Towards 2030: Sustainable Development Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. A Sociological Perspective

Klimczuk, And zej (Ed.); Ke la, Minela (Ed.); Klimczuk-Kochańska, Magdalena (Ed.);
Toczyski, Pio (Ed.); Do ie, Delali A. (Ed.)
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Towa ds 2030: Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 8: Decen
Wo k and Economic G ow h. A Sociological Pe spec i e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Klimczuk, And zej (Ed.); Ke la, Minela (Ed.); Klimczuk-Kochańska, Magdalena
(Ed.); Toczyski, Pio (Ed.); Do ie, Delali A. (Ed.) (2024) : Towa ds 2030: Sus ainable De elopmen
Goal 8: Decen Wo k and Economic G ow h. A Sociological Pe spec i e, F on ie s Media, Lausanne,
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F on ie s in Sociology
Towa ds 2030:
sus ainable de elopmen
goal 8: decen wo k and
economic g ow h. A
sociological pe spec i e
Sep embe 2024
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ISSN 1664-8714
ISBN 978-2-8325-5486-9
DOI 10.3389/978-2-8325-5486-9
Sep embe 2024
F on ie s in Sociology 2 on ie sin.o g
Towa ds 2030: sus ainable
de elopmen goal 8: decen
wo k and economic g ow h. A
sociological pe spec i e
Topic edi o s
And zej Klimczuk — Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
Minela Ke la — Consul an , Sa aje o, The Associa ion o Online Educa o s,
Bosnia and He zego ina
Magdalena Klimczuk-Kochańska — Uni e si y o Wa saw, Poland
Pio Toczyski — The Ma ia G zego zewska Uni e si y, Poland
Delali A. Do ie — Uni e si y o Ghana, Ghana
Ci a ion
Klimczuk, A., Ke la, M., Klimczuk-Kochańska, M., Toczyski, P., Do ie, D. A., eds. (2024).
Towa ds 2030: sus ainable de elopmen goal 8: decen wo k and economic
g ow h. A sociological pe spec i e. Lausanne: F on ie s Media SA.
doi: 10.3389/978-2-8325-5486-9
Sep embe 2024
F on ie s in Sociology 3 on ie sin.o g
04 Edi o ial: Towa ds 2030: sus ainable de elopmen
goal 8: decen wo k and economic g ow h. A sociological
pe spec i e
And zej Klimczuk, Delali A. Do ie, Minela Ke la,
Magdalena Klimczuk-Kochańska and Pio Toczyski
07 Digi ally Sa y a he Home O ice: Compu e Skills o Olde
Wo ke s Du ing he COVID-19 Pandemic Ac oss Eu ope
Ronny König and Alexande Sei e
19 T ade-O Be ween Schooling and Labo o
Child en: Unde s anding he De e mina i e Fac o s Among
Ru al Households in Bangladesh
Ra iqul Islam and Md Mahmudul Hoque
32 Scaling up social en ep eneu ship o educe
po e y: Explo ing he challenges and oppo uni ies h ough
s akeholde engagemen
Ha i Ha jan o Se iawan, Tauchid Koma a Yuda, Bad un Susan yo,
Muhammad Belanawane Sulube e, Me y Gan i,
Habibullah Habibullah, Muslim Saba isman and Ruaida Mu ni
39 Behind he lexibili y: insu icien occupa ional inju y
p o ec ion o gig wo ke s in China
Xiaoxing Ran and Ying Zhao
47 Closing he academy–Business gap by building in ellec ual
capi al in p o essional o ma ion
Adela M. Vélez-Rolón, Alejand a Pulido López,
Manuel Méndez-Pinzón and Diego Nei a-Be mudez
58 T ans o ma i e communi y p ojec s in Eas Ge many’s u al
spaces: explo ing mo e sus ainable o ms o lea ning,
wo king, and li ing
Joachim B oeche and Jane F. Pain e
65 T ibal women empowe men h ough
en ep eneu ship: e idence om Mayu bhanj Dis ic , Odisha
S. Na een, Jayan a Kuma Pa ida and I ish ee Panda
74 Explo ing he concep s o decen wo k h ough he lens o
SDG 8: add essing challenges and inadequacies
Bianca I eoma Chigbu and Fhulu Nekhwe ha
87 Can COVID-19 ma k a ipping poin o home-based
elewo k? Con lic be ween un ac echnology and igid
ins i u ions in Ko ea
Joonmo Cho, Sanghee Lee and Byungjin Pa k
101 De e minan s o inancial inclusion in households in Pe u
Julio Cesa Quispe Mamani, San o omas Licimaco Aguila Pin o,
Dominga Asunción Calcina Ál a ez, Ma leny Quispe Layme,
Guino Pe cy Gu ie ez Toledo, Gina Tama a Condo i Condo i,
Luis Va gas Espinoza, Wilian Quispe Layme,
Hugo Rubén Ma ca Maque a and Cha les A u o Rosado Chá ez
Table o
con en s

TYPE Edi o ial
PUBLISHED 16 Sep embe 2024
DOI 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487233
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED AND REVIEWED BY
Ca ol S ephenson,
No humb ia Uni e si y, Uni ed Kingdom
*CORRESPONDENCE
And zej Klimczuk
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 27 Augus 2024
ACCEPTED 03 Sep embe 2024
PUBLISHED 16 Sep embe 2024
CITATION
Klimczuk A, Do ie DA, Ke la M,
Klimczuk-Kocha´
nska M and Toczyski P (2024)
Edi o ial: Towa ds 2030: sus ainable
de elopmen goal 8: decen wo k and
economic g ow h. A sociological pe spec i e.
F on . Sociol. 9:1487233.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487233
COPYRIGHT
©2024 Klimczuk, Do ie, Ke la,
Klimczuk-Kocha´
nska and Toczyski. This is an
open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he
e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
License (CC BY). The use, dis ibu ion o
ep oduc ion in o he o ums is pe mi ed,
p o ided he o iginal au ho (s) and he
copy igh owne (s) a e c edi ed and ha he
o iginal publica ion in his jou nal is ci ed, in
acco dance wi h accep ed academic p ac ice.
No use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is
pe mi ed which does no comply wi h hese
e ms.
Edi o ial: Towa ds 2030:
sus ainable de elopmen goal 8:
decen wo k and economic
g ow h. A sociological
pe spec i e
And zej Klimczuk1*, Delali A. Do ie2, Minela Ke la3,
Magdalena Klimczuk-Kocha´
nska4and Pio Toczyski5
1Depa men o Social Policy, Collegium o Socio-Economics, SGH Wa saw School o Economics,
Wa saw, Poland, 2Cen e o Ageing S udies, College o Humani ies, Uni e si y o Ghana, Acc a, Ghana,
3The Associa ion o Online Educa o s, Sa aje o, Bosnia and He zego ina, 4Facul y o Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Wa saw, Poland, 5Media and Communica ion Depa men , Ins i u e o
Philosophy and Sociology, The Ma ia G zego zewska Uni e si y, Wa saw, Poland
KEYWORDS
SDG8, unemploymen , labo -ma ke issues, social insu ance, wo king poo , p eca i y,
emo e wo k
Edi o ial on he Resea ch Topic
Towa ds 2030: sus ainable de elopmen goal 8: decen wo k and
economic g ow h. A sociological pe spec i e
O e iew
This Resea ch Topic explo es Sus ainable De elopmen Goal (SDG) eigh , which is
o “p omo e sus ained, inclusi e, and sus ainable economic g ow h, ull and p oduc i e
employmen , and decen wo k o all.” I highligh s he COVID-19 pandemic’s se e e
impac and igge ed global economic ecession, wo sened gende pay gaps, inc eased
undecla ed employmen , and signi ican ly aised unemploymen (Uni ed Na ions, 2024).
F om a sociology-speci ic pe spec i e, his Resea ch Topic examines he global and local
implemen a ion o SDG8, i s adap a ion o di e en geog aphical con ex s, s akeholde
in ol emen , and issues ela ed o decen wo k condi ions wo ldwide.
The Resea ch Topic was edi ed in coope a ion wi h wo jou nals: “F on ie s in
Sociology” and “F on ie s in Public Heal h.” The Resea ch Topic con ains en a icles by 38
au ho s in: Bangladesh, China, Colombia, Ge many, India, Indonesia, Pe u, he Republic o
Ko ea, Sou h A ica, Swi ze land, and he Uni ed S a es. Fou ypes o a icles a e included:
se en o iginal esea ch a icles (Cho e al.;Islam and Hoque;König and Sei e ;Na een
e al.;Quispe Mamani e al.;Ran and Zhao;Vélez-Rolón e al.), one e iew a icle (Chigbu
and Nekhwe ha), one pe spec i e a icle (B oeche and Pain e ), and one opinion a icle
(Se iawan e al.). This Resea ch Topic deals wi h, among o he s, elewo k, digi al skills,
educa ion, en ep eneu ship, gig economy, in ellec ual capi al, and wo k-li e balance. The
Resea ch Topic o a icles is o ganized acco ding o h ee hemes.
F on ie s in Sociology 01 on ie sin.o g
4
Klimczuk e al. 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487233
Theme I: ans o ma ions in he
mode n wo k o ce
The pape s s a wi h Chigbu and Nekhwe ha, who ocus on
p omo ing decen wo k and sus ainable economic g ow h wi hin
SDG8. The au ho s a gue ha his goal equi es add essing gende
inequali y, ma ke economy consequences, in o mal sec o oles,
and en i onmen al sus ainabili y. The p esen ed esea ch c i ically
e iews 108 pape s, e ealing pe sis en gende biases, income
dispa i ies, insecu e wo king condi ions, and insu icien suppo
o in o mal wo ke s, highligh ing gaps in achie ing inclusi e
and sus ainable g ow h. The indings emphasize he impo ance
o ai , sa e, and secu e employmen oppo uni ies o suppo
economic g ow h and uphold wo ke s’ igh s. In he ollowing
a icle, Cho e al., based on a Sou h Ko ean case, in oduce ecen
changes ela ed o home-based elewo k ha has changed apidly
due o he COVID-19 pandemic, necessi a ing adjus men s in
p oduc i i y, e alua ions, and employmen ules as pe he Ko ean
Labo S anda ds Ac . This s udy unde lines he need o socie al
and ins i u ional shi s, including legal and o ganiza ional changes,
o sus ain pos -pandemic emo e wo k and op imize i s dynamics
o u u e ad ancemen s. König and Sei e con inue discussing his
subjec by ocusing on digi al skills. Suppo o hei de elopmen
has become e en mo e c i ical du ing he pandemic, especially
o olde employees wo king om home, al hough many s ill
ha e lowe digi al p o iciency. This esea ch ound ha , among
o he s, olde wo ke s expanded hei compu e skills du ing he
pandemic. Ran and Zhao ocus on ano he unexpec ed pandemic
e ec : he g owing impo ance o occupa ional inju y p o ec ion o
gig wo ke s in China. The au ho s show ha he cu en measu es
a e insu icien due o hei exclusion om adi ional employee
bene i s. This s udy con ibu es ideas o e o ming wo k- ela ed
inju y insu ance o be e p o ec gig wo ke s, o e ing insigh s ha
may also bene i o he coun ies.
Theme II: challenges o b idging gaps
be ween educa ion and employmen
Islam and Hoque’s s udy on he ade-o be ween schooling
and labo o child en in u al Bangladesh opens he nex sec ion.
This esea ch inds ha subsis ence needs, labo demand, and
pa en al occupa ion in luence decisions o p io i ize wo k o e
educa ion. Addi ionally, ac o s such as sexual di ision o labo ,
c edi cons ain s, and cul u al belie s nega i ely impac pa en s’
decisions ega ding child schooling, sugges ing ha in e en ions
mus conside hese socio-economic and cul u al ac o s. The
eam o Vélez-Rolón e al., in hei esea ch, ocused on ano he
example o he ela ionship be ween educa ion and employmen .
The au ho s a gue ha apid echnological ad ances and global
challenges, including he COVID-19 pandemic, unde sco e he
need o educa ional models ha enhance employabili y and
economic g ow h. The s udy conduc ed in Colombia shows ha
combining academic and company lea ning spaces helps close gaps
and p omo e economic g ow h by de eloping in ellec ual capi al,
emphasizing decision-making, in e o ganiza ional coo dina ion,
and knowledge sha ing. Quispe Mamani e al. show ha educa ion
is c ucial o inancial inclusion in Pe u. Financial inclusion is
unde s ood as access o quali y inancial se ices, essen ial o
le e aging global oppo uni ies o households and companies.
The las pape in his sec ion by B oeche and Pain e unde lines
he po en ial o c ea ing sel -de e mined, heal hy, and sus ainable
o ms o wo king, lea ning, and li ing h ough a ans o ma i e
communi y p ojec ini ia ed in Eas e n Ge many. The in es iga ed
ini ia i e in eg a es componen s such as sel -di ec ed educa ion
and uncondi ional basic income, aiming o os e ac i e ci il socie y
and imp o e condi ions o child en and young people, wi h
po en ial o widesp ead applica ion in u al and u ban a eas.
Theme III: empowe ing communi ies
h ough en ep eneu ship and
s akeholde engagemen
The inal sec ion ocuses on wo case s udies o ac ions owa d
suppo ing speci ic communi ies. Na een e al. concen a ed hei
s udies on empowe ing ibal women h ough en ep eneu ship.
The au ho s a gue ha pa icula p og ams can enhance hei
economic and social iabili y. The s udy sugges s inc easing
go e nmen and o ganiza ional ini ia i es o imp o e women’s
educa ion and inancial capaci y o s a new en e p ises, he eby
boos ing hei decision-making powe wi hin hei amilies.
The eam o Se iawan e al. p o ides ano he example based
on he scaling up o social en ep eneu ship. The au ho s
claim ha s akeholde engagemen is c ucial in Indonesia’s
s a e-d i en p og ams o educe po e y and combine business
and social dimensions o imp o e economic wel a e. The
esea ch shows ha in ol ing s a e and non-s a e ac o s
enhances inno a ion, employmen oppo uni ies, and access
o capi al, ul ima ely leading o sus ainable de elopmen and
po e y alle ia ion.
Conclusion
The esul s in he Resea ch Topic o a icles enable he
iden i ica ion o i e di ec ions o u he esea ch, namely: (1) he
e ec s o he lack o decen jobs and weak social insu ance schemes
(see Chen and Ca é, 2020); (2) ecen echnological changes in he
wo ld o wo k ela ed o au oma ion and obo ics (see Vos e al.,
2023); (3) new o ms and models o employmen and educa ion
esponding o mega ends including popula ion aging, clima e
change, and dissemina ion o a i icial in elligence (see Pos epska,
2022); (4) anspa en , lexible, and p edic able legal employmen
amewo ks de elopmen (see Gyula á i and Menega i, 2022);
and (5) de elopmen -o ien ed policies and employmen se ices
suppo ing decen job c ea ion and en ep eneu ship (see Shabbi ,
2023).
Au ho con ibu ions
AK: Concep ualiza ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, P ojec
adminis a ion, Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing – o iginal d a ,
W i ing – e iew & edi ing. DD: Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing –
F on ie s in Sociology 02 on ie sin.o g
5
Klimczuk e al. 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487233
e iew & edi ing. MK: Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing – e iew &
edi ing. MK-K: Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
PT: Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
Funding
The au ho (s) decla e ha no inancial suppo was ecei ed o
he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle.
