ings. Applying his amewo k o
VET esea ch o e s se e al ad an ages: (1) I b eaks down p oblem-sol ing e ec-
i eness in job- ela ed si ua ions in o dis inc componen s a he han ea ing i as
a singula cons uc . U iliza ional compe ence, which add esses speci ic si ua ional
demands, de elops g adually h ough oca ional aining and p o essional expe i-
ence, while occupa ional li e acy (concep ual and p ocedu al compe ence) o ms he
gene al compe ence used ac oss occupa ional ields and is acqui ed h ough gene al
educa ion. (2) This amewo k’s dimensions can heo e ically apply o all s ages o
oca ional aining, including ini ial s ages whe e ainees may lack speci ic wo k
expe ience bu possess a ounda ional le el o gene al compe ence. These s able
compe ence dimensions p o ide a s uc u al basis o de elopmen al esea ch ack-
ing changes o e ime in oca ional aining con ex s.
Howe e , his concep ualiza ion o compe ence p ima ily se es as a ame-
wo k o cu iculum design a he han as he ounda ion o a psychome ic model
o measu e compe ence. The dis inc ion be ween domain-linked and domain-spe-
ci ic compe ence is pi o al in cons uc ing a psychome ic unique o he VET ield.
Domain-linked compe ence includes concep ual compe ence and p ocedu al com-
pe ence. In he comme cial ainings, i can be in e p e ed as so-called comme cial
co e compe encies, "which a e equi ed o p ac icing a p o ession in all comme cial
occupa ional ields and can he e o e o m a basis o comme cial aining and u he
educa ion s anda ds, albei wi h di e en in ensi y depending on speci ied comme -
cial occupa ional ields" (B ö z e al., 2009, p 0.19). Fo comme cial p o essionals,
domain-linked compe ence includes economic li e acy and nume acy, essen ial skills
wi hin he comme cial domain (Win he , 2010). Fo ins ance, an i em in ou assess-
men ool aimed a e alua ing domain-linked compe ence p esen s a s aigh o wa d
exchange- a e calcula ion. In his simula ed scena io (see Sec .3.2 o de ails), pa -
icipan s assumed he ole o a businesspe son and we e equi ed o calcula e he
expec ed USD paymen based on he Eu o amoun speci ied in a con ac , using
he exchange a e also speci ied in he con ac . This calcula ion in ol es applying
463
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
gene al ma hema ical ope a ions o an economic con ex (cu ency exchange), le -
e aging p o ided in o ma ion on bo h he eu o o al and exchange a e. In con as ,
domain-speci ic compe ence is essen ial o add essing challenges in speci ic, na ow
domains. In comme cial se ings, employees d aw on domain-speci ic compe ence o
na iga e complex economic ela ionships and execu e business ansac ions acco d-
ing o es ablished p o ocols (Win he , 2010). An example o a domain-speci ic i em
in ou assessmen in ol es selec ing a logis ics company. Beyond basic ma hema ical
calcula ions, es ake s mus analyze a ious aspec s o he ask scena io, conside -
ing ac o s such as company condi ions, cus ome needs, and logis ics company o e -
ings like quo es, discoun s, e iciency, and paymen e ms.
Domain‑Linked Compe ence andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence asTwo Sepa able
bu Rela ed Dimensions o heVoca ional Compe ence Cons uc
The dis inc ion be ween domain-linked and domain-speci ic compe ences is c ucial
o VET, as ainees ace bo h o e lapping and ac i i y-speci ic demands ou lined
in he Voca ional T aining Ac (BBiG) and he T ade and C a s Code o Ge many
(HwO) (Lied ke & Seebe , 2015; Reinisch & Gö zl, 2013). The psychome ic supe-
io i y o his wo-dimensional s uc u e is empi ically suppo ed (Klo z & Win he ,
2015). Di e en ia ing hese compe ences is key o analyzing ansi ions be ween gen-
e al cogni i e abili ies and specialized skills in VET (Win he , 2010). Con as ing
wi h gene al educa ion whe e c oss-domain compe ence o ms he cogni i e oun-
da ion o specialized knowledge and skills (Leu ne e al., 2004; Weine , 2001),
in VET, domain-linked compe ence se es as an "in e media e le el" o success-
ul ac ion in a speci ic occupa ional a ea, (Deu sche & Win he , 2016) (see Fig.1).
