Glyniadaki, Ka e ina; Ra zmann, No a; S ie , Julia
A icle — Published Ve sion
Mig an e u nees as (an i‐)mig a ion messenge s? A case
o s ee ‐le el ep esen a i e bu eauc acy in Senegal
In e na ional Mig a ion
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Glyniadaki, Ka e ina; Ra zmann, No a; S ie , Julia (2025) : Mig an e u nees
as (an i‐)mig a ion messenge s? A case o s ee ‐le el ep esen a i e bu eauc acy in Senegal,
In e na ional Mig a ion, ISSN 1468-2435, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 63, Iss. 1, pp. 1-15,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/imig.13382
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/315354
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
In e na ional Mig a ion. 2025;63:e13382.
|
1 o 15
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/imig.13382
wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/imig
Recei ed: 28 June 2024
|
Re ised: 4 No embe 2024
|
Accep ed: 23 Decembe 2024
DOI: 10.1111/imig.13382
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Mig an e u nees as (an i- )mig a ion messenge s?
A case o s ee - le el ep esen a i e bu eauc acy
in Senegal
Ka e ina Glyniadaki1 | No a Ra zmann2 | Julia S ie 3
1London School o Economics, London, UK
2DeZIM- Ins i u , Be lin, Ge many
3WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin,
Ge many
Co espondence
Julia S ie , WZB Be lin Social Science
Cen e , Reichpie schu e 50, 10785 Be lin,
Ge many.
Email: julia.s ie @wzb.eu
Funding in o ma ion
London School o Economics and Poli ical
Science; Bundesminis e ium ü Familie,
Senio en, F auen und Jugend; Open Access
unding was p o ided by he WZB h ough
he DEAL- Conso ium
Abs ac
In e na ional o ganiza ions and o eign- unded NGOs
un campaigns in Senegal o aise awa eness o he pe -
ils o i egula mig a ion. To inc ease hei e ec i eness,
hese o ganiza ions o en enlis local mig an e u nees o
sha e hei pe sonal mig a ion expe iences and ansmi
an an i- i egula mig a ion message o hei compa io s.
This a icle examines whe he policymake s' assump ions
ega ding he ep esen a i eness o mig an e u nees op-
e a ing as (an i- )mig a ion messenge s in e ms o sha ed
iden i ies co esponds o eali y a he s ee le el. I d aws
om heo ies o s ee - le el bu eauc acy and ep esen a-
i e bu eauc acy and is based on 31 quali a i e in e iews
wi h mig an e u nees and expe s. The s udy shows ha
mig an e u nees engaged in mig a ion in o ma ion cam-
paigns a e no as ep esen a i e o he local popula ion as
en isaged by policymake s, po en ially impac ing policy
ou comes. They s and ou om hei compa io s in e ms
o skillse s and social s a us – pa ly because o he selec-
ion mechanism employed by o ganiza ions and pa ly be-
cause o he aining and capaci y- building e o s di ec ed
a mig an e u nees.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). In e na ional Mig a ion published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o In e na ional O ganiza ion o
Mig a ion.
2 o 15
|
GLYNIADAKI e al.
INTRODUCTION
While poli ical decisions on mig a ion managemen a e equen ly backed by a gumen s abou na ional so e -
eign y and bo de secu i y, he p ac ical implemen a ion o mig a ion policies o en en ails he in ol emen o
non- s a e ac o s. This is pa icula ly p onounced in coun ies cha ac e ized by ‘weak s a e ins i u ions’ (Pee e s
& Campos, 2023) whe e he p esence o in e na ional o ganiza ions and in e na ionally- unded NGOs is mo e
p e alen . Indi iduals asked wi h implemen ing policy on he g ound, commonly known as s ee - le el bu-
eauc a s (Lipsky, 1980), a e he e o e no always public se an s; hey may also be p i a e sec o employees
(In an ino, 2016) o membe s o he ci il socie y, paid o unpaid (Glyniadaki, 2021).
The g owing p esence o policy implemen e s om di e se sec o s complemen s he exis ing di e si y in e ms
o e hnic, acial and o he iden i y ca ego ies. S udies in he ield o ep esen a i e bu eauc acy ha e highligh ed
he impo ance o hese iden i ies in he deli e y o social se ices and i s impac on ci izens; when s ee - le el
bu eauc a s sha e key demog aphic cha ac e is ics wi h he popula ion hey se e, hey a e mo e likely o mee
his popula ion's needs and in e es s (Meie , 1993). Fo example, he p esence o e hnic mino i y police o ice s is
associa ed wi h lowe le els o acial p o iling (Hong, 2017); inc easing he ep esen a i eness o indi idual policy
implemen e s is likely o ha e posi i e ou comes o he a ge popula ion.