Acknowledgmen s
We wan o hank all he au ho s and e iewe s who
con ibu ed o he p esen ed a icle Resea ch Topic, o hei
dedica ion o ou Resea ch Topic and o sha ing hei knowledge
and ime. We a e also g a e ul o he always help ul F on ie s eam,
whose o ganiza ional skills and unde s anding made his Resea ch
Topic possible.
Conflic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could be
cons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
The au ho (s) decla ed ha hey we e an edi o ial boa d
membe o F on ie s, a he ime o submission. This had no impac
on he pee e iew p ocess and he inal decision.
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he
au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
Re e ences
Chen, M. A., and Ca é, F. J. (eds.). (2020). The In o mal Economy Re isi ed:
Examining he Pas , En isioning he Fu u e. Abingdon, OX; New Yo k, NY: Rou ledge.
Gyula á i, T., and Menega i, E. (eds.). (2022). Decen Wo k in
he Digi al Age: Eu opean and Compa a i e Pe spec i es. Ox o d:
Ha Publishing.
Pos epska, A. (2022). “O e iew o non-s anda d wo k a angemen s,” in The
Digi al Economy and he Eu opean Labou Ma ke , ed. M. U baniec (London:
Rou ledge), 147–158.
Shabbi , M. S. (2023). Explo ing he ela ionship be ween sus ainable
en ep eneu ship and he Uni ed Na ions sus ainable de elopmen goals: a
comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew. Sus ain. De . 31, 3070–3085. doi: 10.1002/sd.2570
Uni ed Na ions (2024). The Sus ainable De elopmen Goals Repo 2024. New Yo k,
NY: Uni ed Na ions.
Vos, M., de Ande son, G., and Ve hulp, E. (eds.). (2023). The Camb idge Handbook
o Technological Dis up ion in Labou and Employmen Law. Camb idge; New Yo k,
NY: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess.
F on ie s in Sociology 03 on ie sin.o g
6
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 26 Ap il 2022
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2022.858052
F on ie s in Sociology | www. on ie sin.o g 1Ap il 2022 | Volume 7 | A icle 858052
Edi ed by:
Magdalena Klimczuk-Kocha ´
nska,
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Poland
Re iewed by:
Anna Wanka,
Goe he Uni e si y F ank u , Ge many
Lu z Bellmann,
Ins i u e o Employmen Resea ch
(IAB), Ge many
No a G ay-Ga iazzo,
Gab iela Mis al Uni e si y, Chile
Aine Ni Leime,
Na ional Uni e si y o I eland
Galway, I eland
Hans-We ne Wahl,
Heidelbe g Uni e si y, Ge many
*Co espondence:
Ronny König
[email p o ec ed]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Wo k, Employmen and O ganiza ions,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Sociology
Recei ed: 19 Janua y 2022
Accep ed: 29 Ma ch 2022
Published: 26 Ap il 2022
Ci a ion:
König R and Sei e A (2022) Digi ally
Sa y a he Home O ice: Compu e
Skills o Olde Wo ke s Du ing he
COVID-19 Pandemic Ac oss Eu ope.
F on . Sociol. 7:858052.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2022.858052
Digi ally Sa y a he Home O ice:
Compu e Skills o Olde Wo ke s
Du ing he COVID-19 Pandemic
Ac oss Eu ope
Ronny König1*and Alexande Sei e 1,2
1Depa men o Sociology, Uni e si y o Zu ich, Zu ich, Swi ze land, 2Ins i u e o In eg a ion and Pa icipa ion, School o
Social Wo k, Uni e si y o Applied Sciences and A s No hwes e n Swi ze land, Ol en, Swi ze land
Digi al skills can be a aluable esou ce in wo k li e, especially in such imes as he
cu en COVID-19 pandemic, du ing which wo king om home has become new eali y.
Al hough inc easing numbe s o olde employees (aged 50 yea s and abo e) a e using
digi al echnologies o wo k emo ely, many o hese olde adul s s ill ha e gene ally lowe
digi al skills. Whe he he pandemic will be a push ac o o he acquisi ion o compu e
skills in la e wo king li e emains unclea . This s udy in es iga ed he explana o y ac o s
o he compu e skills gained by olde wo ke s who we e wo king om home du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic, using ep esen a i e da a o 28 coun ies om he Su ey o
Heal h, Aging and Re i emen in Eu ope (SHARE). The analysis o he su ey esponses
o 11,042 employed pe sons aged 50 yea s and olde e ealed ha , 13% wo ked only
a home due o he pandemic, while 15% said hey wo ked a home and in hei usual
wo kplace. The desc ip i es indica e ha ull- ime homewo king is mo e o an op ion
among hose wi h e ia y educa ion and who al eady ha e some compu e skills. O
he olde employees who wo ked only a home, 36% epo ed an imp o emen in hei
compu e skills, whe eas o he olde wo ke s who wo ked a home and a hei usual
wo kplaces, only 29% epo ed such an imp o emen . Ou esul s based on logis ic
eg essions sugges ha signi ican ly mo e women, younge employees, esponden s
wi h e ia y educa ional quali ica ions, and hose whose wo k was no a ec ed by
unemploymen o e en business closu e acqui ed new compu e skills, ega dless o
whe he hey we e wo king pe manen ly o only pa ly om home. The s udy unde lines
he impo ance o in es iga ing he possible digi al skills gained om he home o ice
si ua ion esul ing om he pandemic.
Keywo ds: home o ice, co ona, COVID-19, digi al skills, Eu ope, olde adul s, SHARE
INTRODUCTION
The digi aliza ion o socie y yields oppo uni ies o main ain daily li e ac i i ies (e.g.,
online classes, shopping, medical consul a ion) and s ay engaged wi h social ies, e en
in he mids o a pandemic. Howe e , o indi iduals who a e no adep a using
echnology o ha e di icul y adap ing o echnological inno a ions, li ing in a digi alized
socie y may be p oblema ic (Lup on, 2015). Fu he , many people in la e adul hood do
7
König and Sei e Digi ally Sa y a he Home O ice
TABLE 3 | In e ac ions be ween de e minan s o imp o ed compu e skills.
M8 OR P SE M9 OR P SE
Wo ked a home only Wo kload Na ional b oadband
access
Wo kload
No (Re .) Unchanged (Re .) Medium (Re .) Unchanged (Re .)
No Reduced 1.11 0.469 0.16 Medium Reduced 1.72 0.001 0.29
No Inc eased 2.06 0.000 0.32 Medium Inc eased 1.90 0.001 0.38
Yes Unchanged 1.26 0.026 0.13 Low Unchanged 1.22 0.186 0.19
Yes Reduced 1.63 0.000 0.21 Low Reduced 1.14 0.493 0.22
Yes Inc eased 2.54 0.000 0.36 Low Inc eased 3.51 0.000 0.76
High Unchanged 1.32 0.029 0.17
High Reduced 1.46 0.020 0.24
High Inc eased 2.35 0.000 0.40
N3,197 N3,197
Nagelke ke’s R20.104 Nagelke ke’s R20.107
Model c-s a is ic 0.687 Model c-s a is ic 0.690
Wo ked a home only Sex Na ional b oadband
access
Sex
No (Re .) Male (Re .) Medium (Re .) Male (Re .)
No Female 1.48 0.001 0.17 Medium Female 1.95 0.000 0.30
Yes Male 1.12 0.357 0.14 Low Male 1.45 0.040 0.26
Yes Female 2.12 0.000 0.23 Low Female 1.85 0.000 0.29
High Male 1.22 0.176 0.18
High Female 2.14 0.000 0.30
N 3,197 N 3,197
Nagelke ke’s R20.104 Nagelke ke’s R20.105
Model c-s a is ic 0.687 Model c-s a is ic 0.688
Wo ked a home only Te ia y
educa ion
Na ional b oadband
access
Te ia y
educa ion
No (Re .) No (Re .) Medium (Re .) No (Re .)
No Yes 2.02 0.000 0.26 Medium Yes 1.30 0.086 0.20
Yes No 1.28 0.084 0.19 Low No 0.84 0.377 0.17
Yes Yes 2.63 0.000 0.33 Low Yes 1.69 0.001 0.26
High No 0.69 0.021 0.11
High Yes 1.92 0.000 0.26
N3,197 N 3,197
Nagelke ke’s R20.104 Nagelke ke’s R20.108
Model c-s a is ic 0.687 Model c-s a is ic 0.691
Wo ked a home only Na ional
b oadband
access
Na ional b oadband
access
Wo ked a home
only
No (Re .) Medium
(Re .)
Medium (Re .) No (Re .)
No Low 1.11 0.532 0.19 Medium Yes 1.50 0.008 0.23
No High 1.36 0.033 0.19 Low No 1.11 0.532 0.19
Yes Medium 1.50 0.008 0.23 Low Yes 1.68 0.001 0.27
Yes Low 1.68 0.001 0.27 High No 1.36 0.033 0.19
Yes High 1.51 0.004 0.22 High Yes 1.51 0.004 0.22
N3,197 N3,197
Nagelke ke’s R20.105 Nagelke ke’s R20.105
Model c-s a is ic 0.688 Model c-s a is ic 0.688
Da a sou ces: Su ey o Heal h, Aging and Re i emen in Eu ope (SHARE), wa e 8, COVID-19 Su ey 1, elease 8.0.0, sepa a e logis ic eg essions (models unde con ol o all a iables
included in M6 o Table 2), odds a ios (OR), P alue (P), obus s anda d e o s (SE), e e ences (Re .), signi ican coe icien s (p ≤0.100) a e displayed bold, own calcula ions.
F on ie s in Sociology | www. on ie sin.o g 8Ap il 2022 | Volume 7 | A icle 858052
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König and Sei e Digi ally Sa y a he Home O ice
seemingly con adic o y esul s. Fi s , esponden s who ecen ly
el (inc easingly) ne ous, anxious, o on edge we e likelie o
gain new compu e skills du ing his phase o he pandemic in
compa ison o hose who had no such eelings. Second, we ound
he same pa e n o a gain in compu e skills o employees who
had upli ing expe iences du ing he ou b eak ha ga e hem
inspi a ion o happiness, and hose who said hey we e looking
o wa d o he ime when COVID-19 would aba e in con as
o esponden s who did no epo such posi i e expe iences
o expec a ions.
Model 5 con olled o he esponden s’ demog aphics
and li ing condi ions. I showed ha women in pa icula
expe ienced imp o ed compu e skills om wo king om home.
The younge among he olde gene a ion epo ed he same.
Fu he , hose wi h e ia y educa ion deg ees we e also mo e
likely o epo imp o ed compu e skills du ing he pandemic.
We ound no in luence o mig a ion o he cu en li ing
si ua ion on changed compu e skills. The esponden s’ yea s
o bi h and sex in luenced hei sel - epo ed imp o emen in
compu e skills in wo ways: wi h a loss and wi h a gain. In
line wi h p e ious indings (see o example, Fo e sko e al.,
2018; Kamin and Lang, 2020), his can be a ibu ed o he
na u al decline in cogni i e abili ies wi h age and o he ac ha
he women unde in es iga ion achie ed—despi e a simila age
dis ibu ion—highe cogni ion sco es han men ( - es signi ican
a he p=0.001 le el). Howe e , employees whose wo king hou s
we e educed due o he pandemic we e now also mo e likely o
epo ha hey had acqui ed new compu e skills. This pa e n
applies mainly o younge employees wi h e ia y quali ica ions.
Model 6 conside ed he coun y-speci ic dis ibu ion o
b oadband in e ne access. Whe eas, he g oss e ec indica ed
imp o ed compu e skills o esponden s li ing in coun ies
wi h na ional b oadband access below and abo e he Eu opean
a e age, he analysis ha co e ed all ele an indica o s
unde lined ha he di ec ion o his pa e n emained ue bu
simul aneously los i s signi icance.
Based on hese indings and o in es iga e di e en
mechanisms depending on he ype o homewo king
expe ienced, we es ed he model speci ied unde M6 sepa a ely
o employees who wo ked pa ially (M7-1) o en i ely (M7-2)
a home. O e all, he esul s con i med he p e iously ound
mechanisms and poin ed ou ha women, younge employees,
hose who a e highly educa ed, and hose whose wo k was no
a ec ed by unemploymen , layo s, o e en business closu es
acqui ed new compu e skills signi ican ly mo e o en, ega dless
o whe he hey wo ked en i ely o pa ly om home.
Howe e , we simul aneously ound di e ences depending
on he ype and ex en o homewo king. Pa ial homewo king
esponden s who inc eased hei wo king ime as a esul o
he pandemic as well as hose, who showed inc eased eelings
o ne ousness o anxie y we e likelie o ha e lea ned new
compu e skills since he ou b eak. The same ou come was
obse ed wi h esponden s, who wo ked pa ially a home and
who esided in one o he en coun ies wi h a gene ally highe
in e ne dis ibu ion such as Cyp us, Denma k, Es onia, Finland,
Ge many, Luxembou g, he Ne he lands, Spain, Sweden, and
Swi ze land. A simila inc ease in compu e knowledge was seen
among ull- ime homewo ke s, especially hose whose egula
wo king hou s had o be ei he educed o inc eased, hose who
al eady had in-dep h IT skills be o e he pandemic, and hose
who had no p io mig a ion expe iences and hus belonged o
he na i e popula ion. The esul s u he showed no in luence
om he na ional in e ne in as uc u e on he acquisi ion o
new compu e skills o hose who we e wo king ull ime
a home.
Based on hese indings and o cap u e a b oade pic u e o he
e ec s o he ype o homewo king (M8) and na ional b oadband
access (M9) on imp o ed compu e skills, we included
se e al in e ac ion e ms o changed wo kload, educa ional
backg ound, and sex as indica o s o each combina ion o he
ca ego ies o he a iables used in he equa ion (Table 3).
He e, he esul s e ealed ha esponden s who had
wo ked en i ely a home since he ou b eak o COVID-
19 we e mo e likely o epo an imp o emen in hei
compu e skills. The same applies o pa ial homewo ke s
who inc eased hei wo kload since he sp ead o co ona i us.
A simila e ec could be ound ega ding he in e ac ion
be ween na ional b oadband access and wo kload o hose
om coun ies wi h an o e all be e ICT in as uc u e.
Howe e , esponden s om Bulga ia, C oa ia, Is ael, F ance,
G eece, La ia, Li huania, Poland, Po ugal, Romania, and Slo ak
Republic who li ed in coun ies wi h a below a e age dis ibu ion
o b oadband access bu who inc eased hei egula wo king
hou s could also bene i om imp o ed compu e skills. The
same applies o employees om coun ies wi h “medium”
na ional b oadband access (Aus ia, Belgium, Czech Republic,
Hunga y, I aly, Slo enia, and Mal a) who ei he inc eased o
educed hei wo kload.
Rega ding sex-speci ic di e ences, he included in e ac ions
highligh ha women in gene al we e mo e able o imp o e hei
compu e skills since he ou b eak o he pandemic, ega dless o
hei wo king si ua ion (pa ial o en i ely a home) and coun y
o esidence. Among men, only hose om coun ies wi h below-
a e age ICT in as uc u e epo ed an imp o emen in hei
compu e knowledge.