Empi ical e idence indica es ha he concep o domain-linked compe ence has high
p edic i e powe o de eloping domain-speci ic compe ence in economic con ex s
(Ach enhagen & Win he , 2008; Win he e al., 2013). In comme cial oca ional
aining, his aligns wi h expec a ions, as gene al economic skills a e essen ial o
acqui ing domain-speci ic skills in comme cial ields (Deu sche & Win he , 2016).
In p e ious esea ch, a compe ence de elopmen model o VET was concep u-
ally de eloped o indus ial cle ks, based on domain-linked and domain-speci ic
compe ence (Win he , 2011; Klo z & Win he , 2015). The ansi ion om gene al
schooling o VET is ma ked by domain-linked compe ence, e lec ing ainees’ p io
nume acy and li e acy skills acqui ed o m gene al educa ion. Du ing VET, ainees
acqui e con en om bo h compe ence dimensions, wi h domain-speci ic compe ence
de eloping mo e apidly and e en ually becoming p edominan by he end o ain-
ing. This p ocess con inues h oughou he aining pe iod, culmina ing in a oca-
ional compe ence se whe e domain-speci ic compe ence is dominan . Acco ding o
Klieme and Leu ne (2006), a compe ence model wi h a s uc u ally s able in e nal
amewo k h oughou aining o ms he basis o longi udinally es ablishing he
hypo hesized dis inc g ow h ajec o ies o domain-linked and domain-speci ic com-
pe ence. Hence, in addi ion o he i s cha ac e emphasizing cogni i e aspec s and
he second cha ac e ocusing on oca ional specialized compe ence, he hi d cha ac-
e o ou compe ence model cen e s on dis inguishing in e nal dimensions.
464
B.Ma e al.
Resea ch Aim andModel
Guidelines o Assessing heValidi y o heVoca ional‑Economic Compe ence
Cons uc
Besides clea ly and p ecisely de ined models, a anspa en , guideline-complian
alida ion p ocedu e is c ucial o ad ancing compe ence models in VET. The e’s
a no able need o alidi y e idence based on in e nal s uc u e and ex e nal ela-
ions, o en missing in 78% and 88% o compe ence alida ion s udies in Ge many’s
ini ial VET om 2001–2017 (Rüscho , 2019; Roh -Men ele & Fo s e -Heinze ,
2021). Mo eo e , s udies ha do p o ide alidi y e idence o en neglec measu e-
men in a iance ac oss es occasions (e.g., Deu sche & Win he , 2016). Acco ding
o he S anda ds o Educa ional and Psychological Tes ing (AERA, APA & NCME,
2014), in e nal s uc u e e idence includes no only dimensionali y bu also meas-
u emen in a iance ac oss subg oups. This s udy aims o add ess he esea ch gap by
p o iding bo h empi ical alidi y e idence based on in e nal s uc u e and ex e nal
ela ions and o e a well-s uc u ed alida ion p ocess beyond exis ing esea ch.
(1) Validi y e idence based on es con en : Acco ding o he S anda ds, impo an
alidi y e idence is de i ed om logical o empi ical analysis o he ela ion-
ship be ween es con en and he in ended cons uc . The cu en assessmen ,
adap ed om alida ed domain-speci ic and domain-linked asks, was de eloped
by iden i ying ele an wo k ac i i ies and p ocesses in he VET cu iculum.
Fig. 1 In eg a ed Compe ence Model wi h Gene al Compe ence and Voca ional Compe ence. No e.
Adap ed om "Zusammenhänge zwischen allgemeinen und be u lichen Kompe enzen in de kau män-
nischen E s ausbildung [Connec ions be ween gene al and oca ional compe encies in ini ial comme cial
aining]," by E. Win he , J. Sangmeis e , and A. K. Schade, in R. Nickolaus, J. Re elsdo , E. Win he
& O. Kölle (Ebds.), Ma hema isch-na u wissenscha liche Kompe enzen in de be u lichen E s ausbil-
dung: S and de Fo schung und Deside a a (Zei sch i ü Be u s- und Wi scha spädagogik—Bei-
he e; Band Beihe 26) (p. 139 – 157), 2013, F anz S eine Ve l
465
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
We assume he es con en adequa ely ep esen s he con en domain and will
no e-examine i in his s udy (see Sec .3.2 and Deu sche & Win he , 2016 o
mo e de ails).