In line wi h ecen calls o g ea e inclusi i y in e ms o he mul iple and di e se iden i ies and backg ounds
o oday's s ee - le el bu eauc a s (Bishu & Kennedy, 2020; Mu doch e al., 2022; Po illo e al., 2022), his a icle
examines he implemen a ion o mig a ion in o ma ion campaigns and ini ia i es in Senegal, a case whe e bo h he
employmen sec o and he acial and na ional iden i ies o s ee - le el bu eauc a s hold signi icance.
‘Mig an s as Messenge s’ is one p ominen such p og amme un by he In e na ional O ganisa ion o
Mig a ion. I s pu pose is o assis locals ‘ o make in o med decisions abou mig a ion’ and ‘ aise awa eness on he
isks o i egula mig a ion’ by le e aging he na a i es o communi y membe s who ha e p e iously mig a ed
o Eu ope o a emp ed o do so. These communi y membe s a e expec ed o o e ‘au hen ic i s - pe son es-
imonies’ o hei mig a ion expe ience (IOM, 2024; see also Tjaden & Dunsch, 2021). Simila p og ammes a e
also spea headed by in e na ional NGOs, such as Ca i as and he Ge man de elopmen coope a ion agency GIZ.
These in e na ional NGOs o en ope a e in collabo a ion wi h smalle , local NGOs and also ely on local ac o s o
ca y ou policy asks, aiming o dissuade u u e i egula mig a ion a emp s om A ica o Eu ope.
O high schola ly in e es in his con ex is he p esence o local mig an e u nees employed by in e na ionally
unded o ganiza ions o sha e hei s o ies o (commonly i egula and dange ous) mig a ion jou neys owa ds
Eu ope wi h hei compa io s (Maâ e al., 2022; Ma ino e al., 2023; T aune e al., 2023; Vammen, 2021). These
in e na ional dono - led ini ia i es build on imagina ies (Salaza , 2020) o mig a ion as a h ea o EU coun ies
which needs o be p e en ed and discou aged (Ba els, 2019; Schene i & Mazzuca o, 2024). Mig an e u nees
a e chosen as implemen ing ac o s by Eu opean policy make s because hey a e seen as (na ionally and acially)
ep esen a i e o hei compa io s, who a e conside ed o be u u e po en ial mig an s. This ep esen a i eness
is mean o acili a e policy implemen a ion and he deli e y o an an i- mig a ion message on he g ound. The
deg ee o which his is e ec i e, howe e , is ye o be s udied and unde s ood.
Th ough a se ies o semi- s uc u ed in e iews, his s udy examines he iews and expe iences o local imple-
men ing ac o s a he s ee - le el – ‘mig an messenge s’ – and he deg ee o which hey ope a e as ep esen a-
i es o he o ganiza ions hey olun ee o o o he local communi ies hey a e expec ed o se e. We analyse
hese pe spec i es alongside he pe spec i es o mig an e u nees no in ol ed in such campaigns, as well as
hose o local mig a ion expe s. The aim o his a icle is no o assess he e ec i eness o hese in o ma ion
campaigns, as his is beyond he scope o his s udy.
This esea ch con ibu es o he exis ing li e a u e by shedding ligh on he p inciple o ep esen a i eness
in he implemen a ion o mig a ion in o ma ion campaigns in Senegal. We ind ha unde pinning he ideas o
‘sameness’ be ween mig an e u nees and he local popula ion a e imagina ies held by in e na ional policy
make s which do no necessa ily co espond o eali y on he g ound. Th ough an in e sec ional lens, his s udy
|
3 o 15
RETURNEES AS (ANTI- )MIGRATION MESSENGERS?
e eals impo an di e ences be ween he wo g oups in e ms o skillse and s a us, o socio- cul u al capi al
(Bou dieu, 1986). I onically, such di e ences a e la gely c ea ed due o e u nees' in ol emen in hese ini ia i es
and he ele an aining hey acqui e.