A simila pic u e was obse ed o highly educa ed employees.
In compa ison o esponden s wi hou e ia y quali ica ions,
hose wi h e ia y c eden ials epo ed imp o ed compu e
skills signi ican ly mo e o en, ega dless o hei wo king
en i onmen (en i ely o pa ially a home) o coun y. Howe e ,
o esponden s wi h non- e ia y educa ion, he esul s indica e
ha hei compu e skills also imp o ed i hey wo ked en i ely
a home. Simul aneously, employees wi h non- e ia y educa ion
bu li ing in coun ies wi h “high” na ional b oadband access
we e signi ican ly less likely o inc ease hei compu e skills
du ing his phase o he pandemic.
Finally, he in e ac ion be ween he ype o homewo king
(pa ially o en i ely) and coun y-speci ic in e ne access showed
ha , in gene al, esponden s who we e pe manen ly wo king a
home signi ican ly mo e o en imp o ed hei compu e skills,
ega dless o he ICT in as uc u e in hei coun y. Only in
coun ies wi h a compa a i ely abo e-a e age a ailabili y o high-
speed in e ne does he ype o homewo king play no ole in
lea ning new skills in la e li e.
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König and Sei e Digi ally Sa y a he Home O ice
DISCUSSION
Ou analysis showed ha only 12% o he esponden s wo ked
ull ime a home due o he COVID-19 es ic ions, while 15%
wo ked pa ly om home and pa ly a hei usual wo kplace.
The desc ip i es indica e ha ull- ime homewo king was mo e
common among hose wi h e ia y educa ion and who al eady
had excellen compu e skills be o e he pandemic. The e o e,
wo king om home was no an op ion o each olde wo ke ,
which unde lines he possible social inequali y o elewo k
(Sos e o e al., 2020).
O e all, he majo i y o he olde wo ke s who we e wo king
om home did no epo acqui ing new compu e skills.
Howe e , mo e o hose who wo ked ull ime om home
epo ed ha hey acqui ed new compu e skills han hose who
wo ked only pa ly om home. This e eals a ce ain “digi al
push” among he olde wo ke s who we e wo king om home
(Gallis l e al., 2021). Such a digi al push sugges s an inc ease
in digi al use and skills due o COVID-19 home- ela ed use o
ICT (e.g., he in e ne ) o wo k o social in e ac ions (e.g., ideo
calls wi h amily membe s). Amankwah-Amoah e al. (2021)
also desc ibed COVID-19 as “ he g ea accele a o ,” ha ing as -
acked he exis ing global end owa d emb acing mode n
echnologies and ha ing ushe ed in ans o ma ions in wo k li e
(Amankwah-Amoah e al., 2021).
Agains he backg ound o he concep o “digi al capi al”
(Pa k, 2017; Ragnedda, 2018), ou analyses highligh an inc ease
in digi al capi al, in his case, in compu e skills, o some ex en
ela ed o homewo king due o COVID-19. These new compu e
skills can be unde s ood as new esou ces o he digi ally
o ien ed u u e wo k o olde wo ke s aged 50 yea s and olde ,
and hus as en iching hei digi al capi al se , which will open up
o hem be e oppo uni ies in he labo ma ke e en a e he
COVID-19 pandemic (Milasi e al., 2021).
Ne e heless, no all olde wo ke s epo ed an inc ease
in compu e skills du ing COVID-19- ela ed homewo king.
In ac , he esul s highligh ha hose wi h ew o some
digi al expe iences especially bene i ed om imp o ed compu e
skills h ough pandemic- ela ed homewo king compa ed o
olde adul s wi h al eady excellen compu e skills be o e
he pandemic.
O e all, he esul s poin ou ha women, younge
esponden s, employees wi h e ia y educa ion, and hose
whose wo k was no a ec ed by unemploymen , layo s, o
e en business closu e acqui ed new compu e skills signi ican ly
mo e o en, ega dless o whe he hey wo ked en i ely o pa ly
om home. The esul s u he showed ha hose who wo ked
only pa ly a home we e less able o imp o e hei compu e
skills han hose who swi ched comple ely o wo k om home.
Mo eo e , he p e iously ecu ing di e ence be ween men and
women in he obse ed age g oup in e ms o echnology use
(König and Sei e , 2020) was appa en ly na owed wi h he
pandemic, as women showed a highe inc ease in compu e skills
du ing he pandemic and ega dless o whe he hey wo ked
en i ely o pa ially om home and ega dless o hei coun y o
esidence. The e o e, he pandemic can be seen as a push ac o
in acqui ing compu e skills in la e wo king li e, especially o
women. Howe e , o o e come he digi al gap among olde
wo ke s, i is impo an o in es in aining o inc ease digi al
capi al, e en a e he pandemic (C os e al., 2021). This also
includes a u he expansion o he in e ne in as uc u e o
gua an ee adequa e use o e e yone—e en beyond a pandemic.
E en i wo king om home is no possible o some olde
wo ke s, he cu en pandemic has shown ha new compu e
skills a e impo an in main aining employmen emo ely and
e en non- emo ely in old age, wi hin he cu en scena io,
bu e en mo e so in he u u e, in which e e yone’s wo k
is expec ed o be digi ally domina ed. Agains he expec ed
accele a ed de elopmen o new echnologies, olde wo ke s
can emain employed and be empowe ed o cope wi h new
wo k- ela ed digi al challenges i hey a e able o use such
echnologies. Ge ing olde adul s o use ICT is one challenge,
bu once hey a e al eady using, o example, wo k- ela ed new
so wa e, ge ing hem o con inue using o he ICTs is ano he
challenge. Main aining he use o digi al de ices by olde adul s
is an unde s udied bu c i ical a ea o u u e esea ch. When
ICTs s op wo king p ope ly, need epai s, equi e so wa e,
and passwo d upda es, and change hei layou and appea ance
h ough so wa e in e ace upda es, some olde adul s may no
be able o keep using hem o e ime (Hous on e al., 2019).
Du ing such imes, olde adul s may need assis ance om IT
p o essionals in hei wo kplace o om hei social ies o esol e
IT issues and con inue using he echnology (Kamin e al., 2020).
I hese sou ces o suppo a e no a ailable, olde adul s may end
up using he echnology less equen ly o no a all (König and
Sei e , 2020). Al hough he cu en pandemic mo i a ed olde
wo ke s o lea n new compu e skills, he e is a need o a ge ed
unding and p og ams o mee he needs o hese indi iduals o
emain connec ed o he labo ma ke . This is i al because nea ly
all occupa ions a e inc easingly equi ing digi al skills, including
hose ha ha e no adi ionally equi ed hem, and emo e wo k
is becoming mo e common (Hecke e al., 2021).
As people aged 50–60 yea s g ow olde , i will be in e es ing
o see how hei echnology use e ol es as new ICTs con inue
o be de eloped and dissemina ed and whe he hey will be
able o main ain hei usage o a ious ypes o wo k- ela ed
ICT. Technology is cons an ly e ol ing; he as -paced na u e
o echnology de elopmen lea es esea che s wi h he challenge
o s aying ab eas o he la es de elopmen s in echnology and
how i s use is e ol ing o e ime. This also con ibu es o he
limi ed unde s anding o he impac s o echnology use on olde
adul s and how o main ain hei use o such echnology o e
ime. In e disciplina y esea ch, as well as coope a i e s udies
be ween echnology de elope s and esea che s in he sociology
and business domains, will be needed in he u u e o mo e
ully comp ehend he many ways in which olde adul s use ICT,
how hei ICT use waxes and wanes o e ime, and he complex
pa hways h ough which ICT use may ha e an impac on olde
adul s’ wo king li es, e en a e he COVID-19 pandemic.
Limi a ions
As his s udy ocused on Eu ope, ou indings may ha e limi ed
gene alizabili y ou side o Eu ope. Mo eo e , ou dependen
a iable was limi ed (i.e., he e was no in o ma ion on a eas,
o ms, and le els o compu e skills), as no all possible ace s
o digi al skills gained du ing he pandemic could be conside ed.
F on ie s in Sociology | www. on ie sin.o g 10 Ap il 2022 | Volume 7 | A icle 858052
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König and Sei e Digi ally Sa y a he Home O ice
Hence, u u e s udies a e needed o measu e in g ea e de ail he
compu e skills (objec i ely and subjec i ely) o olde wo ke s
in hei home o ices and he changes o s abili y o such skills
o e ime.
Al hough he SHARE da a allowed us o in es iga e an
imp o emen in digi al skills in a a ie y o Eu opean coun ies,
especially among olde adul s, he in o ma ion is limi ed o
employees whose p o ession and employe allowed hem o
swi ch o a home o ice in he wake o he pandemic. In
addi ion o his limi a ion o a ce ain pa o he wo k o ce,
he su ey also lacked se e al impo an a iables, such as
echnology biog aphies, a i udes owa d echnology, echnology
accep ance, he use o echnology in he household, and easons
o non-use. Mo eo e , he SHARE da ase used does no allow
he di e en ia ion be ween wo k loca ions and hei echnical
amewo ks, equi emen s (e.g., equi ed employee skills), o in-
house compu e aining p o ided. Fu he mo e, we do no know
abou he esponden s’ use o con inuing educa ion se ices o
ools o build hei digi al skills du ing he pandemic. Fu u e
s udies wi h ep esen a i e da a should ocus on longi udinal
se ings o in es iga e mo e deeply he ac o s ha in luence he
acquisi ion o digi al skills and he educa ional needs o olde
adul s in la e wo king li e.
CONCLUSION
Fo he Eu opean coun ies included in his s udy, ou indings
e ealed a conside able pandemic- ela ed inc ease in compu e
skills among wo ke s aged 50 yea s and olde while wo king
om home due o he wo ldwide COVID-19 pandemic. Such an
inc ease in compu e skills was obse ed, especially o women
and among people who al eady had some compu e skills be o e
he pandemic. Fu he mo e, he inc eases in compu e skills
we e d i en by socioeconomic and wo k- ela ed condi ions.
E en hough he COVID-19 pandemic has, o some ex en ,
inc eased he “digi al capi al” o olde ( emale) employees,
wo k- ela ed in e en ions (such as compu e skills aining
among olde wo ke s) should be pu sued o u he p omo e
he digi al skills o wo ke s o p epa e hem o emo e
wo k and, gene ally, o he digi al ans o ma ion o wo k in
he u u e.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Publicly a ailable da ase s we e analyzed in his s udy. This da a
can be ound he e: h p://www.sha e-p ojec .o g/.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
All au ho s lis ed made subs an ial, di ec , and
in ellec ual con ibu ions o he wo k and app o ed i
o publica ion.
FUNDING
The SHARE da a collec ion has been unded by he Eu opean
Commission, DG RTD h ough FP5 (QLK6-CT-2001-00360),
FP6 (SHARE-I3: RII-CT-2006-062193, COMPARE: CIT5-
CT-2005-028857, SHARELIFE: CIT4-CT-2006-028812),
FP7 (SHARE-PREP: GA N◦211909, SHARE-LEAP: GA
N◦227822, SHARE M4: GA N◦261982, DASISH: GA N◦283646)
and Ho izon 2020 (SHARE-DEV3: GA N◦676536, SHARE-
COHESION: GA N◦870628, SERISS: GA N◦654221, SSHOC:
GA N◦823782, SHARE-COVID19: GA N◦101015924) and
by DG Employmen , Social A ai s & Inclusion h ough VS
2015/0195, VS 2016/0135, VS 2018/0285, VS 2019/0332, and
VS 2020/0313. Addi ional unding om he Ge man Minis y
o Educa ion and Resea ch, he Max Planck Socie y o he
Ad ancemen o Science, he U.S. Na ional Ins i u e on
Aging (U01_AG09740-13S2, P01_AG005842, P01_AG08291,
P30_AG12815, R21_AG025169, Y1-AG-4553-01, IAG_BSR06-
11, OGHA_04-064, HHSN271201300071C, RAG052527A) and
om a ious na ional unding sou ces is g a e ully acknowledged
(see www.sha e-p ojec .o g). The da a we e adjus ed o
his in es iga ion, o which ex ensi e consis ency checks
we e made.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This pape uses da a om SHARE Wa es 5, 6, 7 and 8
(Bö sch-Supan, 2022a,b,c,d,e); see Bö sch-Supan e al. (2013) o
me hodological de ails.
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71237
Con lic o In e es : The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could be cons ued as a
po en ial con lic o in e es .
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endo sed by he publishe .
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F on ie s in Sociology | www. on ie sin.o g 12 Ap il 2022 | Volume 7 | A icle 858052
18
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 14 June 2022
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2022.839231
F on ie s in Sociology | www. on ie sin.o g 1June 2022 | Volume 7 | A icle 839231
Edi ed by:
Minela Ke la,
The Associa ion o Online Educa o s,
Bosnia and He zego ina
Re iewed by:
A jan de Haan,
In e na ional De elopmen Resea ch
Cen e, Canada
Ma y A ends-Kuenning,
Uni e si y o Illinois a
U bana-Champaign, Uni ed S a es
*Co espondence:
Md Mahmudul Hoque
[email p o ec ed];
[email p o ec ed]
†ORCID:
Ra iqul Islam
o cid.o g/0000-0003-4811-4536
Md Mahmudul Hoque
o cid.o g/0000-0002-5263-6145
‡These au ho s ha e con ibu ed
equally o his wo k
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Wo k, Employmen and O ganiza ions,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Sociology
Recei ed: 19 Decembe 2021
Accep ed: 16 May 2022
Published: 14 June 2022
Ci a ion:
Islam R and Hoque MM (2022)
T ade-O Be ween Schooling and
Labo o Child en: Unde s anding he
De e mina i e Fac o s Among Ru al
Households in Bangladesh.
F on . Sociol. 7:839231.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2022.839231
T ade-O Be ween Schooling and
Labo o Child en: Unde s anding
he De e mina i e Fac o s Among
Ru al Households in Bangladesh
Ra iqul Islam†‡ and Md Mahmudul Hoque*†‡
Minis y o Public Adminis a ion, Dhaka, Bangladesh
This esea ch is conce ned wi h unde s anding he ac o s behind he ade-o be ween
child labo and child schooling, gi en he well-documen ed links be ween he wo.
I examines pa en s’ beha io in hei decision-making on hei child en’s schooling
o p ac icing child labo . Depending on quali a i e esea ch me hods including 28
semi-s uc u ed in e iews and wo ocus g oup discussions conduc ed in he u al a eas
o Bangladesh in 2020, his s udy e eals he ollowing: subsis ence needs compel
households, pa icula ly he ul a-poo and he emale-headed, o ade o child labo
wi h schooling; due o highe demand o labo , pa en s engage hei child en in o wo k
ins ead o schooling; pa en s o labo -in ensi e occupa ions end o ade o child labo
wi h schooling; sexual di ision o labo emains ob ious; inally, c edi cons ain s and
cul u al belie s ha e nega i e impac s on pa en al decision-making on child schooling.
In e en ions aiming o educe child labo and inc ease schooling in hese u al a eas
mus emain mind ul o he socio-economic and cul u al needs.