(2) Validi y e idence based on esponse p ocesses: The S anda ds emphasize he
impo ance o ensu ing ha judgmen s o es - ake s’ pe o mance a e based on
app op ia e s anda ds and no in luenced by i ele an ac o s (e.g., handw i ing
quali y in a w i en essay). Ou compe ence cons uc includes only oca ional
compe ence, excluding gene al compe ence. We used a classic pape -and-pencil
es o elimina e he in luence o i ele an gene al skills, such as digi al li -
e acy. Addi ionally, wo e sions o es bookle s wi h di e en i em o de s we e
assigned o es - ake s o minimize he in luence o neighbo ing s uden s and
con ol o o de e ec s. The S anda ds also add essed he e idence based on
esponse p ocesses elies on obse e s o judges eco ding and/o e alua ing
es ake s’ pe o mances. In ou s udy, a e s unde wen aining sessions o
amilia ize hemsel es wi h sco ing c i e ia and p ocedu es. A subse o assess-
men s was independen ly sco ed by h ee a e s, achie ing a Cohen’s kappa o
0.84, which indica es high in e a e eliabili y and ensu es he consis ency and
accu acy o sco ing p ocedu es h oughou he s udy.
(3) Validi y e idence based on in e nal s uc u e: We o mula ed hypo heses o es
he in e nal s uc u e o ou cons uc . Fi s , we hypo hesized ha he heo e i-
cal wo-dimensional s uc u e (domain-linked and domain-speci ic compe ence)
would s a is ically ou pe o m a unidimensional s uc u e (H1a) and ha he
wo dimensions would co ela e posi i ely (H1b). We also hypo hesized ha
ainees would possess mo e domain-linked compe ence han domain-speci ic
compe ence due o hei p io gene al schooling (H1c). Addi ionally, we assumed
measu emen in a iance ac oss es e sions (H2a) and ede al s a es (H2b), in
line wi h he S anda ds’ expec a ion o in a iance o e occasions.
(4) Validi y e idence based on ela ions o ex e nal a iables: We in es iga es co e-
la ions be ween oca ional compe ence sco es and ex e nal pe o mance- ela ed
a iables, hypo hesizing ha :
- Voca ional compe ence (bo h domain-linked and domain-speci ic) posi i ely
co ela es wi h he inal g ades ainees aim o achie e in hei aining (H3a).
- Voca ional compe ence posi i ely co ela es wi h ainees’ sel -e alua ion o
hei o e all pe o mance in hei aining (H3b).
- The a e age g ade om he las a ended school be o e en e ing he aining p o-
g am co ela es mo e s ongly wi h domain-linked compe ence han wi h domain-
speci ic compe ence a T0, as domain-linked compe ence media es he ela ionship
be ween gene al and domain-speci ic compe ence (H3c).
- Bo h domain-linked (H3d) and domain-speci ic compe ence (H3e) posi i ely
co ela e wi h he concu en a e age g ade in oca ional school, wi h a s onge
co ela ion o domain-linked compe ence (H3 ).
466
B.Ma e al.
- Bo h domain-linked (H3g) and domain-speci ic compe ence (H3h) posi i ely
co ela e wi h he concu en a e age g ade in he aining company, wi h a s onge
co ela ion o domain-speci ic compe ence (H3i).
Gene alizabili y
Besides he alidi y, i is impo an o conside he gene alizabili y o ou esea ch.
While oca ional aining is i mly es ablished and unique in Ge many (BMBF,
n.d.), VET is also a common ocus in e na ionally, aimed a p epa ing s uden s o
he wo k o ce. The e o e, he insigh s om his esea ch on oca ional compe ence
can be gene alized in e na ionally in se e al ways:
– In e na ionally S anda dized Assessmen : De eloping an in e na ionally s and-
a dized assessmen o VET ou comes, such as PISA-VET (OECD, 2024),
equi es a alid oca ional compe ence model adap able o he di e se VET sys-
ems and aining occupa ions ac oss coun ies. The model s udied he e i s his
equi emen , as i is based on G eeno and colleagues’ s udies cha ac e izing com-
pe ence o cogni i e asks wi hou speci ic lea ning objec i es o cu icula.
– Valida ion P ocedu e: P esen ing a ho ough and well-s uc u ed alida ion p o-
cedu e is c ucial o de eloping and alida ing VET assessmen s wo ldwide
(Rüscho , 2019; Roh -Men ele & Fo s e -Heinze , 2021).
– Globaliza ion and Bila e al Coope a ion: Globaliza ion has led o inc eased
bila e al coope a ion wi h Ge many in VET (GOVET, n.d.). Unde s anding Ge -
many’s dual educa ion sys em can help o he coun ies enhance hei oca ional
aining sys ems and os e in e na ional collabo a ion in designing mo e e ec-
i e oca ional educa ion p og ams. This s udy, based on Ge man oca ional
aining objec i es and cu icula, aims o con ibu e o hese e o s.