The emainde o his a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. The i s sec ion o e s a concise e iew o he ele an
li e a u e, ocusing on cha ac e is ics o oday's s ee - le el bu eauc a s and he deg ee o which hey a e consid-
e ed ep esen a i e o hei a ge popula ion. This is ollowed by con ex ual backg ound on e u n mig a ion o
Senegal. Nex , he e is a b ie o e iew o he me hodology employed, ollowed by he p esen a ion and analysis
o he esea ch indings. This is cen ed a ound he hemes o (a) selec ion o messenge s, (b) aining and (c)
message ecep ion om he pe spec i e o ou in e iewees, who we e pa o implemen ing he campaigns. The
a icle ends wi h concluding ema ks on he s udy's indings and i s con ibu ions o he li e a u e.
BUREAUCRATIC REPRESENTATIVENESS AT STREET- LEVEL
The e has been an inc eased p esence o non- s a e ac o s in he p ac ice o mig a ion policy and he b oade
landscape o policy implemen a ion in ecen decades. Wi h he adminis a i e e o ms ollowing he ise o New
Public Managemen in he 1980s (Dunlea y & Hood, 1994), con ac ing and p i a iza ion became mo e p e alen .
In u n, many on - line public agencies ha e been eplaced by p o i - seeking con ac o s, non- p o i o ganiza ions
o ‘hyb id’ o ganiza ions (B odkin, 2012, 2016; E e s, 2005; Smi h & Lipsky, 1993). Despi e widesp ead ecogni-
ion o his shi , ew s udies ha e examined and cap u ed i s complex ami ica ions on he g ound, especially in
he ield o mig a ion managemen and in he Global Sou h (e.g. Glyniadaki, 2021, In an ino, 2016).
In addi ion o he di e si ica ion o s ee - le el bu eauc a s wo king in a ious sec o s deli e ing ‘di ec ly pol-
icy o people’ (B odkin, 2013, p. 18), he e is a heigh ened ocus on he a ious iden i ies hese bu eauc a s hold.
Acco ding o he heo y o ep esen a i e bu eauc acy (Dolan & Rosenbloom, 2003), when bu eauc a s sha e he
key demog aphic cha ac e is ics wi h he ci izens hey se e (passi e ep esen a ion), hey a e mo e likely o mee
hei needs and in e es s (ac i e ep esen a ion). As such, A ican- Ame ican adminis a o s a e mo e inclined o
be help ul o he A ican- Ame ican communi y (B adbu y & Kellough, 2008) and ha ing a emale ma hs eache
is likely o ha e posi i e e ec s on he ma hs sco es o emale pupils (Keise e al., 2002). In addi ion o ace and
gende , o he iden i y cha ac e is ics ha e also been ound o play a ole, including e hnici y (G issom e al., 2022),
egion (Ri e a, 2016), cul u e (Cohen, 2018) and language (Mu doch e al., 2022).
The case o mig an e u nees pa icipa ing in mig a ion in o ma ion ini ia i es in Senegal p esen s a good
analy ical oppo uni y o examine he linkage be ween passi e and ac i e ep esen a ion a he s ee le el in a
con ex o di e se implemen a ion ac o s, bo h in e ms o sec o s and indi idual iden i ies. Pa ly due o weak
s a e ins i u ions (Pee e s & Campos, 2023) and pa ly due o Eu ope's e o s o ex e nalize mig a ion manage-
men (Moc a , 2022), he e is a s ong p esence o in e na ional o ganiza ions and agencies (e.g. IOM, UNHCR and
FRONTEX) as well as in e na ionally unded NGOs (e.g. Ca i as) in Senegal. These o ganiza ions end o in ol e
s ee - le el bu eauc a s om a di e se ange o backg ounds, including Senegalese mig an e u nees.
The goals and in e es s o some o hese o ganiza ions, howe e , a e no always cong uen wi h he goals and
in e es s o he local popula ion, pa icula ly conce ning u u e mig a ion p ospec s om A ica o Eu ope. In
his conund um, i is unclea whe he mig an e u nees who ake on he ole o ‘messenge s’ a e mo e likely o
ope a e as ep esen a i es o he o ganiza ion hey wo k o o he local popula ion hey a e mean o se e. This
kind o sel - iden i ica ion is ound o play a c ucial ole in whe he o no bu eauc a s make use o hei disc e-
iona y powe o he ad an age o he a ge popula ion, he eby ac i ely ep esen ing hem (Selden e al., 1998).
Conside ing he coun y's his o y o coloniza ion, i is unclea whe he he local popula ion accep he messenge s'
wo ds and ac ions a ace alue o ega d hem wi h suspicion due o hei associa ion wi h o eign o ganisa ions.