Keywo ds: child labo , ade-o , schooling, ac o s, pa en s, u al households, Bangladesh
INTRODUCTION
In e na ional Labo O ganiza ion’s Con en ion No. 182 illus a es wo kinds o ad e se e ec s o
child labo —one is he di ec e ec on he child’s physical, men al, o social de elopmen and
ano he is he indi ec e ec on he child’s schooling (ILO, 1999). Se e al s udies ela ed o child
labo also highligh i s e ec on schooling (Binde and Sc ogin, 1999; Ra allion and Wodon, 2000;
Ray, 2000; Pa ikh and Sadoule , 2005). This esea ch ocuses on he ading-o be ween labo and
schooling o child en in a de eloping coun y con ex o u he his unde s anding. Al hough he
ha m ul e ec s o child labo a e gene ally acknowledged by adul s, pa en s in poo and de eloping
economic con ex s a e o en induced by i s mone a y e u ns. Pa en s o en ind i ha d o bea
he cos s o schooling (Delap, 2001). Fo mal schooling is conside ed a i al con ibu o o human
skills and capi al (Mussida e al., 2019; Posso, 2020). Ta ge 4.1 o he 2015 Global De elopmen
Agenda calls o ensu ing ha all gi ls and boys comple e ee, equi able, and quali y p ima y
and seconda y educa ion (Boe en, 2019). Howe e , he g owing numbe o school d opou s in
de eloping coun ies emains a global conce n (UNESCO, 2015; Hossain and Ak e , 2019; Sa ke
e al., 2019). This quali a i e in es iga ion explo es he household-le el ac o s in he u al a eas o
Bangladesh o explain why pa en s ade o child en’s schooling wi h labo .
19

Islam and Hoque T ade-O Be ween Schooling and Labo
P e ious s udies ha e used a ious lenses o ocus on he issue.
Some wo ks analyzed household demog aphic ac o s (G oo ae
and Kanbu , 1995; Basu and Van, 1998; Salmon, 2005; Huisman
and Smi s, 2009), while o he s ex ensi ely ocused on socio-
cul u al ac o s and he in a-household demand and supply
o labo (Delap, 2001; Bhalo a and Heady, 2003; Eme son
and Souza, 2003; Mukhe jee and Pal, 2016; Hoque, 2021a).
Se e al empi ical indings indica e ha pa en s engaged in labo -
in ensi e occupa ions end o ade o schooling wi h child labo
in a ious localized con ex s (Bhalo a and Heady, 2003; Haile
and Haile, 2012; Yokying and Flo o, 2020).
A ew empi ical s udies ha e also examined he in a-
household decision-making ega ding child en’s wo k and labo
in u al and u ban a eas in Bangladesh, and ecognized pa en al
occupa ion as a signi ican de e minan (Amin e al., 2006; Sha iq,
2007; Ta iquzzaman and Hossain, 2009). D awing om he
a o emen ioned wo ks, his s udy con ibu es o he empi ical
li e a u e by ocusing on he pa en s’ occupa ions in explaining
hei decisions ega ding ade-o s be ween schooling and
he labo o child en in u al a eas in Bangladesh. Assuming
ha pa en s who a e engaged in labo -in ensi e occupa ions
in low-income amilies in u al a eas end o engage hei
child en in child labo , his s udy examines whe he go e nmen
in e en ions in luence he espec i e pa en al decisions. To ou
knowledge, no quali a i e empi ical s udies ha e pu ely ocused
on his issue. Based on his assump ion, his esea ch was led by
wo ques ions: (i) Wha a e he ac o s ha in luence households’
decisions in ading o be ween schooling and child labo in u al
a eas o Bangladesh? (ii) Wha go e nmen and non-go e nmen
in e en ions a e pe cei ed o be e ec i e? This s udy adop ed
quali a i e p ima y esea ch o add ess hese ques ions. This
pape is o ganized as ollows. The nex sec ion ou lines he
e iew o li e a u e ollowed by he esea ch me hodology. The
subsequen sec ion delinea es he indings and analysis. The
inal sec ion concludes wi h highligh ing he key implica ions o
his s udy.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Fac o s o Child Labo and Schooling
Child labo is gene ally conside ed ha m ul as i akes away a
child’s childhood and inhibi s hei social mobili y. In e na ional
Labo O ganiza ion (ILO) de ines child labo as “wo k ha is
men ally, physically, socially o mo ally dange ous and ha m ul
o child en and in e e es wi h hei schooling” (ILO, 2002, p.
15). The la es global es ima es s a e ha abou 160 million
child en aged 5–17−63 million gi ls and 97 million boys—we e
engaged in child labo globally in 2020 (ILO and UNICEF, 2021).
Th ee majo in e na ional con en ions ha se he s anda ds
o child employmen /labo a e—ILO Con en ion No. 138 on
Minimum Age o Admission o Employmen in 1973, ILO’s
Wo s Fo ms o Child Labo Con en ion, 1999 (No. 182) and
Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child, 1989
(UNCRC). Following hese con en ions, child labo was seen
as an unaccepable p ac ice un il he mid-1990s when eme ging
e idence s a ed o back up a common unde s anding ha no
all wo k was ha m ul o child en, and ha employmen in
ce ain, sa e kinds o wo k could be bene icial o achie e su i al
le el o consump ions and skills (Roge s and Swinne on, 2002).
Fo ins ance, Me gos (1992) disco e ed ha child en had a
posi i e economic con ibu ion o a m households h ough
peasan ag icul u e wo k in he Philipines. Bachman (2000)
a gues ha s opping child labo may b ing a hal o he su i al
incomes o many poo amilies. Recognizing schooling as a
undamen al igh and need o child en, se e al s udies ha e
iden iied child labo as a majo obs acle in low-income amily
con ex s (Ra allion and Wodon, 2000; Ray, 2000; Pa ikh and
Sadoule , 2005). Wo king hou s was also ound esponsible o
educing child en’s leisu e and ou doo ac i i ies (Binde and
Sc ogin, 1999).
Pa en al and household beha io ega ding sending a child
o school depends on a wide ange o ac o s. Theo e ical
and empi ical s udies ha e in e oga ed he ade-o be ween
schooling and labo mainly in low-income con ex s. Basu and
Van’s (1998) luxa y axiom s a es ha a amily engages in labo
only when he imcome o adul amily membe s is e y low
(Swinne on and Roge s, 1999). Po e y was iden i ied as a
majo d i e o child labo . Jensen and Nielsen’s (1997) s udy
e ealed ha pa en s could no send hei child en o school
in Zambia due o lack o mone a y esou ces. Buchmann and
B akewood (2000) ha e d awn simila obse a ions in Thailand
and Kenya. Sha iq (2007) and Malik (2013) e ealed he ade-o
be ween school en olmen and child labo due o po e y in India
and Bangladesh, espec i ely. Howe e , e idence om a ious
con ex s also commonly indica es ha he supply o child labo
depends on he wage, demand, and oppo uni ies in he ma ke
(Pa ikh and Sadoule , 2005; Roy e al., 2015; Mukhe jee and Pal,
2016; Tama e al., 2018).
Besides po e y, se e al o he ac o s d i e households o
ade-o be ween schooling and child labo . Demog aphic
ac o s like child en’s age, numbe o child en and amily
membe s, and absence o a pa en in luence he decision
(Ta iquzzaman and Hossain, 2009; Malik, 2013; Khan and Lyon,
2015). Du aisamy’s (2000) esea ch based in India e ealed
ha wi h age, child en’s pa icipa ion in wo k inc eases, and
schooling dec eases. So, in o he wo ds, an olde child is a
mo e isk in ading-o schooling wi h child labo (Ray, 2000).
In Bangladesh’s u al a eas, meanwhile, schooling o olde boys
depends on he numbe o child en. I he numbe is high, he
p obabili y o schooling is low as he olde siblings ha e o ake
ca e o he younge ones (Amin e al., 2006). Howe e , se e al
empi ical esea ches conduc ed in Bangladesh showed ha in
many cases he olde child en o en combine wo k and schooling
(Alam e al., 2008; Khanam, 2008; Qua i and Wa kins, 2019).
I is well-es ablished in he li e a u e ha when schools a e
close o whe e he child en li e, his may inc ease s udy hou s
and school a endance (Jensen and Nielsen, 1997; Huisman
and Smi s, 2009). Ray (2000) ound ha in as uc u e such as
he a ailabili y o class ooms can educe child labo hou s by
inc easing school hou s.
Social and cul u al ac o s a e also c i ical. Delap (2001) a gues
ha besides he economic ac o s, child labo c ucially in ol es
socie al no ms ela ed o gende and cul u e. Child en’s sex,
age, and place o esidence appea o play impo an oles in
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Islam and Hoque T ade-O Be ween Schooling and Labo
de e mining he ype o wo k hey pe o m in communi ies
ac oss u al and u ban Bangladesh (Delap, 2000; Salmon, 2005;
Ta iquzzaman and Hossain, 2009; UCW, 2011; Hoque, 2021b).
Pe haps in e es ingly, he e a e s ill some dicho omies in he
li e a u e. Fo example, Khanam (2005, 2008) obse ed ha gi ls
in u al a eas mus combine household wo k wi h schooling
o a much g ea e ex en han boys in Bangladesh’s u al a eas,
while in con as , Sha iq (2007) ound no disc imina ion based
on gende in u al households in Bangladesh.
Pa en s’ Occupa ion and Educa ion
Pa en al cha ac e is ics (i.e., occupa ion, educa ion, ype o
employmen , and so o h) play an impo an ole in deciding
how hei child en will spend hei ime. E idence sugges s ha
mos child en a e employed by hei pa en s o domes ic help
o o wo k in amily a ms and businesses (Fo s, 2012; ILO
UNICEF, 2021). Pa ikh and Sadoule (2005) ound in B azil
ha sel -employed o employe pa en s engage hei child en
in o labo mo e han employee pa en s. This indica es ha
a ailabili y o oppo uni ies o wo k is a de e minan o child
labo . In Bangladesh, pa en s in non-labo -in ensi e occupa ions
gene ally do no send hei child en o wo k, and weal hie
u al households in Bangladesh can keep hei child en in school
by bea ing he oppo uni y cos (Amin e al., 2006). Howe e ,
Bhalo a and Heady (2003) explained how he opposi e could
also happen. They called his he “weal h-pa adox” phenomenon,
which is ha asse - ich households may engage hei child en
in o labo mo e han he asse -poo households. Due o c edi
cons ain s, asse - ich households may no be able o hi e labo
o hei a m, so hey may deploy hei child en in o hei
a ms. Se e al empi ical esea ch indings suppo his pa adox
(Buchmann and B akewood, 2000; Ra allion and Wodon, 2000;
Baschie i and Falkingham, 2009). Rammohan (2012) ound in
India ha households ha own ag icul u al lands usually le
hei child en combine schooling and wo k; s ill, hey may pull
he child en ou o school du ing he ha es season when he
demand o labo is highe . Salmon (2005) s a es ha child en
a e gene ally employed as unpaid labo in he ag icul u al sec o ,
which indica es he high demand o child labo in labo -
in ensi e occupa ions. Simila ly, Rahman e al. (2010) ound ha
child en in u al Bangladesh a e mo e likely o wo k in hei
pa en s’ occupa ions in he ag icul u al sec o .
In poo communi ies, households o amilies wi h disabled o
illi e a e pa en s a e mo e likely o op o gene a ing income by
engaging hei child en in child labo (Edmonds, 2007; Webbink
e al., 2012). Se e al s udies show ha pa en s’ educa ion has a
posi i e impac on child schooling and nega i e impac on child
labo in Bangladesh (Ra allion and Wodon, 2000; Khanam, 2005;
Sha iq, 2007; Ahmed and Ray, 2011; Hossain and Ak e , 2019).
Ahmed and Ray (2011) e eal ha pa en s’ le el o educa ion
a ec s he ade-o decision-making ac oss gende s; howe e ,
a mo he ’s educa ion shows a signi ican inclina ion owa d
educa ing a gi l child. Based on da a collec ed om wo dis ic s
o Bangladesh Hossain and Ak e (2019) obse e ha child en o
educa ed pa en s le school less han less-educa ed pa en s.
De e minan s o Pa en s’ Decision-Making
on Schooling o Child Labo
The e u n om in es men o human capi al is g ea e han he
e u n om in es ing in physical asse s (Schul z, 1989). Howe e ,
when i comes o decision-making, pa en s o en a o ha ing
hei child en combining child labo wi h in o mal lea ning
(e.g., home educa ion, eligious s udies, NGO- un non- o mal
educa ion). Pa en al belie s abou he e u ns om schooling
in o ming human capi al such as skills, knowledge, and heal h
emain a p ima y de e minan (Mukhe jee and Pal, 2016). Many
pa en s belie e o mal educa ion ails o ensu e social mobili y o
hei child en (Bazin and Bhuku h, 2009). While analyzing u ban
child labo among poo households in Bangladesh, Ta iquzzaman
and Hossain (2009) iden i ied pa en al pe cep ion o he low
e u ns om o mal educa ion as a signi ican in luence. Poo
quali y educa ional p o ision, low a ainmen and high d opou
a es among poo child en a e he key ac o s behind his
pe cep ion (Ta iquzzaman and Hossain, 2009). Some o he
ecognized c i ical de e minan s a e he dis ance o schools,
low e u n on human capi al in es men , la ge indi ec cos
o schooling, and low quali y o educa ional acili ies (Jensen
and Nielsen, 1997). Huisman and Smi s (2009) s udied 220,000
child en in 340 dis ic s o 30 de eloping coun ies o ind ou
household and dis ic le el de e minan s o p ima y school
en olmen and ound ha pa en al decisions on child en’s
schooling a e in luenced by socio-economic and household
demog aphic cha ac e is ics, including pa en s’ educa ion, le el
o weal h, le el o occupa ion, and gende .
Basu and Tzanna os (2003) a gue ha o many households,
child leisu e o schooling is a luxu y good, and i household
income is no su icien , amilies canno a o d o keep a child
ou o p oduc i e wo k o send hem o school. Thus, child
labo is o en a subs i u e o adul labo . Diamond and Fayed
(1998) disco e ed subs i u abili y o adul and child labo in
Egyp , and obse ed emales a e subs i u es o child en, bu
males a e complemen s. In he case o Bangladesh, Salmon
(2005) ound ha child en and mo he s a e subs i u es o each
o he as child en o employed mo he s we e mos ly wo king in
households. Hosen e al. (2010) highligh ha many poo and
ulne able pa en s in Bangladesh o en ha e no al e na i es o
ade-o child educa ion o paid o unpaid child wo k.
69.3% o u al pa en s engage in child labo o inc ease
amily income, 4.3% o epay loans, 3.7% o no being able o
bea educa ional expenses, and 4.7% o child en’s unwillingness
o s udy.
In a-Household Demand and Supply o
Child Labo
I is gene ally ag eed ha highe school expendi u e ( ees and
o he expenses) may induce pa en s o pull hei child en ou
om school (Saba es e al., 2013). Howe e , due o seasonal
a ia ion in ag icul u al ac i i ies, pa icula ly in Bangladesh,
he adul s o he amilies may be engaged in non-ag icul u al
wo k o inc ease income. This may c ea e he subs i u ion
e ec on he child en in he household ac i i ies when he
adul s a e busy wo king ou side (Ahmed and Ray, 2011).