Psychome ic Modeling o Voca ional‑Economic Compe ence
Domain-speci ic and domain-linked compe ences a e wo key psychome ic p ope -
ies o oca ional-economic compe ence, de ined as la en a iables in he Mul idi-
mensional IRT (MIRT) model. The e a e wo ypes o MIRT models: be ween-i em
and wi hin-i em mul idimensionali y (Adams e al., 1997). In be ween-i em mod-
els, each i em belongs o only one dimension, a ec ing he p obabili y o a co ec
esponse on ha dimension alone. In con as , wi hin-i em models allow i ems o
load on o mul iple dimensions, meaning esponses ely on abili ies om se e al
dimensions simul aneously (Ha ig & Höhle , 2009). Addi ionally, in be ween-i em
models, he dimensions can co ela e (Ha ig & Höhle , 2009). In his s udy, each
assessmen i em es s ei he domain-speci ic o domain-linked compe ence, load-
ing on o one dimension. Thus, we chose he be ween-i em model wi h co ela ed
ac o s o model he empi ically suppo ed co ela ion be ween domain-speci ic and
domain-linked compe ences (Fig.2).
473
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
in he domain-linked dimension (Dim1) exhibi b oade dispe sion compa ed o
he domain-speci ic dimension (Dim2), suppo ing he dis inc ion be ween hese
dimesnions. Thi dly, his og ams in he le panel show domain-linked compe ence
alues be ween 0 and 1 logi s a e mos common, while domain-speci ic compe-
ence alues be ween -1 and -2 logi s p e ail, indica ing a g ea e p o iciency in
domain-linked asks among es ake s upon en e ing VET. While he mean alues
o domain-linked compe ence in lowe , he insigh om he g aphics pa ially con-
i ms he hypo hesis (H1c) ha pa icipan s ini ially possess mo e domain-linked
compe ence. Las ly, bo h ede a ed s a es show a simila dis ibu ion o i em di i-
cul y ac oss he assessmen , wi h i ems 01, 02, 03, 05, 06, and 07 being easie , i ems
04, 08, 09, 10, 12, and 15 mode a e, and i ems 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21
mo e challenging ela i e o pa icipan s’ abili ies.
Howe e , some conside a ions need o be add essed. While i ems co e he en i e
scale, indica ing a comp ehensi e measu e o compe ence, he di icul y pa ame e s
o domain-linked and domain-speci ic i ems only pa ially o e lap wi h he la en
ai pa ame e s o es ake s.
Fo he domain-linked dimension:
– In NRW, 27.1% o es ake s a e abo e he i em di icul y ange, and 4.5% a e
below i .
– In BW, 6.2% a e abo e he ange, and 1.7% a e below i .
– I indica es a ceiling e ec .
Fig. 4 Map o La en Two-Dimensional Dis ibu ion o I em Th esholds and Pe son Abili ies (NRW
Da ase ). No e. Dim 1 and Dim 2 s and o domain-linked and domain-speci ic dimensions espec i ely.
I em 1 o i em 10 es domain-linked compe ence and i em 11 o i em 22 belong o he domain-speci ic
dimension
474
B.Ma e al.
Fo he domain-speci ic dimension:
– In NRW, 52% o es ake s a e below he i em di icul y ange, and he ange
co e s 47.8% o hei abili y.
– In BW, 39.3% a e wi hin he i em di icul y ange, and 60.7% a e below i .
– I indica es ha he e a e ew i ems ha appea s o be e y di icul o es ak-
e s. The i ems a e hose loca ed a he uppe end po ion o he W igh map in
Figs.4 and 5. I em 11 (xsi_NRW = 4.39; xsi_BW = 3.93) and 21 (xsi_NRW = 3.97;
xsi_BW = 3.99) a e wo o he mos di icul i ems o es ake s om bo h ede al
s a es.; i em 11 equi es calcula ion o he o al g oss ma gin ia o de esul o
b eak-e en poin , and i em 21 equi es he calcula ion o he op imal o de quan-
i y.
Rela ions oEx e nal Va iables
A e es ing he in e nal cons uc , alida ion e idence based on ela ions o ex e -
nal a iables will be examined h ough co ela ions be ween he cons uc o in e es
and ex e nal a iables measu ing simila cons uc s. The esul s a e summa ized in
Table8.