This a icle also builds on exis ing esea ch on mig a ion in o ma ion campaigns in Wes A ica. Rele an s ud-
ies ha e discussed he in icacies p esen in he deli e y o hese campaigns. A common heme among hem
4 o 15
|
GLYNIADAKI e al.
conce ns he asymme ical powe dynamics be ween Eu opean policy make s and local popula ions – including
mig an e u nees – and how hese dynamics a e shaped wi hin he cu en pos colonial en i onmen (e.g. Maâ
e al., 2022; Ma ino e al., 2023; Vammen, 2021; Van Dessel, 2023). Ins ances o exploi a ion o mig an e u nees
and ep oduc ion o inequali ies a e p esen ed and discussed in his line o esea ch. Ano he common heme is
he impac and (in)e ec i eness o mig a ion in o ma ion campaigns in e ms o he s a ed goal o dec easing
people's willingness o mig a e i egula ly (Cham & T aune , 2022; Mo gens e n, 2024; Tjaden, 2022; Tjaden &
Dunsch, 2021).
The e is also a hi d heme linked o he p e ious wo, and his is he ocus o his s udy: how misconcep ions
and limi ed unde s anding o he local con ex among policymake s can comp omise he ecep ion o he cam-
paigns' an i- i egula mig a ion message (e.g. Cham, 2024; T aune e al., 2023, 2024). These s udies no e ha local
popula ions a e al eady la gely awa e o he dange s in ol ed in i egula mig a ion and highligh he impo ance
o e e yday ma e ial p essu es which push people o mig a e ega dless, such as lack o economic al e na i es
and lack o egula mig a ion channels (e.g. Tjaden, 2022). They also poin o he long- held belie s and na a i es
p e alen in local communi ies which canno be easily o e idden h ough ex e nally imposed in o ma ion sha ing
e o s (e.g. ‘p edes ina ion hinking’ in The Gambia – Cham, 2024).
Maâ e al. (2022) speci ically ques ion he assump ion o ‘pee ness’ be ween mig an e u nees and local com-
muni ies, highligh ing how he exis ing hie a chies among mig an e u nees, as well as be ween e u nees and
local popula ions, ha e been o e looked by Eu opean policy make s. They sugges ha he assumed pee ness is
no na u ally he e, bu is ei he s aged o pe o med o he pu poses o ansmi ing a message mo e e ec i ely.
Pa adoxically, i is hei in ol emen as ‘pee s’ ha u he di e en ia es mig an messenge s om hei a ge
audience (p. 11). This is simila o he no ion o ep esen a i eness discussed abo e.
Aiming o build u he on his obse a ion, his a icle combines insigh s om he heo e ical amewo ks o
s ee - le el bu eauc acy and ep esen a i e bu eauc acy, as well as om he li e a u e on mig a ion in o ma ion
campaigns. Based on he discussion abo e, he expec a ion is ha mig an messenge s' ep esen a i eness on
he g ound is no he same as he ep esen a i eness imagina ies cons ued by Eu opean policy make s and p o-
g amme dono s. In his a icle, we sc u inize he assumed ep esen a i eness – o ‘pee ness’ – be ween mig an
messenge s and he a ge popula ion. The iews and expe iences o mig an messenge s a e a he ocus o his
analysis, u he en iched by he pe spec i es o o he mig an e u nees and local mig a ion expe s.
CONTEXTUALIZATION OF RETURN MIGRATION TO SENEGAL
Re u n mig a ion o Senegal is a mul i- ace ed phenomenon which a ies g ea ly ac oss indi iduals in e ms
o olun a iness. Some mig an s e u n by choice and independen ly om Eu ope o o he pa s o he wo ld
(Beauchemin e al., 2018; Flahaux, 2015). These indi iduals may do so based on subjec i e ac o s, such as ha ing
achie ed su icien inancial s abili y o build a li elihood back home o eaching e i emen age and wan ing o
spend he emainde o hei li e wi h amily and iends. The e a e also cases, howe e , whe e mig an e u nees
a e depo ed om Eu ope and do no olun a ily e u n o Senegal. This is no a pa icula ly la ge p opo ion o
he o al o mig an e u nees, as he execu ion o o ced e u ns by Eu opean coun ies emains ela i ely low.