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Islam and Hoque T ade-O Be ween Schooling and Labo
A ends-Kuenning and Amin (2004) e ealed ha boys a e mos ly
a ec ed by seasonal ag icul u al labo demand as hey a e pulled
ou o school o mee his inc eased demand. This usually
in e up s hei school a endance and pe o mance and hus
may esul in o hem d opping ou . Howe e , households usually
end o hi e adul labo o amily a ming, which c ea es an
oppo uni y o child en o go o school. Bu , due o he mo al
haza ds o managing hi ed adul labo , households may p e e
hei own amily’s labo as amily membe s (especially child en)
a e easy o supe ise, and acquain ed wi h he a m (Bhalo a and
Heady, 2003). Mo eo e , le els o household indeb edness may
ha e a nega i e co ela ion wi h child schooling. Fo example,
i a household is in high deb , o pay i o , he adul s o
he households a e likely o need o wo k longe hou s which
may c ea e a necessi y o child en, pa icula ly gi ls, o help in
domes ic cho es (Ahmed and Ray, 2011).
CHILD LABOR AND SCHOOLING
SITUATION IN BANGLADESH
In Bangladesh, he go e nmen p o ides he mains eam o mal
p ima y and seconda y educa ion o all public-school s uden s.
P ima y educa ion consis s o a 5-yea cycle, and seconda y also
has a 5-yea cycle. The o icial age o en y in o p ima y school is 6
yea s, al hough en olmen a la e ages is also qui e common. The
coun y in oduced compulso y p ima y educa ion in 1992 along
wi h ee ex books and ui ion ee exemp ion o all child en
up o g ade 5 and up o g ade 8 o gi ls (Ahmed and Ray,
2011). Acco ding o Annual P ima y School Census 2019, o e all
en olmen a e in p ima y school was 97.74–97.65% o gi ls,
and 98.01% o boys. The o e all s uden a endance a e was
88.66%; he p ima y educa ion cycle comple ion a e o gi ls was
83.20%, o boys, his was 80.80%. The o e all d op-ou a e s ood
a 17.9%— o gi ls, i was 15.7%, and o boys, 19.20% (GoB,
2019). The COVID-19 pandemic has signi ican ly wo sened he
si ua ion (Emon e al., 2020; Hoque, 2020). An academic yea
o schooling has ∼220 school days. Because o he go e nmen
incen i es (i.e., ee ex books, ee ui ion, ee ood), he pa en s
can compensa e o he o egone ea nings o hei child en (i
hey had wo ked ins ead), which inspi es hem o send hei
child en o school.
Bangladesh Child Labo Su ey 2013 es ima es ha he
numbe o o al wo king child en aged 5-17 was 3.45 million
(male 2.10 million and emale 1.35 million), and he numbe
o child en engaged in labo was 1.7 million (BBS, 2015). The
su ey de ined he e ms “wo king child en” and “child labo ”
based on he p inciples o he 18 h In e na ional Con e ence
on Labo S a is icians and Bangladesh Labo Ac 2006.1The
numbe o child en aged be ween 14 and 17 engaged in child
labo was 1.21 million. The na ional su ey u he in o ms ha
abou 67% o child labo akes place in he u al a eas, and o
he child en employed, 29.9% we e engaged in he ag icul u al
sec o , while 33.3% we e engaged in he manu ac u ing indus y.
1Bangladesh Labou Ac 2006 de ines a child as a pe son who has no comple ed
his ou een h yea o age. Howe e , he Na ional Child Labou Su ey conside ed
he age g oup o 5–17 as child en.
Among u al child labo , 63% o child en we e no a ending
school du ing he epo ing, 8.4% had ne e a ended school,
and he emaining 28.6% combined wo k and schooling. Du ing
he su ey, households epo ed a ious easons causing child
labo e s o d op ou o school. As Table 1 shows, 36% o child
labo e s d opped schooling o suppo hei amily income,
15.1% o no being able o a o d he expenses, and only 16.1%
le school o s a wo king. No ably, among h ee age g oups (6–
11, 12–13, 14–17), mo e han 1 in 4 child en aged 6–11 d opped
school o s a wo king, and a signi ican o child en aged 6–13
epo ed “no school nea by” as a eason o hei d opou .
The epo con eys Bangladesh’s na ional de ini ion o child
labo as:
“Child labo is paid o unpaid wo k ha is men ally, socially
o mo ally conjuga ed wi h dange o child en o he in lic ion
o ha m o child en; ac i i ies ha dep i e child en o he
oppo uni y o go o school, o in addi ion o schoolwo k and
household esponsibili ies, loads addi ional wo k done in o he
places, which ensla es child en and sepa a es om hei amilies;
wo k pe o med by a child unde he minimum age o en e ing
in o employmen ela ionship wi h he employe acco ding o he
labo legisla ion o Bangladesh.” (BBS, 2015, p. 16)
Bangladesh has been in ac i e collabo a ion wi h ILO-IPEC
ini ia i es h ough adop ing he elimina ion o child labo i s
policy documen s such as “The Na ional Child Labo Elimina ion
Policy, 2010” ocus on he planning and implemen a ion o
a ious sho , medium and long- e m s a egies and p og ammes
o wi hd awing wo king child en, pa icula ly om he wo s
o ms o child labo , om he wo k o ce, and ge ing hem
ou o he icious cycle o po e y and o ge hem back o
school (GoB, 2010). The go e nmen has enac ed some laws
and legal p o isions in ela ion o ILO Con en ion No. 182 and
UNCRC, which include he Cons i u ional p o isions (A . 18,
20, 34), Penal Code (Secs. 366, 372, 373, 374), Child en’s Ac ,
2013; Supp ession o Violence agains Women and Child en Ac ,
2000 (Sec. 8, 9)—amended in 2003, Supp ession o Immo al
T a ic Ac , 1933, Bangladesh Labo Ac , 2006 (Chap e VII),
and he Employmen o Child en Ac , 1938 (ILO guidance). The
Bangladesh Labo Ac , 2006 ou laws he employmen o any child
<14 yea s o age and bans anyone below 18 in some ca ego ized
lis o haza dous wo ks (GoB, 2015). No ably, on 22 Ma ch 2022,
he coun y, as a pa o he go e nmen ’s commi men unde he
Na ional Ac ion Plan on he Labo Sec o o Bangladesh (2021–
2026), a i ied ILO’s Minimum Age Con en ion keeping 14 as he
minimum age o en y o wo k (ILO, 2022).
METHODOLOGY
The e iew o li e a u e has illus a ed a ious kinds o
de e minan s o pa en s’ decision-making on schooling o child
labo , luxu y and subs i u ion axioms, in a-household demand
and supply o child labo , oppo uni y cos o child labo and
schooling, he ela ionship be ween human capi al o ma ion
and child labo , and he pic u e o child labo and schooling
in Bangladesh. Howe e , households’ decision-making pa e ns
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Islam and Hoque T ade-O Be ween Schooling and Labo
TABLE 1 | Dis ibu ion o child labo by he easons o being d opped ou , by age g oup in Bangladesh (Sou ce: BBS, 2015, p. 80).
Reasons 6–11 12–13 14–17 To al
%
Failed examina ion 6.1 3.4 4.5 4.7
No in e es ed 8.3 10.2 16.2 15.0
To s a wo king 26.2 15.1 14.6 16.1
To ge ma ied 0.0 0.0 3.6 3.0
To suppo amily income 10.6 13.6 16.1 15.3
Pa en s did no wan 8.1 0.0 3.8 4.2
No school nea by 17.8 34.5 2.0 5.0
Could no a o d 20.9 20.9 38.9 36
O he s 2.0 2.2 0.4 0.7
To al 100 100 100 100
abou child labo o schooling and he impac o pa en s’ labo -
in ensi e occupa ion in u al con ex s o Bangladesh ha e no ye
been adequa ely explo ed wi h quali a i e insigh s.
Resea ch Design
This s udy aims o analyze he ac o s behind Bangladeshi
pa en s’ decision-making on whe he o send hei child o school
o o wo k. The esea che s la gely depended on in e p e i ism
(i.e., he eali y is mul i-laye ed and complex) o answe he
esea ch ques ion. In e p e i e esea ch unpacks how people
‘ eel abou he wo ld and make sense o hei li es om hei
pa icula an age poin s’ (King e al., 2019). The quali a i e
esea ch s a egy has dic a ed he in-dep h case s udies and
in e iews which he au ho s conduc ed du ing hei ieldwo k
in Bangladesh. Debou (2016) no es ha a quali a i e case s udy
pe mi s an in es iga ion o explo e a ious in e ac ing ac o s
esul ing in a complex phenomenon. Such s udies cognize he
subjec i e meaning ha indi iduals b ing o hei complica ed
and mul i-laye ed si ua ions (De Vaus, 2001). Unde s anding
he a i udes, belie s, and iews o he pa en s ega ding
he ade-o be ween child schooling and labo necessi a ed
he explo a ion o he ac o s esponsible o hei espec i e
decision-making beha io s.
Bangladesh has a la ge popula ion (abou 160 million)
dispe sed all o e he coun y (Tama e al., 2021). The au ho s
in en ionally chose o conduc hei ieldwo k in wo Upazilas
(i.e., small geog aphical and sub-dis ic adminis a i e uni s)
named Bahubal and Nabinaga which a e in he dis ic s o
Habiganj and B ahmanba ia, espec i ely (see Figu e 1). These
a eas eside in he eas e n pa o he coun y. Repo edly many
child en in hese a eas a e engaged in paid wo k in bo h he
o mal and in o mal sec o s (GoB, 2020).
As shown in Table 2, he 2011 go e nmen es ima es epo
ha Nabinaga has 220 schools o 94,871 households, while
in Bahubal138 a e loca ed o 37,334 households. Child en in
hese a eas a e gene ally engaged in labo in small businesses,
ag icul u al and ea a ms, welding, anspo s and so o h.
The li e acy a e o Nabinaga is 68.62%, while ha o Bahubal
is 39.4% (GoB, 2020). The ep esen ing wo dis ic s ha e a
signi ican di e ence in geog aphical ea u es. While mos o
FIGURE 1 | The s udy a eas (illus a ion: Au ho s’ own).
B ahmanba ia is ag icul u al plain land, Habiganj has hills, ea
es a es, hao s,2and o es s. People in hilly egions (including
Habiganj) ha e long su e ed om egional dispa i ies in
educa ion in he coun y, esul ing in a low li e acy a e
(Khan and Islam, 2010). UNICEF Bangladesh (2020) epo s he
school d opou a es in he coun y as 5% in he 5 h g ade,
6% in he 8 h g ade and 15% in he 10 h g ade. These wo
di e en geog aphical uni s (Nabinaga and Bahubal Upazilas)
we e chosen because o hei simila i y in ha ing epo edly
high d opou a es (Hossain and Ak e , 2019) and a ia ion in
2A Hao is a bowl-shaped la ge ec onic dep ession ha ecei es wa e om i e s
and canals o become an ex ensi e wa e body du ing monsoon. Fo mo e de ails,
isi h ps://en.banglapedia.o g/index.php/Hao (accessed on 16 Ap il 2022).
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Con lic o In e es : The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could be cons ued as a
po en ial con lic o in e es .
Publishe ’s No e: All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he au ho s
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his a icle, o claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
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F on ie s in Sociology | www. on ie sin.o g 13 June 2022 | Volume 7 | A icle 839231
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TYPE Opinion
PUBLISHED 13 Ma ch 2023
DOI 10.3389/ soc.2023.1131762
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Pio Toczyski,
The Ma ia G zego zewska Uni e si y, Poland
REVIEWED BY
So in-Geo ge I. Toma,
Uni e si y o Bucha es , Romania
*CORRESPONDENCE
Ha i Ha jan o Se iawan
[email p o ec ed]
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Wo k, Employmen and O ganiza ions,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Sociology
RECEIVED 26 Decembe 2022
ACCEPTED 22 Feb ua y 2023
PUBLISHED 13 Ma ch 2023
CITATION
Se iawan HH, Yuda TK, Susan yo B,
Sulube e MB, Gan i M, Habibullah H,
Saba isman M and Mu ni R (2023) Scaling up
social en ep eneu ship o educe po e y:
Explo ing he challenges and oppo uni ies
h ough s akeholde engagemen .
F on . Sociol. 8:1131762.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2023.1131762
COPYRIGHT
©2023 Se iawan, Yuda, Susan yo, Sulube e,
Gan i, Habibullah, Saba isman and Mu ni. This is
an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he
e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
License (CC BY). The use, dis ibu ion o
ep oduc ion in o he o ums is pe mi ed,
p o ided he o iginal au ho (s) and he
copy igh owne (s) a e c edi ed and ha he
o iginal publica ion in his jou nal is ci ed, in
acco dance wi h accep ed academic p ac ice.
No use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is
pe mi ed which does no comply wi h hese
e ms.
Scaling up social
en ep eneu ship o educe
po e y: Explo ing he challenges
and oppo uni ies h ough
s akeholde engagemen
Ha i Ha jan o Se iawan1*, Tauchid Koma a Yuda2,3,
Bad un Susan yo1, Muhammad Belanawane Sulube e1,
Me y Gan i1, Habibullah Habibullah1, Muslim Saba isman1and
Ruaida Mu ni1
1Na ional Resea ch and Inno a ion Agency (BRIN), Jaka a, Indonesia, 2Social De elopmen and Wel a e,
Uni e si as Gadjah Mada, Yogyaka a, Indonesia, 3Sociology and Social Policy, Lingnan Uni e si y,
Hong Kong, China
KEYWORDS
po e y, empowe men , social en ep eneu ship, s akeholde engagemen , ela ionship
In oduc ion
S akeholde engagemen is c i ical in s a e-d i en social en ep eneu ship p og ams.
This engagemen is based on he p inciple o mu ual bene i in pa ne ing h ough he
pa ies’ con ibu ions ollowing hei espec i e oles and capaci ies. This pape explo es
s akeholde engagemen in social en ep eneu ship p og ams in Indonesia. This p og am
is a p og am o he Indonesian go e nmen o educe po e y. The issue o po e y is he
p ima y conce n o he Indonesian go e nmen and he in e na ional wo ld. The COVID-19
pandemic has impac ed inc easing po e y because many people ha e los hei jobs due o
policies limi ing ac i i ies (Labo de e al., 2021). In addi ion o he ongoing social p o ec ion
p og am, he Indonesian go e nmen is also wo king o educe po e y h ough he Social
En ep eneu ship P og am.
Social En ep eneu ship is one o he essen ial ac o s in sus ainable economic
de elopmen (La eh e al., 2018). Social en ep eneu ship is di e en om en ep eneu ship
because i has a social mission and is no only conce ned wi h p o i . This p og am imp o es
he poo ’s economic wel a e by combining business and social dimensions. Resea ch in he
Sou h Punjab egion o Pakis an shows ha empowe men h ough social en ep eneu ship
can signi ican ly educe po e y (Ab a ul haq e al., 2019).