Bo h domain-linked and domain-speci ic compe ences signi ican ly co ela e wi h
ainees’ a ge ed inal g ades and sel -e alua ions ac oss all ime poin s, con i ming
H3a and H3b. Only domain-linked compe ence co ela es wi h he a e age g ade
Fig. 5 Map o La en Two-Dimensional Dis ibu ion o I em Th esholds and Pe son Abili ies (BW Da a-
se )
475
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
Table 8 Co ela ion Be ween Voca ional Compe ence and Ex e nal Va iables
Domain-speci ic compe ence as DS and domain-linked compe enceas DL o sho
p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001
Voca ional compe ence
T0 T1 T2
DL DS DL DS DL DS
Ex e nal Va iables T0 Sel -E alua ion o O e all Pe o mance 0.161** 0.215**
Desi ed Final G ade 0.160** 0.203**
A e age G ade o Las A ended School 0.109* 0.048
T1 Sel -E alua ion o O e all Pe o mance 0.176** 0.307**
Desi ed Final G ade 0.139** 0.219**
T2 Sel -E alua ion o O e all Pe o mance 0.257** 0.299**
Desi ed Final G ade 0.271** 0.288**
Cu en A e age G ade in Company T aining 0.147** 0.367***
Cu en A e age G ade in Voca ional School 0.313*** 0.297***
476
B.Ma e al.
om ainees’ p e ious gene al school a endance, con i ming H3c. Addi ionally,
bo h compe ences posi i ely co ela e wi h concu en a e age g ades in oca ional
school and aining companies, con i ming H3d, H3e, H3g, and H3h. Domain-linked
compe ence shows a s onge co ela ion wi h oca ional school g ades compa ed
o domain-speci ic compe ence, con i ming H3 , while domain-speci ic compe ence
co ela es mo e s ongly wi h aining company g ades, con i ming H3i. While sel -
e alua ion, desi ed inal g ade, and p e ious gene al school g ade co ela e wi h
oca ional compe ence, hey ha e weake e ec s. Pe o mance in oca ional school
and company aining, closely ela ed o oca ional compe ence, shows mode a e
e ec s, aligning wi h heo e ical expec a ions.
Discussion
In his s udy, we add essed gaps in oca ional compe ence esea ch (see Rüscho ,
2019) by cons uc ing a clea compe ence model ocused on cogni i e aspec s and
oca ional compe ence, and conduc ing a comp ehensi e alida ion p ocess. As ec-
ommended by he S anda ds (AERA, APA & NCME, 2014), we p o ided alidi y
e idence based on in e nal s uc u e, con i ming he supe io i y o a wo-dimen-
sional s uc u e (H1a), he co ela ion be ween dimensions (H1b), and he highe
le el o domain-linked compe ence compa ed o domain-speci ic compe ence (H1c).
We also examined measu emen in a iance ac oss es e sions (H2a) and ede al
s a es (H2b). H1a and H1b a e con i med, H1c and H2a a e pa ially con i med,
while H2b is no con i med. Addi ionally, we p o ided alidi y e idence based on
he ela ion wi h ex e nal a iables (H3a-H3i), wi h all hypo heses conce ning ela-
ions o ex e nal a iables con i med.
In gene al, The MIRT analysis esul s suppo ed he hypo hesized s uc u e o
oca ional-economic compe ence in bo h NRW and BW es da a. Es ablished con-
igu al in a iance be ween he wo ede al s a es sugges s unc ional and s uc u al
consis ency ac oss g oups, implying ha he cons uc exis s in all g oups s udied
and ha indica o s ela e o he basic model s uc u e (Fon aine, 2011; an de Vij e
& Leung, 1997). This indica es ha comme cial ainees om bo h ede al s a es
concep ualize oca ional-economic compe ence simila ly.
An ambiguous esul o he s udy is i s non-in a iance be ween he da ase s om
wo he ede al s a es a he le el o me ic in a iance. Despi e good model i coe -
icien s, he signi ican di e ence be ween he con igu al and me ic models indi-
ca es ha he s eng h o ela ions be ween speci ic i ems and hei espec i e la en
dimensions a ies ac oss g oups. A possible eason is ha pa icipan s, a an ea ly
lea ning s age, accessed economic knowledge di e en ly be o e VET, in luencing
hei esponses o VET cu iculum-based i ems. They acqui ed economic compe-
ence may be mo e closely ela ed o hei p e ious in o mal lea ning expe iences
(e.g., h ough p e ious a endance a a comme cial school) han o didac ics in VET.