Cu en ly, a conside able numbe o mig an e u nees a e making use o assis ed olun a y e u n and e-
in eg a ion p og ammes (AVRR) o Senegal. These e u n p og ammes a e inanced by he Eu opean Union o
Eu opean coun ies and execu ed by he IOM (see Oli ie - Mensah & Fenebe g, 2023 o he case o Ge many).
AVRR p og ammes ha e been c i icized ega ding hei ‘ olun a iness’ because hey p edominan ly a ge mi-
g an s wi h ejec ed asylum claims and low chances o ecei ing esidence pe mi s (Ba els, 2019; Oli ie - Mensah
& Fenebe g, 2023).
Since he 2010s, AVRR has become pa o Eu opean mig a ion managemen s a egies. Included in his g oup
a e mig an s who e u n o Senegal om ansi coun ies in Wes and No h A ica – mos ly om Mo occo, Libya
|
5 o 15
RETURNEES AS (ANTI- )MIGRATION MESSENGERS?
and Nige . In 2017, ollowing a CNN epo abou Wes A icans being sold as sla es in Libya (Elbagi e al., 2017),
a public ou c y o e he inhumane li ing condi ions and lack o sa e y o Wes A icans in Libya p omp ed an
inc ease in assis ed e u ns, especially olun a y humani a ian e u n (VHR), h ough he suppo o he IOM
(Zanke & Al ogge, 2019). A o al o 8761 Senegalese na ionals e u ned o Senegal wi h AVRR and VRH p o-
g ammes be ween 2017 and June 2022 (IOM, 2022). The majo i y o hese e u nees we e men, wi h women
comp ising only 7 pe cen , and he a e age age was 27 (IOM, 2022). Thei main egions o o igin we e Kolda (28
pe cen ), Daka (26 pe cen ) and Tambacounda (13 pe cen ).
The p ocess o e u n mig a ion o Senegal poses nume ous challenges o e u nees. Economic and social
ein eg a ion is di icul and can complica e he decision o e u n. E en i mig an s ab oad o en con empla e
e u ning home, he expec ed challenges may lead o a delayed o inde ini ely pos poned e u n (Riccio, 2006;
Riccio & Degli Ube i, 2013). These economic esponsibili ies and amilial obliga ions can lead mig an s o delay
hei e u n (Sina i, 2011). Gi en ha many Senegalese amilies a e dependen on emi ances, e u ning means
hey can no longe suppo hei amilies o he same ex en hey did while ab oad. Mo eo e , o hose e u n
mig an s who do no decide o olun a ily e u n bu a e ei he depo ed o e u n h ough AVRR p og ammes,
achie ing social ein eg a ion seems daun ing.
The ac o mig a ion, mo e gene ally, is socially and cul u ally embedded. In e egional mig a ion has occu ed
o cen u ies in Wes A ica, and mig a ion om Senegal o Eu ope has been going on o mo e han a cen u y
(Beauchemin e al., 2018; Gie czynski- Bocandé, 2016; Mou e, 2018). This has led o he cons uc ion o collec-
i e imagina ies su ounding mig a ion. Mig a o y imagina ies po ay mig a ion o Eu ope as a oad o success
(S ie , 2021). I mig an s and e u n mig an s a e no able o li e up o he socie al expec a ions linked o his
mig a o y imagina y, hey ace s igma iza ion by hei communi ies, including om hei own amilies (King &
Kuschminde , 2022; Mahe , 2013; S ie & Al ogge, 2024, S ijbosch e al., 2023). Re u n mig an s engaged in
mig a ion in o ma ion ini ia i es he e o e na iga e a social con ex in which mig a ion o Eu ope is po ayed as
success and e u n is o en pe cei ed as ailu e, especially when he e u nee e u ns wi hou subs an ial inancial
esou ces.