Some pa s o Teh an, I an, implemen empowe men s a egies h ough social
en ep eneu ship o li ma ginalized people om po e y (Sadabadi and Rahimi Rad,
2021). Social en ep eneu ship can con ibu e o 10% o he g oss domes ic p oduc in
Kenya (Nga e, 2021). Sou h Ko ea and Malaysia can inc ease egional economic g ow h
by c ea ing jobs (Doh, 2020;Mus a a e al., 2020). Thus, his li e a u e a gues ha
po e y can be o e come h ough social en ep eneu ship. Social en ep eneu ship leads o
inc eased inno a ion, employmen oppo uni ies, and access o capi al. In he end, social
en ep eneu ship will succeed wi h sus ainable de elopmen .
F on ie s in Sociology 01 on ie sin.o g
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Se iawan e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1131762
The Indonesian go e nmen implemen s social
en ep eneu ship p og ams in collabo a ion wi h non-s a e
ac o s. This is wha dis inguishes be ween de eloping coun ies
and de eloped coun ies. Mos en ep eneu ship in de eloped
coun ies is suppo ed by la ge companies ha do no depend on
s a e unding. This pape explo es he in ol emen o s akeholde s
om wo g oups, namely s a e, and non-s a e. Ou esea ch also
examines he ela ionship be ween s a e and non-s a e ac o s in
nego ia ing p og am implemen a ion. We also look a he impac
o in ol ing di e en s akeholde s on he bene icia y communi ies.
This pape will answe h ee main hypo heses: i s , each
s akeholde g oup’s ole is expec ed o be a complemen a y
ela ionship. Second, p og ams o e ed by he s a e will be
accep ed by non-s a e ac o s. Thi d, p og ams ha in ol e many
s akeholde s will ha e a good impac on bene icia ies.
Theo e ical amewo k
Po e y
Po e y is a condi ion whe e he basic needs o a decen
li e a e no ul illed, and he acili ies and in as uc u e a e
inadequa e (Go ende e al., 2007). B adshaw (2009) de ines
po e y as a condi ion whe e basic ood, shel e , heal h, and
sa e y needs a e unme based on human igh s alues. When
iewed om an economic aspec , po e y e e s o he gap
be ween weak pu chasing powe and he desi e o mee basic
needs (Rini and Sugiha i, 2016). An hony Hall and James Midgley
(2004) con ey he same hing, namely “Condi ions o ma e ial
and social dep i a ion whe e people all below he minimum
socially accep able s anda d o li ing o whe e hey expe ience
dep i a ion ela i e o o he people in socie y” (Yea es, 2005).
The ma e ial and social dep i a ion ha causes he indi idual
o li e below a decen s anda d o li ing o condi ions in
which indi iduals expe ience ela i e po e y compa ed o o he
indi iduals in socie y.
Po e y is concep ually di ided in o absolu e po e y and
ela i e po e y. Absolu e po e y e e s o a condi ion whe e he
basic needs o a decen li e a e no me , bo h ood and non- ood,
while ela i e po e y e e s o he posi ion o indi iduals ela ed
o he a e age s a e income (FAO, 2021). Po e y is a common
p oblem ha mus be aken se iously be ween he go e nmen ,
he p i a e sec o , and he communi y. I is hoped ha o he
people’s conce ns and awa eness can help educe po e y, so
i is necessa y o in ol e all s akeholde s in po e y alle ia ion
e o s, s a ing om planning, implemen a ion, and e alua ion,
which a e ca ied ou on an ongoing basis (S oe and Linca u,
2022).
Social en ep eneu ship: F om disco e y o
explo a ion
In ecen yea s, social en ep eneu ship has g own in popula i y
(Tali´
c and I ano i´
c Duki´
c, 2021). Apa om Indonesia, he
mo emen has sp ead o o he coun ies, such as Sou h A ica
and Sou h A ica. To unde s and social en ep eneu ship, we
need o de ine i as a concep ha enables he c ea ion
o al e na i e business models ha a e ma ke -o ien ed and
p o ide social good (Te zie e al., 2020). I is c ucial o
ealize ha social en ep eneu ship and en ep eneu ship a e
undamen ally di e en .
The e is no doub ha he social aspec o a business is mo e
challenging o be accep ed in he p i a e sec o because “social”
is he opposi e o “p o i ”. The p i a e sec o is cha ac e ized
by p o i -making. The concep o social en ep eneu ship
also con ains elemen s o en ep eneu ship. Comme cial
p ospec i e en ep eneu ial beha io heo ies unde s and
social en ep eneu ship as a mul idimensional phenomenon
in which social en ep eneu s, like non-p o i o ganiza ions,
display inno a i e beha io s, p oac i e ac ions, and isk
managemen cha ac e is ics. Howe e , he main ocus lies on
he company’s social mission (Dwi edi and Wee awa dena,
2018).
Based on he cha ac e is ics o he p i a e sec o and he
emphasis on social aspec s placed on social en ep eneu ship,
he public sec o should be mo e esponsi e o social
en ep eneu ship. Social en ep eneu ship can be applied o he
public sec o because he go e nmen mus imp o e go e nance
pe o mance. P ac icing social en ep eneu ship con ibu es
o social ans o ma ion (Ca alcan i, 2021). In Uk aine, o
example, social en ep eneu ship has been used by he s a e in
de eloping i s u al de elopmen s a egy (Pechenuik, 2021).
En ep eneu ial beha io in A ican coun ies con inues o be
poo ly s udied, leading o inapp op ia e policy ac ions and
inadequa e suppo (U ban, 2020).
The s akeholde engagemen and i s
ela ionship
The abo e unde s anding shows ha en ep eneu s ha e
highe sel -in e es and lowe social awa eness. Meanwhile,
social en ep eneu ship has lowe sel -in e es and highe social
awa eness. The social en ep eneu ship p og am in ol es many
s akeholde s. Social pu pose o ganiza ions pu sue mul iple
missions and add ess he e ogeneous s akeholde s (Siebold, 2021).
The e o e, i is impo an o social en ep eneu s o ne wo k
and communica e e ec i ely wi h s akeholde s. S akeholde
pa icipa ion in social en ep eneu ship p og ams is e y impo an
because i has a di ec impac on o ganiza ional managemen
(Meye e al., 2020). An impo an ole as a s akeholde is
o achie e o ganiza ional commi men (Rod íguez-Fe nández
e al., 2021). Th ough coo dina ion be ween s akeholde s and
communica ion acili a ion, solu ions o social p oblems can be
esol ed which lead o sys emic changes (Zhao, 2020).
S akeholde mapping can isualize s akeholde pe cep ions o
hei alues and compa e hem wi h an ideal map based on social
en ep eneu ial missions (Bu ga and Rezania, 2016). S akeholde
beha io owa d social en ep eneu ship will in luence p oduc ,
se ice, and p og am inno a ion (New h, 2016). In Poland, i is
seen ha he in ol emen o s akeholde s om he ins i u ional
en i onmen is c ucial in p omo ing social en ep eneu ship
p og ams, including bo h o mal and in o mal ins i u ions (Pacu ,
2020). Thus, s akeholde pa icipa ion in social en ep eneu ship
p og ams is essen ial (Smi h and Woods, 2015).
F on ie s in Sociology 02 on ie sin.o g
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Se iawan e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1131762
S akeholde s who ha e signi ican in luence include
go e nmen s, ins i u ions, and o eign in es o s (Zaid e al., 2020).
Ins i u ional in e ac ions occu in ou ways: complemen a y,
subs i u i e, accommoda i e, and compe i i e (Helmke and
Le i sky, 2012). In his a icle which emphasizes he in e ac ion
o o mal and in o mal ins i u ions, we modi y he concep o
ins i u ional in e ac ion by applying i o he in e ac ions be ween
s a e and non-s a e ac o s.
Me hodology
The esea ch objec i e is o explo e he a ious ac o s
in ol ed in implemen ing social en ep eneu ship p og ams in
Indonesia. The a ious s akeholde ac o s s udied we e di ided
in o wo g oups: hose om go e nmen and non-go e nmen al
o ganiza ions. Ou esea ch seeks o in es iga e he ela ionship
be ween go e nmen and non-go e nmen ac o s in nego ia ing
he o m o he p og am o be implemen ed. Fu he mo e,
ou esea ch examines whe he s akeholde engagemen has
con ibu ed o communi y empowe men . This pape epo s he
indings o semi-s uc u ed quali a i e in e iews conduc ed wi h
26 in o man s ep esen ing all s akeholde s in ol ed in he social
en ep eneu ship p og am. In o man s om elemen s o s a e
ins i u ions consis o ; Minis y o Social A ai s (one pe son),
Minis y o Indus y (one pe son), Social Se ice ( ou people
om ou loca ions) Regional Planning Agency ( ou people om
ou loca ions). Meanwhile, non-s a e elemen s consis o ; Social
Facili a o s ( ou people om ou loca ions), Business Incuba o s
( ou people om ou loca ions), Bene icia ies ( ou people
om ou loca ions), and Local En ep eneu s ( ou people om
ou loca ions).
The in e iew p ocess akes place be ween Sep embe and
Decembe 2022. In e iews ange om 60 o 90 min, co e ing
opics such as he ole o he in e iewee. A he na ional le el,
he Minis y o Social A ai s discussed he desc ip ion o he social
en ep eneu ship p og am, and he Minis y o Indus y discussed
he ole o g an ing business licenses. A he local go e nmen
le el, he Social Se ice discusses he implemen a ion o he
Social En ep eneu ship P og am in he egions, and he Business
Incuba o discusses he implemen a ion o business assis ance. The
social acili a o discusses social assis ance o bene icia ies o he
social en ep eneu ship p og am. A e ha , he bene icia ies alk
abou hei business ips.
The da a collec ion p ocess includes in e iews (P en ice,
2017), obse a ion (G ea o ex, 2014), and documen a ion s udies
(Jones and McCoy, 2019). In e iews we e conduc ed o ga he
in o ma ion ega ding he ollowing opics: (a) implemen a ion
o social en ep eneu ship, (b) he ole o s akeholde s (c)
coo dina ion be ween s akeholde s. Documen a ion s udies a e
ca ied ou by s udying epo s, books, scien i ic jou nals, and
o he documen s. This s udy collec s da a using hema ic analysis
(Sundle e al., 2019), p esen ing he collec ed da a acco ding
o a p ede e mined heme, speci ically s akeholde engagemen .
The e o e, all da a collec ed will be aligned wi h s akeholde
in ol emen in implemen ing social en ep eneu ship.
This esea ch has se e al limi a ions, including being
conduc ed in ou loca ions: Ka awang Regency, Sleman Regency,
B ebes Regency, and Mojoke o Regency. Thus, he si ua ion
desc ibed abo e does no ully ep esen he si ua ion in Indonesia
as a whole.
Resul s
O e iew o p og am implemen a ion
The Indonesian Minis y o Social A ai s has e adica ed
po e y h ough social en ep eneu ship p og ams. In 2021,
he go e nmen will implemen a p og am o imp o e
he poo ’s economic wel a e. Th ough his p og am, he
go e nmen helps low-income g oups o people who ecei e
condi ional cash assis ance p og ams. This p og am can
imp o e he economy o low-income amilies and educe
hei dependence on go e nmen assis ance. In addi ion,
social en ep eneu ship can posi i ely in luence communi y
membe s by inc easing access o ma ke s o he poo . A s udy
o he cha ac e is ics o social en e p ises has been ca ied ou
in he Eas A ican egion, esul ing in posi i e changes in
ma ginalized g oups’ socio-economic and poli ical condi ions
(Maseno and Wanyoike, 2020) and igge ing social changes
in socie y.
Social en ep eneu ship has he po en ial o achie e
social impac ac oss mul iple on s, suppo Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals, and ebalance “economic” and “social”
ields (Wa necke, 2018). A s udy conduc ed in he Indian
egion explo ed he impac o social en ep eneu ship on
po e y alle ia ion (Shephe d e al., 2021). By applying
a simila logic, social en ep eneu ship is expec ed o
accele a e po e y alle ia ion in Indonesia. This is a na ional
de elopmen p io i y o educe he bu den on he poo and
inc ease hei income, especially in he bo om 40% o he
popula ion (Bappenas, 2017).
S akeholde s in ol ed
Social en ep eneu ship p og ams will no succeed wi hou
s akeholde in ol emen . The s akeholde s a e di ided in o
wo g oups: s a e and non-s a e. S akeholde s in he social
en ep eneu ship p og am can be seen in Figu e 1.
S a e ac o s
S a e ac o s can be g ouped in o wo, namely, he
cen al go e nmen and local go e nmen . This p og am
is designed o educe dependence on cash ans e s among
he poo who ha e ecei ed condi ional cash ans e s.
P og am bene icia ies ecei e capi al assis ance as pa
o he social en ep eneu ship p og am. S a e elemen s
in ol ed in he social en ep eneu ship p og am include
he Minis y o Social A ai s, he Minis y o Indus y, he
Regional De elopmen Planning Agency, and he Regional
Social Se ice.
The Minis y o Social A ai s is a leading sec o in po e y
alle ia ion h ough social en ep eneu ship. The Minis y o
F on ie s in Sociology 03 on ie sin.o g
34
Se iawan e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1131762
FIGURE 1
S akeholde g oups in he social en ep eneu ship p og am, namely s a e and non-s a e.
Indus y plays a ole in os e ing p oduc ion and g an ing business
licenses. The Regional De elopmen Planning Agency’s ole is o
include and budge o egional de elopmen . The Regional Social
Se ice plays a ole in implemen ing p og ams in he egions.
This ole will con inue o de elop acco ding o condi ions in
he a ea.
Coun ies in ol ed in social en ep eneu ship a e no
only conce ned wi h economic gains bu also wi h social
goals. So ha h ough social en ep eneu ship can sol e social
p oblems (Abdullahi e al., 2020), c ea e solu ions (Kickul
e al., 2014), and sol e p oblems (Chalme s, 2021). Thus,
social en e p ise is ele an o social wo k because i aims
o sol e social issues (G ay e al., 2003). In his pape , he
p oblem ha is ansla ed h ough social en ep eneu ship
is po e y.
Non-s a e ac o s
The Minis y o Social A ai s appoin ed a non-go e nmen al
o ganiza ion and a uni e si y as he business incuba o
o he Social En ep eneu ship P og am. Ins i u ions
such as hese ha e ex ensi e expe ience in assis ing
small and medium en e p ises. Apa om he business
incuba o , he non-s a e ac o s in ol ed a e bene icia ies.
This p og am is in ended o help bene icia ies achie e
business success.
Complemen a y o his model is he idea ha non-s a e
ac o s’ exis ence will help sol e p oblems ha a e igno ed
by s a e ac o s, enhancing go e nmen policy p og ams’
e ec i eness in achie ing he desi ed ou come. As wi h
he complemen a y ela ionship, he subs i u e ela ionship
in ol es non-s a e ac o s’ pa icipa ion in achie ing goals
ha comply wi h he s ipula ions. This is e iden when s a e
ins i u ions canno accomplish hei objec i es (Yuda e al.,
2021).