Consequen ly, pa icipan s esponded di e en ly o he i ems designed acco ding
o he amewo k o he VET cu iculum. This non-in a iance may disappea in
la e s ages o aining and will be ollowed and moni o ed in ollow-up esea ch.
Ne e heless, he wo-dimensional model be e s uc u es oca ional-economic
477
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
compe ence ac oss bo h da ase s. Ano he possible eason o his non-in a iance
is ha he ampli udes o people abili y ( anging om -4.67 o 3.51 logi s o he
BW da ase and om -4.20 o 2.85 logi s o he NRW da ase ) a e much la ge han
hose o i em di icul y ( anging om -2.27 o 2.62 logi s o he BW da ase and
om -2.31 o 0.73 logi s o he NRW da ase ) in he domain-linked dimension. A
ceiling e ec may lead o he dis o ion o measu emen .
Fo he domain-speci ic dimension, he scale seems adequa e o measu e he mid-
dle and uppe anges o he la en a iable. This means ha , a leas in his sample,
he domain-linked i ems may no be eliable o assess high le els o domain-linked
compe ence, and he domain-speci ic i ems may no be eliable o assess low le els
o co esponding compe ence. Ano he unexpec ed esul is ha he a e age alue
o domain-speci ic compe ence is highe han domain-linked compe ence (see H1c),
and his is also a ibu ed o he limi ed i em di icul y anges in bo h dimensions.
Judging om he igu es, H1c has indeed been con i med, as he mode o domain-
speci ic compe ence is be ween -2 and -1, whe eas he mode o domain-linked com-
pe ence occu s be ween 0 and 1. In o de o imp o e measu emen quali y, i would
be necessa y o ex end he ange o i em di icul y o co e compe ence a low, mid-
dle and high le els.
The wo es i ems excluded du ing es ing o pa ial scala in a iance a e he
inal wo i ems o e sion B. One o hese i ems in ol es a complex calcula ion p o-
cess, equi ing pa icipan s o w i e down he de ailed calcula ion s eps o he ask
calcula ion o he de ec a e in sink p oduc ion, while he o he equi es making a
judgmen based on he cos analysis o qua z supplie s and p o iding a de ailed
a ionale o ha judgmen . This ype o ques ion, demanding a hough ul p ocess
and ex ensi e w i en wo k, o en c ea es p essu e o pa icipan s, especially when
hese i ems a e he las in he es , and pa icipan s espond unde ime cons ain s,
po en ially leading o non-in a iance o he i em in e cep s.
The eliabili ies o i ems in bo h dimensions do no mee ou expec a ions. We
assume ha , simila o o he ins umen s (B üggemann & No dmeie , 2018; Ru sch,
2016; Te ze , 2012; Wellni z, 2012; Woi kowski, 2015), eliabili y o he compe-
ence es is low bu accep able. Reliabili y depends on he homogenei y o i ems
and he simila i y o he objec being measu ed. Psychological assessmen s ypically
achie e high eliabili y by measu ing speci ic ai s, while compe ence es s co e a
b oad ange o domain-speci ic knowledge and a ied o ma s (e.g., open ques ions,
mul iple choice, calcula ions, easoning), which can educe eliabili y. Fu u e s ud-
ies should explo e he impac o changing esponse o ma s on eliabili y. Addi ion-
ally, in alida ion s udies, eliabili y is jus one aspec o alida ion e idence. Con-
side ing he es esul s o dimensionali y and measu emen in a iance, we assume
ha his eliabili y is accep able o his alida ion s udy. Gi en he low eliabili ies,
we in e p e he es sco es cau iously, ocusing no only on assessmen , dimensional
le els, bu also on i em le el. I em-le el in e p e a ion, based on con en - ela ed c i-
e ia, helps desc ibe mo e accu a ely wha lea ne s know. Fo example, o e 50% o
ainees can sol e domain-linked i ems 01, 04, 05, 06, 07, and 09, mos ly ela ed o
’ o mula ing business emails acco ding o DIN-No m.’ This example shows wha
p e ious knowledge he ainees come wi h and wha u he lea ning in he job may
depend on.
478
B.Ma e al.