METHODS
This s udy uses a quali a i e esea ch me hodology comp ised o in- dep h, semi- s uc u ed in e iews conduc ed
a in e als be ween Oc obe 2019 and Ma ch 2023 in Senegal. These included in e iews wi h 15 mig an mes-
senge s, e e ed o as MM, in ol ed p ima ily in IOM's ‘Mig an s as Messenge s’ campaign o o he bila e ally
unded p og ammes implemen ed by local o in e na ional NGOs (e.g. GIZ). One o hese pa icipan s was no
ac i e as a messenge bu chose o speak abou his mig a ion s o y when p omp ed by membe s o his local com-
muni y. The in e iews ook place ac oss di e en ci ies and egions, including Daka (7), Tambacounda (4) and
o he s (4). We spoke o e u n mig an s who had ei he eached an EU coun y such as I aly, Ge many, F ance
o Spain (7) o a emp ed o bu emained in Libya, Tunisia, Gambia, Mau i ania o Mo occo (8). They we e con-
duc ed in pe son (12) o emo ely ia Zoom, Messenge o Wha sApp (3). Mos in e iews las ed be ween 40
and 60 minu es bu some las ed longe , especially hose conduc ed as small g oup in e iews (6 pa icipan s we e
in e iewed in g oups o 3). Mo eo e , backg ound con e sa ions we e held wi h 7 policy expe s ( e e ed o as
PE) om he ield, such as policy ac i is s, esea che s and ep esen a i es om IOM and GIZ Senegal o ices.
These discussions complemen ed and enhanced ou con ex ual unde s anding, pa icula ly ega ding he policy
landscape wi hin which ou p ojec is si ua ed. We ollowed a pu posi e sampling app oach.
Insigh s om his in e iew da ase we e augmen ed by a subse o in e iews conduc ed o one o he au ho s'
PhD esea ch. This included 5 in- dep h in e iews wi h 8 mig an e u nees om he Sou he n Casamance egion
who had e u ned om Spain (2) o Nige , Benin, Mo occo o Alge ia a e ailed a emp s o each Eu ope (6) and
who had no engaged in any mig a ion in o ma ion ini ia i es. These mig an e u nees a e e e ed o as MR. The
6 o 15
|
GLYNIADAKI e al.
in e iews we e conduc ed in pe son, assis ed by a Senegalese esea che who occasionally ansla ed. Fou mo e
in e iews wi h policy expe s (PE) om in e na ional o ganiza ions o local NGOs we e included. The in e iewees
we e ei he ec ui ed di ec ly h ough hei public p o iles o wi h he assis ance o local Senegalese con ac s.
This esea ch ollowed he e hical guidelines and p inciples es ablished by he au ho s' espec i e esea ch
ins i u ions whe e an explici e hical clea ance was no deemed necessa y o his p ojec . The h ee esea che s
in ol ed a e emale whi e Eu opeans, a ilia ed wi h Eu opean esea ch ins i u ions. Du ing he ieldwo k o his
p ojec , he e we e ins ances whe e he esea che s encoun e ed suspicion om he side o in e iewees, which
pa ly aligns wi h he hema ic ocus o his s udy. The au ho s acknowledge ha hei posi ionali ies may ha e
po en ially impac ed he pa icipan s' esponses.
The 31 in e iews we e conduc ed in F ench, English, Pulaa o Wolo , depending on he language skills and
p e e ence o each pa icipan . In e iews in F ench, English and Wolo we e conduc ed by he esea che s; he
help o a ansla o was used o Pulaa . The in e iews we e ansc ibed and, whe e necessa y, ansla ed. The
in e iew da a was anonymized and hema ic analysis was ollowed (B aun & Cla k, 2006).
FINDINGS
We can iden i y h ee main hemes ela ing o he esea ch ques ions a hand: (a) he selec ion p ocess o mig an
messenge s – om he pe spec i es o he o ganiza ion and he indi idual mig an s, (b) he aining and capaci y-
building p ocess o hose selec ed o mig a ion in o ma ion ini ia i es and (c) mig an messenge s' pe cep ions
o he ecep ion o hei message by he local popula ion, which we b oadly ca ego ize unde ‘accep ance’ and
‘suspicion’.
Mig an e u nees who unde ake he ole o ‘messenge s’ a e no highly ep esen a i e o he popula ion
hey aim o each. The ec ui men p ocess used by hese o ganiza ions ends o a ou speci ic p o iles o mi-
g an e u nees while excluding o he s, based on hese o ganiza ions' p io i ies. Mo eo e , pe o ming he ole o
a ‘messenge ’ equi es unde aking speci ic aining and ollowing a pa icula capaci y- building p ocess, which
also all wi hin a p ede ined ins i u ional logic (Zilbe , 2017). Inad e en ly, hese p ocesses u he inc ease he
dis ance be ween messenge s and locals in e ms o hei social skills, social s a us and, mo e gene ally, hei social
and cul u al capi al (Bou dieu, 1986). While messenge s may o en eel ha hei message is e ec i ely commu-
nica ed, hey also equen ly encoun e mis us , suspicion and gene al opposi ion om he membe s o hei
a ge audience. Gi en he sel - selec ion among hose who e u n, he low le el o ep esen a i eness o mig an
messenge s is also likely o in luence policy ou comes.