In he accommoda i e model, non-s a e ac o s c ea e
beha io s o no ms ha signi ican ly al e o mal ules so
ha he e ec s a e “no ollow he expec ed esul s”. The
la e is a compe ing model, which is deemed o be he
mos p oblema ic. In his model, non-s a e ac o s in he
p og am mo e in a di ec ion con a y o he objec i es o
go e nmen policies, esul ing in ad e se e ec s. To explain
how s a e and non-s a e ac o s in e ac and shape social
en ep eneu ship p og ams, we will elabo a e on hese ou
poin s oge he .
Rela ions be ween s a e ac o s and
non-s a e ac o s
Go e nmen ac o s and non-go e nmen ac o s ha e
a dynamic ela ionship. I is no uncommon o hem o
be in e dependen when non-go e nmen al ac o s need
go e nmen unding, while go e nmen s depend on social
o ganiza ions o assis in he implemen a ion p ocess.
Coope a ion ag eemen s be ween go e nmen s and non-
s a e ac o s allow go e nmen s o p o ide se ices o
non-s a e ac o s. By wo king wi h non-s a e ac o s, he
s a e empowe s he poo h ough social en ep eneu ship
p og ams in ol ing non-s a e ac o s as p og am implemen e s.
The go e nmen de e mines he p og am, in his case,
he Minis y o Social A ai s, bu be o e deciding on
he p og am, i is impo an o conside he ideas o
non-s a e s akeholde s.
Ini ially, s a e and non-s a e ac o s had a hos ile ela ionship
because o hei di e en isions and missions. Non-s a e ac o s
a e less sa is ied because hey ha e o comply wi h he ules
imposed by he s a e. E en hough a e e y oppo uni y, he s a e
always accommoda es he ideas o non-s a e ac o s. The e o e,
s a e ac o s g adually began o change in esponse o inpu om
non-s a e ac o s. One example o non-s a e dissa is ac ion is he
implemen a ion o p og ams ha ha e been delayed due o he
COVID-19 pandemic so ha he implemen a ion ime has been
educed and he a ge s se ha e been changed.
Apa om he accommoda i e na u e o he ela ionship, he e
is also a endency o a subs i u iona y ela ionship because non-
s a e ac o s a e mo e expe ienced in empowe ing communi ies
h ough social en ep eneu ship p og ams wi h limi ed scope. The
F on ie s in Sociology 04 on ie sin.o g
35

Se iawan e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1131762
s a e has he powe o inance in a comple e sense. Thus, he
ela ionship be ween planning and unding is accommoda i e.
Howe e , echnically he implemen a ion o he p og am is mo e
o a subs i u e.
Social en ep eneu ship e ec s esul ing
om s akeholde engagemen
The policies aken by he go e nmen o limi c owds
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic ce ainly had an impac on
MSMEs, including social en ep eneu s. I was no ed ha u no e
dec eased ollowing he implemen a ion o he lockdown and
wo king- om-home policies. The e has been a dec ease in he
numbe o business buye s un by bene icia ies because many ea
con ac ing he Co ona i us. Food usually bough and consumed
ou side has been di e ed o be cooked a home by consume s
conce ned abou he quali y o hei ood.
Acco ding o p e ious esea ch om he Social Wel a e
Cen e , he e a e h ee condi ions o ecei ing bene i s: p o i s
be o e he pandemic, bene i s du ing he pandemic be o e joining
he p og am, and bene i s a e pa icipa ing in he p og am
du ing a pandemic. Be o e he pandemic, he a e age p o i was
be ween IDR 50,000 and 99,000, he s udy ound. Du ing he
pandemic, he a e age p o i ell below IDR 50,000. They inc eased
hei ea nings o be ween IDR 50,000 and 99,000 h ough he
Social En ep eneu ship P og am. Because o his, he new social
en ep eneu ship p og am has p o en capable o e u ning o p e-
pandemic condi ions (Se iawan e al., 2021).
Discussion
Social en ep eneu ship p og ams canno un e ec i ely
wi hou s akeholde in ol emen . The s a e’s in ol emen
is he d i ing o ce o all s akeholde s in planning,
budge ing, men o ing, and moni o ing. Social en ep eneu ship
incuba o s o igina ing om non-s a e ac o s a e execu o s o
echnical p og ams om s a e p og ams. Ini ially, he social
en ep eneu ship p og am ini ia ed by he cen al go e nmen
was ejec ed by egional s akeholde s because i was conside ed
compe i ion. Howe e , h ough an in o mal discussion p ocess,
each s akeholde ealized ha he e we e simila i ies ha became
s eng hs du ing he discussion p ocess. This mee ing poin
is so ha social en ep eneu ship p og ams om anywhe e,
including om he cen al go e nmen , can be included in he
p og am scheme designed by he egional go e nmen and e en be
de eloped u he in he u u e.
Fu he mo e, we ound ha he go e nmen ’s concep o
empowe men s ill mixes well wi h he idea o social assis ance.
Bene icia ies should ecei e social assis ance in an eme gency o
i hey a e in a posi ion whe e hey canno su i e on hei
own. I hese condi ions a e no me , empowe men p og ams
will no be e ec i e since hey a e conce ned wi h ul illing hei
basic needs. Empowe men p og ams a e mos app op ia e o
hose whose basic needs ha e al eady been me , e en i hey a e
being me by social assis ance. When pe sons whose basic needs
ha e no been me a e p o ided wi h empowe men , hey end
o ha e li le mo i a ion o pa icipa e in a p og am. The e is an
al e na i e s a egy o encou age iendship ne wo ks o in e nalize
social isk since he eplacemen o wel a e egimes om p oduc s
has no been comple ed (Yuda, 2018,2021;Yuda e al., 2021).
These a angemen s e lec he p e ailing wel a e egime in he
Global Sou h, whe e in o mal ela ionships in e ac wi h s a u o y
p o isions and a e o en condi ioned o p o ide social wel a e.
The Social En ep eneu ship P og am combines wo concep s
in he Minis y o Social A ai s: empowe men and social
p o ec ion. Capi al assis ance is conside ed o be a ype o social
p o ec ion p og am. Some e idence sugges s ha bene icia ies
a e mo i a ed o pa icipa e in he p og am due o he se ice
p o ided. Howe e , social en ep eneu ship p og ams can
lead o dependency on capi al assis ance. A key componen
o s eng hening he social en ep eneu ship p og am wi hou
inc easing dependence is con ibu ing subs an ially o he
bene icia ies. The men o ing bene icia ies will ecei e guidance in
unning hei businesses h ough good planning.
Conclusion
In Indonesia, social en ep eneu ship p og ams end o be
d i en by he s a e because he pa adigm o social en ep eneu ship
has no been widesp ead among he p i a e sec o o o he
non-s a e ac o s. In con as , in de eloped coun ies iew social
en ep eneu ship as a mo al obliga ion. I is impo an o no e
ha social en ep eneu ship p og ams in de eloping coun ies
a e no jus empowe men p og ams, e en hough hey in ol e
s akeholde s, because capi al assis ance is s ill p o ided. These
p og ams may ha e a isen as a esul o bene icia y dependence
on aid.
Bene icia ies who pa icipa e in p og ams launched by he
go e nmen may ecei e se ices no because hey a e s uggling
o ge ou o po e y. Empowe men is de ined as a s a egy
h ough e ec i e planning so ha bene icia ies do no depend
on go e nmen assis ance. Scien i ically, he ans o ma ion om
social assis ance o empowe men is no easy o do. I akes a
long ime in he empowe men p ocess so ha bene icia ies can
be empowe ed. his is he limi a ion o his esea ch because he
p og am is implemen ed in one iscal yea , so he impac o he
p og am is no ye clea ly isible. In e es ing u u e esea ch o
s udy is he meaning o bene icia ies o he empowe men p og am.
I he meaning is s ill like social assis ance hen he pu pose o
empowe men will no be achie ed.
Nomencla u e
-Resou ce Iden i ica ion Ini ia i e
-Li e Science Iden i ie s
Au ho con ibu ions
All au ho s lis ed ha e made a subs an ial, di ec , and
in ellec ual con ibu ion o he wo k and app o ed i
o publica ion.
F on ie s in Sociology 05 on ie sin.o g
36
Se iawan e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1131762
Funding
This esea ch was unded by he Na ional Agency o
Resea ch and Inno a ion (BRIN) h ough RP-TKPEKM No.
B-4252/III.12/HK.00/11/2022 (Ac i i y Code: RRP2-17/2022).
Conflic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed
in he absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships
ha could be cons ued as a po en ial con lic
o in e es .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he
au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
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F on ie s in Sociology 07 on ie sin.o g
38
TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 17 Ap il 2023
DOI 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1117180
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Magdalena Klimczuk-Kocha´
nska,
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Poland
REVIEWED BY
Hen y Egbezien Inegbedion,
Bowen Uni e si y, Nige ia
Johanna Wes s a ,
Wes e n Uni e si y, Canada
Ma ina Simono a,
Sama a S a e Technical Uni e si y, Russia
*CORRESPONDENCE
Ying Zhao
[email p o ec ed]
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Occupa ional Heal h and Sa e y,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Public Heal h
RECEIVED 06 Decembe 2022
ACCEPTED 29 Ma ch 2023
PUBLISHED 17 Ap il 2023
CITATION
Ran X and Zhao Y (2023) Behind he flexibili y:
insu icien occupa ional inju y p o ec ion o
gig wo ke s in China.
F on . Public Heal h 11:1117180.
doi: 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1117180
COPYRIGHT
©2023 Ran and Zhao. This is an open-access
a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (CC BY).
The use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion in o he
o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided he o iginal
au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s) a e
c edi ed and ha he o iginal publica ion in his
jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h accep ed
academic p ac ice. No use, dis ibu ion o
ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which does no
comply wi h hese e ms.
Behind he flexibili y: insu icien
occupa ional inju y p o ec ion o
gig wo ke s in China
Xiaoxing Ran1and Ying Zhao2*
1Ins i u e o Popula ion Resea ch, Peking Uni e si y, Beijing, China, 2Medica e and Ca e Secu i y
Resea ch O ice, Chinese Academy o Labou and Social Secu i y, Beijing, China
Objec i e: Occupa ional inju y p o ec ion is essen ial o sa egua d he basic
igh s o wo ke s. This a icle ocuses on a g oup o gig wo ke s who ha e eme ged
on a la ge scale in ecen yea s in China and aims o explo e hei s a us o
occupa ional inju y p o ec ion.
Me hods: Based on he heo y o echnology-ins i u ion inno a ion in e ac ion,
we adop ed he ins i u ion analysis o assess he wo k- ela ed inju y p o ec ion
o gig wo ke s. The compa a i e s udy was used o e alua e h ee cases o
occupa ional inju y p o ec ion in China o gig wo ke s.
Resul s: Ins i u ional inno a ion ailed o espond o echnological inno a ion
and p o ided insu icien occupa ional inju y p o ec ion o gig wo ke s. The
wo k- ela ed inju y insu ance was inaccessible o gig wo ke s due o hey we e no
ea ed as employees in China. The wo k- ela ed inju y insu ance was no a ailable
o gig wo ke s. Al hough some p ac ices we e explo ed, sho comings emain.
Conclusions: Behind he flexibili y o gig wo k is insu icien occupa ional
inju y p o ec ion. Acco ding o he heo y o echnology-ins i u ion inno a ion
in e ac ion, we belie e he e o m o wo k- ela ed inju y insu ance is inc easingly
essen ial o imp o ing he si ua ion o gig wo ke s. This esea ch con ibu es o
expanding unde s anding o gig wo ke s’ si ua ion and may o e a e e ence o
o he coun ies on p o ec ing gig wo ke s agains occupa ional inju ies.
KEYWORDS
gig economy, gig wo ke , flexibili y, occupa ional inju y, wo k- ela ed inju y insu ance
1. In oduc ion
In ecen yea s, he gig economy has been a p ominen opic in he ield o wo k
(1). I is subo dina ed o non-s anda d wo k (2), and mainly con ains c owdsou ced
wo k and on-demand wo k (3,4). C owdsou ced wo k ypically e e s o a ange o
asks ha a e comple ed h ough digi al pla o ms. These pla o ms a e connec ed o
a a iable numbe o o ganiza ions and indi iduals a ound he wo ld ia he in e ne ,
wi h all labo equi emen s being pos ed and ecei ed, asks being submi ed and
paymen s being made (5). On-demand wo k is he use o apps o communica e and
pe o m adi ional wo k ac i i ies such as anspo , cleaning, and e ands based on
cus ome s’ demands (6). The apps a e gene ally conside ed digi al pla o ms, oo. Hence,
he gig economy includes bo h pla o ms ha allow emo e employmen and labo
ansac ed h ough pla o ms bu p o ided in an appoin ed loca ion (7). Mo e wo k
oppo uni ies ha e been p o ided by he pla o m. Acco ding o a epo by Didi (a
a el pla o m in China), 1.33 million unemployed people e u n o he labo ma ke
F on ie s in Public Heal h 01 on ie sin.o g
39
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F on ie s in Public Heal h 08 on ie sin.o g
46

TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 04 May 2023
DOI 10.3389/ soc.2023.969285
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Magdalena Klimczuk-Kocha´
nska,
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Poland
REVIEWED BY
Slawomi Banaszak,
Adam Mickiewicz Uni e si y, Poland
Gulbakhy Sul ano a,
Na xoz Uni e si y, Kazakhs an
*CORRESPONDENCE
Adela M. Vélez-Rolón
adela. [email protected]
Manuel Méndez-Pinzón
[email p o ec ed]
Alejand a Pulido López
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 19 June 2022
ACCEPTED 29 Ma ch 2023
PUBLISHED 04 May 2023
CITATION
Vélez-Rolón AM, Pulido López A,
Méndez-Pinzón M and Nei a-Be mudez D
(2023) Closing he academy–Business gap by
building in ellec ual capi al in p o essional
o ma ion. F on . Sociol. 8:969285.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2023.969285
COPYRIGHT
©2023 Vélez-Rolón, Pulido López,
Méndez-Pinzón and Nei a-Be mudez. This is an
open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms
o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License
(CC BY). The use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion
in o he o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided he
o iginal au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s)
a e c edi ed and ha he o iginal publica ion in
his jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h
accep ed academic p ac ice. No use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which
does no comply wi h hese e ms.
Closing he academy–Business
gap by building in ellec ual capi al
in p o essional o ma ion
Adela M. Vélez-Rolón1*,Alejand a Pulido López2*,
Manuel Méndez-Pinzón3*and Diego Nei a-Be mudez4
1School o Managemen , Colegio de Es udios Supe io es de Adminis ación, Bogo á, Colombia, 2School
o Managemen and Business, Uni e sidad del Rosa io, Bogo á, Colombia, 3School o Managemen and
Business, Poli écnico G ancolombiano, Bogo á, Colombia, 4School o In e na ional Business, Fundación
Uni e si a ia del Á ea Andina, Bogo á, Colombia
In oduc ion: The apid ad ances in echnology, ma ke p essu es, globaliza ion,
and, ecen ly, he COVID-19 pandemic show he need o find educa ional
models ha espond o hese eali ies while imp o ing he employabili y le els
o young people and p omo ing economic g ow h. This esea ch analyzes how
he p o essional o ma ion model, whe e wo lea ning spaces, he academy, and
he company, a e combined, p omo es he closing o gaps and economic g ow h,
h ough he de elopmen o in ellec ual capi al ha a ises om his ela ionship,
in an eme ging economy such as Colombia.