The gene alizabili y o ou s udy’s esul s equi es u he conside a ion. Gi en
he Ge man dual educa ion sys em’s emphasis on combining class oom and on- he-
job aining h ough app en iceships, oca ional educa ion sys ems in o he coun-
ies, like he U.S., ypically ocus mo e on class oom-based lea ning wi h ewe
o mal app en iceships. We an icipa e ha while he dimensionali y o oca ional-
economic compe ence holds ac oss coun ies, he le el o domain-speci ic compe-
ence may a y.
In ecen yea s, oca ional compe ence esea ch has ocused on modeling compe-
ence s uc u es. Nickolaus e al., (2012, 2015), Abele e al. (2014), Lehmann & See-
be (2007), Rosendahl and S aka (2011), Win he and Ach enhagen (2009), Klo z &
Win he (2015), and CoSMed p ojec esea che s (Seebe e al., 2016; Die zen e al.,
2016) ha e con ibu ed insigh s ac oss a ious occupa ional domains. These models
a e complemen a y a he han compe i i e, e lec ing he speci ici y o each occu-
pa ional domain in oca ional educa ion and aining (VET). Fo example, compu e
simula ions o an engine o measu e he aul diagnosis skills o p ospec i e au omo-
i e mecha onics enginee s (see e.g., Gschwend ne e al., 2010) canno be adap ed
o measu e he oca ional compe ence o indus ial app en ices. Addi ionally, oca-
ional compe ence is a uni a y concep ; hese cons uc s o oca ional compe ence
may ep esen di e en pe spec i es o obse a ion and illumina e dis inc access
o measu e oca ional compe ence. This dis inc ion allows he in ended in e p e a-
ion o oca ional compe ence o he p oposed use. In he comme cial domain, o
example, he wo-dimensional compe ence s uc u e o Roh -Men ele and Fo s e -
Heinze (2021) comp ised o basic comme cial knowledge and skills is de eloped
o app en ices o all comme cial b anches and independen ly o a speci ic comme -
cial occupa ion. Ach enhagen and Win he (2008) de eloped a compe ence s uc u e
model wi h ac ion-based and skill-based dimensions, which i s ad anced lea ne s.
As a as he model in his expe imen is conce ned, as he i s s ep o longi udi-
nal alida ion esea ch, all he in o ma ion gained om he p esen s udy will se e
as an impo an piece o e idence o cons uc ing oca ional compe ence de elop-
men . We hope in u he longi udinal expe imen s o es whe he he dimensional-
i y is uni e sal and s able o e he du a ion o he aining and add a de elopmen al
pe spec i e o he dimensionali y. Fu he mo e, we a e looking o wa d o conduc -
ing mo e alida ion s udies in o he oca ional domains and in o he coun ies o es
he gene alizabili y o he cons uc .
The modeling and assessmen o oca ional compe ence ha e gained p omi-
nence ecen ly, pa icula ly wi hin Ge many’s dual VET sys em, which acili a es
a smoo h school- o-wo k ansi ion and bols e s economic compe i i eness globally
(Fü s enau e al., 2014; Rüscho , 2019). To sus ain i s e ec i eness, he sys em con-
inuously upda es o mee e ol ing socie al and economic needs (Deissinge & Hell-
wig, 2005). In e na ional assessmen s like PISA VET p o ide c ucial benchma ks,
e alua ing Ge many’s VET agains global s anda ds. These assessmen s in o m pol-
icymake s abou sys em s eng hs, weaknesses, and a eas o imp o emen , guiding
s a egic mode niza ion e o s. Fu he mo e, he ou comes o compe ence assess-
men s in he dual VET sys em can be " ansla ed" in o conc e e measu es, ac ions,
o plans whe e necessa y o acili a e he compe ency de elopmen o ainees and
employees (BMBF, 2023). The ongoing mode niza ion e o s, alignmen wi h
479
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
global s anda ds, and in e na ional benchma king h ough assessmen s like PISA
VET collec i ely con ibu e o he sys em’s esilience and e ec i eness. The con-
inuous ansla ion o compe ence assessmen s in o ac ionable plans unde sco es
he commi men o he dynamic de elopmen o oca ional compe encies wi hin
he wo k o ce. Implemen ing s anda dized measu emen s o gauge achie emen s
ac oss di e en p o iciency le els wi hin VET on a global scale c ea es p ospec s
o collabo a ion among in e na ional VET sec o s. This collabo a i e app oach
allows ins i u ions o sha e bes p ac ices, exchange esou ces, and de elop uni ied
s anda ds ha enhance he quali y and e ec i eness o oca ional aining p og ams
wo ldwide.