Selec ion p ocess
The basic a ionale behind selec ing mig an e u nees as messenge s is ha hey a e locals wi h p e ious mig a-
ion expe ience in o owa ds Eu ope. In e na ional policy expe s conside hem be e placed o con ey he
mig a ion- dissuasion message o hei compa io s han in e na ional o Eu opean s a . Mig an e u nees who
ha e made use o assis ed olun a y e u n, as opposed o hose who ha e been depo ed, a e pe cei ed as espe-
cially sui ed o his messenge ole, as his policy expe explains:
Wha gi es hem his leade ship, his powe , is ha as a young pe son who's ne e been o Eu ope, o
example, I don' know wha 's going on o e he e, wha 's being done o e he e. I only see he good
hings on TV, e c. whe eas his mig an who has been, he's li ed bo h. He's li ed he e, he's li ed he e,
so he knows. This knowledge ha he eally has, his knowledge eally gi es him he abili y o say ‘ oilà’.
(PE05)
|
7 o 15
RETURNEES AS (ANTI- )MIGRATION MESSENGERS?
Only a mino i y o mig an e u nees assume o ole o ‘mig an messenge s’, ei he o IOM's homony-
mous p og amme o o a simila p og amme o ano he o ganiza ion. Wi h ha in mind, we can ques ion why
some e u nees become ‘messenge s’ and o he s do no . Ou esea ch shows ha his is pa ly inciden al and
in luenced by ac o s such as oppo uni y, o which e u nees we e nea by and a ailable when he p og amme
s a ed (PE05):
I was IOM who b ough me he e o Senegal, IOM Mo occo. In Senegal, I'm al eady on hei lis . So,
since hey ha e a MAM [Mig an s as Messenge s] p og am, hey said why no pu me on i since
I' e a elled, and I know a lo abou i egula immig a ion. This is why I joined his MAM p og am.
(MM08)
He in e iewed me and hen he said lis en, we ha e a p ojec called MAM which akes in e u ned
mig an s, bu we' e olun ee s in his p ojec , so i you' e in e es ed, we'll go and aise people's
awa eness. He oo is a e u nee. He explained i o me, and I said i 's a g ea idea.
(MM06)
In hese in e iew ex ac s, mig an messenge s explain ha hei ec ui men in o he p og amme was due o
hei p oximi y o and amilia i y wi h he o ganiza ion o o he e u nees al eady in ol ed. Some had p e iously
made use o IOM's assis ed e u n p og amme, leading o hei iden i ica ion by he o ganiza ion (e.g. MM09 and
MM15). This shows a deg ee o sel - selec ion, as indi iduals who e u n wi h AVRR o VHR p og ammes o ha e
associa ions wi h e u nees a e mo e likely o know abou he possibili y o becoming a olun ee in mig a ion
campaigns by IOM and o he in e na ionally unded o ganiza ions. Due o hei own expe iences, hey a e also
o en mo e inclined o suppo he message discou aging i egula mig a ion and exhibi willingness o sp ead ha
message.
Mig an e u nees who ha e become mig an messenge s end o sha e common a ibu es wi h he local
popula ion – his is why hey a e ec ui ed. In addi ion o na ionali y and ace, hey also sha e aspi a ions o ind
employmen and suppo hei amilies (MM04, 05 and 09). Ha ing a nega i e mig a ion expe ience o sha e is o
cou se a p econdi ion as well:
Well, he e in Senegal, you could say i 's a bi ough. You see you amily, hey don' ha e any hing
o ea , you b o he s and sis e s don' ha e money o go o school.
(MM08, also MM07)
Fo me, i wasn' easy because when I le Senegal o Mo occo, ha 's when I s a ed o s uggle.
I spen some e y di icul days and nigh s, e en in he o es , and a e Mo occo I su e ed oo.
When I was in Eu ope i was he same hing. I su e ed. I spen nigh s in he s ee s. I almos did
all my needs in he s ee s. I wasn' easy. Some imes you mee acism, mis ea men . Too many
di icul ies. [Once I had a i ed in Eu ope], yes, I was expelled. I was expelled.
(MM13)
The e a e also mo e speci ic c i e ia ha o ganiza ions use when hey selec ce ain e u nees o he ‘messen-
ge ’ ole, including a ce ain le el o eloquence and he abili y o exp ess hemsel es and pe suade an audience.