Appendix
I em Examples
I em 11 (domain-speci ic i em): You supe iso , Ms. Kenk, ecei ed a call
om M . Schwiene , who is willing o accep he o e only i he p ice is se
a 579.00 EUR pe uni plus VAT. Ms. Kenk asks you o assess whe he accep -
ing his o de would s ill be p o i able o Ce a o ma. Fo he upcoming eam
mee ing, calcula e he o al con ibu ion ma gin conside ing M . Schwiene ’s
eques ed p ice, wi h a iable cos s o 395.00 EUR pe uni and ixed o de cos s
o 144,000.00 EUR
– Desc ip i e S a is ics:
– xsi_BW: 4.39
– xsi_NRW: 3.93
– Fac o Loading:
– λ_BW: 0.79***
– λ_NRW: 0.82***
I em 12 (domain-speci ic i em):
A e consul ing wi h he Ma ke ing/Sales depa men , i was de e mined ha
25 ons o qua z need o be o de ed o p oduc ion. The ollowing binding o e s
we e ecei ed:
Silica Glass GmbH Mine al Gei e AG
Lis P ice 525.00 EUR/ on (plus VAT) 470.00 EUR/ on (plus VAT)
Discoun 4% o o de s o e 20 ons 3% o o de s o e 30 ons
Cash Discoun 2% i paid wi hin 10days
Paymen Te ms 60days ne 30days ne
Deli e y Cos s 100.00 EUR la ee 0.60 EUR/100kg ex-wo ks
Minimum O de Quan i y 10 ons
O e Validi y Un il 10 h Ap il Un il 25 h Ma ch
480
B.Ma e al.
De e mine he mos cos -e ec i e supplie o 25 ons o qua z and p o ide ea-
sons o you decision.
– Desc ip i e S a is ics:
– xsi_BW: 0.90.
– xsi_NRW: 0.48.
– Fac o Loading:
– λ_BW: 0.84***
– λ_NRW: 0.77***
I em 8 (domain-linked i em).
A e deli e ing 2,600 washbasins, 80 we e epo ed by he cus ome as de ec-
i e. The de ec s mainly occu ed a he ansi ions o he pu chased, ch ome-pla ed
me al pa s and in he pu chased componen s hemsel es. To educe he de ec a e
and main ain quali y leade ship, M s. Kenk wan s o expand he in e nal quali y ini-
ia i e. Th ee Measu es o Reduce De ec Ra e:
– Desc ip i e S a is ics:
– xsi_BW: 1.47.
– xsi_NRW: 0.16.
– Fac o Loading:
– λ_BW: 0.78***
– λ_NRW: 0.74***
I em 10 (domain-linked i em).
A e communica ing you calcula ed p ice o M s. Kenk, she nego ia es a con-
ac wi h Mille L d. o 100 ba h ubs a a o al p ice o €180,000. You a e asked o
in o m he accoun ing depa men o he expec ed paymen in USD. Calcula e he
paymen in USD using he ollowing cu en exchange a e (no e: ound you esul
o wo decimal places).
– Desc ip i e S a is ics:
– xsi_BW: 0.71.
– xsi_NRW: 0.49.
– Fac o Loading:
– λ_BW: 0.85***
– λ_NRW: 0.88***
Acknowledgemen s The p ojec „Compe ence de elopmen in oca ional encul u a ion p ocesses
“(INTERCONNECT), on which his publica ion is based, is unded by he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion
(DFG) unde he g an numbe : WI 3597 / KL 3076. The au ho s a e esponsible o he con en o his
publica ion.
481
Domain‑Linked andDomain‑Speci ic Compe ence: aValida ion…
Au ho s’ con ibu ions All au ho s con ibu ed o he s udy concep ion and design. Ma e ial p epa a ion,
da a collec ion and analysis we e pe o med by Bei ang Ma, Maximilian K ö z and Es he Win he . The
i s d a o he manusc ip was w i en by Bei ang Ma. All au ho s commen ed on p e ious e sions o
he manusc ip . All au ho s ead and app o ed he inal manusc ip .
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
A ailabili y o da a and ma e ials The da ase s gene a ed and analyzed du ing he cu en s udy a e no
publicly a ailable due he ac ha hey cons i u e an exce p o esea ch in p og ess bu a e a ailable
om he co esponding au ho on easonable eques .
Decla a ions
E hics app o al and consen o pa icipa e In his non-in e en ional s udy (Su ey Resea ch), he da a is
comple ely anonymous wi h no pe sonal in o ma ion being collec ed. All subjec s pa icipa ed olun a -
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