This eme ges h ough he na a i es o bo h adminis a i e employees in ele an IOs and NGOs and hose o
mig an messenge s hemsel es:
8 o 15
|
GLYNIADAKI e al.
The e a e e en hose who did no s udy a all, who did no go o F ench school and who only s udied
he Ko an, bu who a e e y good, who a e eal models, who a e leade s. This is eally wha de e -
mines he choice [ o ec ui hem in o he p og am].
(PE05)
You ha e o know how o alk, how o calm [an anxious] pe son down.
(MM06)
The i s quo e sugges s ha leade ships skills and educa ion cons i u e key c i e ia in selec ing mig an e-
u nees as messenge s. The second, oiced by a mig an messenge , emphasises he impo ance o emo ional
in elligence and in e pe sonal skills, sugges ing ha he ole canno be unde aken o ul illed e ec i ely wi hou
hese quali ies. Conside ing hese expec a ions agains he 58% (F ench) li e acy a e in Senegal in 2022 (Wo ld
Bank, 2024), mig an messenge s may al eady s and ou , no only among he local popula ion bu among mig an
e u nees as well.
These obse a ions abou ep esen a i eness gain u he con ex wi h he jux aposi ion o messenge s' pe -
spec i es wi h hose o mig an e u nees who do no assume a messenge ole. The la e ca ego y o e u nees
eel g ea shame a e u ning wi hou ha ing succeeded, s ongly discou aging hem om sha ing hei mig a ion
s o ies wi h hei communi y:
[When you e u n] people look a you as a ailu e, cu sed. They ha e you a li le only because you' e
come back… Rela ionships wi h amily and iends ha e de e io a ed. We alk e y li le… They look
a you when you go ou , because you ied o lea e and didn' succeed. I he e's someone who
didn' know, hey' e old ha i was [you] who ied o go o Spain and didn' succeed.
(MR06)
I was e y di icul o me and ha 's why I s ayed in Daka o wo yea s be o e coming o he
illage. Since I' e been back, I ha en' been going ou – I spen almos a mon h wi hou lea ing he
house. I has been eally e y di icul .
(MR07)
Unlike hei coun e pa s who assume he ole o messenge s, hese e u nees e ain om ex ensi ely en-
gaging wi h hei compa io s and sha ing hei own mig a ion na a i es, la gely due o he shame and s igma
hey expe ience upon hei e u n. A local mig a ion expe no es ha ‘They don' wan o alk abou i , hey keep
o hemsel es because hey' e ashamed’ (PE07). Addi ional ac o s de e ing hem om joining mig a ion in o -
ma ion ini ia i es and campaigns may be ha hey e u ned o Senegal p io o 2017 when he i s ‘Mig an s as
Messenge s’ p og ammes s a ed o did no encoun e hese p og ammes (e.g. MR18), so hey we e no ec ui ed.
T aining and capaci y building
A e being selec ed, he mig an messenge s ecei e some aining. Th ough such aining and capaci y build-
ing sessions, hey acqui e a ce ain a ay o new pe sonal p o essional skills (MM02, MM04, MM14 and MM15).
These include p ac ical skills (e.g. ideo edi ing), in e pe sonal skills (e.g. public speaking) as well as psychosocial
suppo and pe sonal de elopmen . In doing so, hey di e mo e and mo e om hei compa io s in e ms o
hese skillse s o , pu di e en ly, hei socio- cul u al capi al:
|
15 o 15
RETURNEES AS (ANTI- )MIGRATION MESSENGERS?
Zanke , F. & Al ogge, J. (2019) The poli ical in luence o e u n: om diaspo a o Libyan ansi e u nees. In e na ional
Mig a ion, 57(4), 167–180.
Zilbe , T. (2017) How ins i u ional logics ma e : a bo om- up explo a ion. Resea ch in, how ins i u ional logics ma e : a
bo om-up explo a ion, Eme ald G oup publishing limi ed. The Sociology o O ganiza ions, 48A, 137–156.
How o ci e his a icle: Glyniadaki, K., Ra zmann, N. & S ie , J. (2025) Mig an e u nees as (an i- )
mig a ion messenge s? A case o s ee - le el ep esen a i e bu eauc acy in Senegal. In e na ional
Mig a ion, 63, e13382. A ailable om: h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/imig.13382