Me hods: The me hodology used co esponds o a quali a i e app oach, whe e
he ision o he ac o s in ol ed in he aining p ocess a he unde g adua e le el
in Colombia is analyzed h ough semi-s uc u ed in e iews, ocus g oups, and
documen a y analysis.
Resul s and discussion: The esul s show fi e majo elemen s o conside o he
o ma ion o he in ellec ual capi al equi ed o he success o he ela ionship
and he educ ion in he gaps be ween academia and business: decision-making
mechanisms, in e -o ganiza ional coo dina ion, knowledge.
KEYWORDS
p o essional o ma ion, in ellec ual capi al, SDG 8, knowledge managemen , decen wo k
and economic g ow h
In oduc ion
Technological p og ess, globaliza ion, he ma ke , and a ola ile, unce ain, complex, and
ambiguous en i onmen (VUCA) ha e d i en knowledge as he key ac o ha p omo es
compe i i eness c ea ion, g ow h, and weal h o he coun ies, con ibu ing o acing
complex p oblems ha a ec humani y and ha a e highligh ed in he 2030 Agenda. In his
con ex , in ellec ual capi al mus be unde s ood as he o ce ha allows he esolu ion o
hese p oblems.
One o he majo issues is you h unemploymen . Young people ace di icul ies in
labo ma ke s, p eca iousness and p edominance o low-skilled jobs, low wo k expe ience,
occupa ional u no e and in o mali y, income ins abili y, lack o legal p o ec ion, and
limi ed aining and ca ee oppo uni ies, which gene a e occupa ional ins abili y and do
no allow hem o acqui e he quali ica ions, expe ience, and skills necessa y o u u e job
s abili y (In e na ional Labou O ice, 2020;O ganización In e nacional del T abajo, 2021).
In addi ion, hey a e h ee imes mo e likely han adul s o be unemployed (In e na ional
Labou O ice, 2020).
F on ie s in Sociology 01 on ie sin.o g
47
Vélez-Rolón e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.969285
Acco ding o he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, young
people in La in Ame ica e u ned o employmen possibili ies mo e
quickly han adul s a e he c isis gene a ed by he COVID-19
pandemic, a phenomenon explained by you h in o mali y in he
labo ma ke and he eco e y o he ac i i ies wi h he highes
you h employmen ; howe e , he you h unemploymen a e in
2020 and 2021 was ∼22% (O ganización In e nacional del T abajo,
2021), which is highe han he global a e o 13.6% in 2020,
becoming his a ma e o conce n in he egion. By 2020, globally,
one- i h o young people we e no gaining expe ience o income
om wo k, no we e hey imp o ing hei educa ion le els o skills
(In e na ional Labou O ice, 2020).
Rega dless o he sec o o he economy, companies equi e
employees wi h knowledge and skills in in o ma ion echnologies
ha suppo ac i i ies and echnical unc ions in di e en a eas
(In e na ional Labou O ice, 2020). Ha ing a uni e si y educa ion
deg ee educes he isk o job displacemen due o p ocess
au oma ion, gi en he skills acqui ed o p oblem-sol ing, which
gene a es he challenge o ensu ing quali y academic p og ams
wi h su icien co e age and closing he gap be ween business
and academy, b inging, consequen ly, he challenge ha will lead
o he de elopmen o solu ions o he a ai s ha a lic he
wo ld nowadays.
Dual aining is he model ha has b ough he business
sec o and academia close , also known as Voca ional Educa ion
and T aining (VET) sys ems. In 2001, Colombia implemen ed
his oca ional aining model h ough a coope a ion ag eemen
be ween he Ge man go e nmen and he chambe s o comme ce,
o seek compe i i eness and imp o e he p oduc i i y o companies
in he coun y, closing he gaps in aining.
S udies analyze his ype o aining in di e en pa s o
he wo ld, and some o hese ocused on ans e (Eule , 2013;
Gonon, 2014;Hin ichs, 2014;Gessle , 2017b); in La in Ame ica,
i is desc ibed (Rojas, 2015;Molina, 2016;Espinoza F ei e, 2020;
Pegue a Ca é e al., 2021;Zapa a e al., 2021), ocusing on
he expe ience since i s implemen a ion, analyzing he gaps and
challenges o i s unde s anding, limi a ions, and possibili ies, and
being his a po en ial ield o esea ch conside ing he con ibu ion
o his model o economic g ow h and decen wo k as i has been
p oposed wo ldwide (Vélez Rolón, 2019).
Knowledge managemen in p o essional
o ma ion
D ucke (1993) sugges s he ele ance o unde s anding
knowledge as he mos aluable esou ce o economic g ow h, in
he so-called knowledge socie y. In o ganiza ions, his knowledge
mus be c ea ed om he in e ac ion o he aci knowledge o each
membe and he explici knowledge c ea ed in he o ganiza ion
(Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995;Nonaka and Konno, 1998;Von
K ogh e al., 2000). This gene a es alue o he o ganiza ion,
aking ad an age o he use o knowledge as an in angible asse ,
he in ensi e use o echnology and p ocesses e iciency, and he
de elopmen o inno a ions (Hislop e al., 2018).
This occu s om wo undamen al p ocesses: i s ,
knowledge managemen , assumed as he iden i ica ion, cap u e,
sys ema iza ion, and use o o ganiza ional knowledge (Nonaka
and Takeuchi, 1995;Fi es one and McEl oy, 2003;Senge and
KIm, 2013), and second, he ans e o knowledge seen as
he bidi ec ional p ocess low o knowledge; om he heo y
o communica ion, his low equi es h ee de e minan s: he
willingness o he ans e o he ecei e ; he app op ia e channels
o ansmission; and unde s anding he alue and use o he
knowledge ans e ed (Gup a and Go inda ajan, 2000).
In ellec ual capi al
In ellec ual capi al has been s udied om he alue c ea ion and
he compe i i e ad an age o o ganiza ion app oaches. Ed insson
(1997) de ines in ellec ual capi al as he se o knowledge,
expe ience, echnology, cus ome ela ionships, and p o essional
skills ha an o ganiza ion has; i is he knowledge asse s ha
u n in o alue and c ea e inno a ion (Sa do e al., 2018), om
he c ea ion and connec ion be ween expe ise, expe ience, and
compe ence inside and ou side o ganiza ions (Do Rosa io e al.,
2008), and is concei ed as a sou ce o compe i i e ad an age
(Sha aba i e al., 2010). This in ellec ual capi al, unde s ood as
in angible asse s, does no appea on he company balance shee s
bu gene a es mo e alue o o ganiza ions han physical asse s
(Hashim e al., 2015). This gene a ion o alue and compe i i e
ad an age comes om he combina ion o he dimensions o
in ellec ual capi al: human capi al, s uc u al capi al, and ela ional
capi al (Do Rosa io e al., 2008;Kian o e al., 2017;Sa do e al., 2018;
Li e al., 2021).
Human capi al is conside ed he main sou ce o compe i i e
ad an age (Do Rosa io e al., 2008), as i is a sou ce o enewal,
c ea i i y, and inno a i eness (Sa do e al., 2018), and includes
he knowledge, quali ica ions, skills (Zeghal and Maaloul, 2010),
expe ience, commi men , and mo i a ion (Kian o e al., 2017) o
an o ganiza ion’s employees. I is he indi idual s ock o knowledge
ha is u he nu u ed by hei willingness, skills, and aining (Li
e al., 2021). This capi al is no owned by he company since i lea es
as soon as membe s o he o ganiza ion lea e (Zeghal and Maaloul,
2010;Kian o e al., 2017;McDowell e al., 2018).
On he con a y, s uc u al capi al is unde s ood as he non-
human asse s o an o ganiza ion, which a e embodied and s o ed
in in o ma ion sys ems, da abases, p og ams (Do Rosa io e al.,
2008), p oduc ion p ocesses, in o ma ion echnologies (Zeghal
and Maaloul, 2010), in o ma ion sys ems, wo k p ocedu es,
know-how (Ed insson and Sulli an, 1996), inno a ions, business
p ocesses (Roos and Whi ehill, 1998;Do Rosa io e al., 2008),
and o ganiza ional capabili ies, cul u e, and in ellec ual p ope y
(Sa do e al., 2018). This capi al is owned by he o ganiza ion and
emains in he o ganiza ion when employees o membe s o he
o ganiza ion a e no longe pa o i .
Finally, ela ional capi al, some imes known as social capi al
(Sub amaniam and Yound , 2005;Kian o e al., 2017;Li e al.,
2021) o cus ome capi al (Bon is, 1998), includes ela ionships
and knowledge wi h cus ome s, supplie s, indus y, pa ne s,
connec ions and ela ionships wi h au ho i y (Do Rosa io e al.,
2008;Sha aba i e al., 2010;Kian o e al., 2017;Li e al., 2021), and
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s akeholde s and also includes b and loyal y, image, and epu a ion
(Sa do e al., 2018).
P o essional o ma ion
Te ia y educa ion models ha e been changing and e ol ing in
ways ha allow hem o espond o he needs o educa ion and he
g owing demands o he ma ke and he p essu es o he complex
p oblems o he wen y- i s cen u y. Hanna (1998) classi ies hese
new models om he poin o iew o educa ion p o ide s,
conside ing he abo emen ioned p essu es, a classi ica ion ha
is s ill ele an and has gi en some ele ance o models abou
con ex ual p essu es. In his esea ch, models ha e lec he
business-academy alliance a e analyzed.
E zkowi z and Leydesdo (1995) encompassed his alliance
om he iple helix model, which explains he ela ionship
be ween go e nmen , indus y, and uni e si ies o he p oduc ion
o knowledge and inno a ion; la e , a ou h helix was included
ha sough o explain hese ela ionships enclosed by social
complexi ies (Ca ayannis and Rakhma ullin, 2014), a guing ha
he ela ionships be ween hese ac o s mus be unde s ood wi hin
a sys em ha allows he p oduc ion and di usion o knowledge
(Lund all, 2010). I is in his con ex o knowledge p oduc ion, in
which academy–business coope a ion ne wo ks become a d i e o
economic g ow h while allowing uni e si ies o play a di e en ole
in gene a ing alue o socie y (De Fuen es and Du éni , 2012;
Sam and an de Sijde, 2014;Bikse e al., 2016). Faced wi h his
eali y, his aining model, de eloped in Ge many, has aken g ea
ele ance o app oach he academy–indus y ela ions and o close
he gap be ween academia and he p oduc i e sec o .
The model is based on he aining o young people in wo
al e na e spaces: he academy and he company, implemen ed in
di e en ways a ound he wo ld (Eichho s e al., 2015). Such
a ia ion in models is linked o he de elopmen o aining i sel ,
p essu ed by his o ical and cul u al p ocesses in each coun y,
which de e mines he way how i should be adap ed (Eule , 2013;
Gessle and Howe, 2015). Some o he cha ac e is ic elemen s o
dual aining a e as ollows: (1) ha ing wo lea ning spaces, (2) job
o a ion du ing he p o essional in e nship, (3) he exis ence o a
wo k plan c ea ed be ween eache s and company ins uc o s, and
(4) he exis ence o u o s in he class oom and he company.
High you h unemploymen a es, coupled wi h he need o ain
compe en human capi al, ha e e i ed he deba e on he ele ance
o implemen ing dual aining models, b inging se e al challenges.
In his scena io, companies ace obs acles when de eloping dual
aining p og ams. One majo obs acle is inancial, deepened by he
c isis gene a ed by he COVID-19 pandemic (OECD, 2021); he
inco po a ion o echnology, emo e wo k, and lexibili y o ake
b eaks du ing wo k pe iods we e some o he mechanisms used by
companies ha a e expec ed o con inue o coun e ac he e ec s
o he c isis in he sho and medium e m and de elop in his
way aining and VET. Tha is why highe educa ion ins i u ions
a e he ones ha mus ake on he challenge o gene a ing spaces
and s a egies ha o e he possibili y o p ac ical lea ning h ough
simula ions and o he in o ma ion echnologies, applied p ojec s,
he use o labo a o ies, and o he expe ien ial lea ning s a egies
(OECD, 2021). In his sense, and o ensu e highe le els o
employabili y o young people, in eg a ed policies a e equi ed
o p omo e esea ch and de elopmen ha os e new sec o s
and inno a ions leading o job c ea ion and, on he con a y, o
p omo e he upda ing o he educa ional o e aking in o accoun
ma ke needs and ends ha include pe sonal and digi al skills
(In e na ional Labou O ice, 2020).
In his con ex , he O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion
and De elopmen (2020) ecommends ac ions o he cons uc ion
o VET sys ems in u u e by coun ies. Among hese, i p oposes he
in e ac ion be ween employe s and unions, planning o changes
in he labo ma ke , inancial aid, a ailabili y o digi al and
dis ance educa ion, p omo ion o digi al badges, de elopmen o
ans e sal compe encies, inco po a ion o ulne able g oups, and
eache quali ica ion (O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion
and De elopmen , 2020).
Resea ch ques ions
The s udy add esses he ollowing esea ch ques ion: How
can p o essional o ma ion con ibu e o he de elopmen o
in ellec ual capi al and b idge he gap be ween academia and
business in eme ging economies? case Colombia.
Da a and me hods
The esea ch me hodology chosen was he case s udy, which
allows o he examina ion in dep h o he dynamics and
ela ionships o a phenomenon unde s udy (Yin, 2009), allowing
o es ablish ela ionships be ween cases (Hancock and Algozzine,
2011). Fo he selec ion o hese cases, a non-p obabilis ic pu posi e
sample was selec ed, which is cha ac e ized by allowing he
esea che o de ine acco ding o he need o he esea ch. The
case s udies chosen o his esea ch co espond o he i e highe
educa ion ins i u ions (HEI) ha ha e had educa ion p og ams
wi h p o essional o ma ion models in La in Ame ica, pa o he
Duale Hochschule La inoamé ica (DHLA) (DHLA).
Fo each case s udy, he same s a egy o indi idual analysis
was es ablished o con inue wi h he c oss-checking o da a and he
cons uc ion o ela ionships and o e iews. The esea ch p esen s
a quali a i e app oach, in which di e en da a sou ces and da a
collec ion echniques we e used o alida e he esul s, h ough
a iangula ion p ocess, and he in o ma ion was o ganized in a
da abase analyzed h ough he ATLAS Ti 22 so wa e, whe e he
chain o e idence o each case was main ained (Yin, 2009).
The quali a i e esea ch echniques used we e as ollows: 16
semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h p o esso s, in e nship supe iso s,
businessmen, and manage s o he HEI; analysis o 43 o icial
documen s o he model co esponding o guidelines, ins i u ional
s a egic plans, in e nship ollow-up plans, web pages, and
imp o emen plans made by s uden s; addi ionally, 10 g oup
in e iews we e conduc ed wi h s uden s o he i e HEI.
Fo he da a collec ion, i was necessa y o iden i y he
ac o s such as p o esso s, in e nship supe iso s, en ep eneu s,
and manage s o he HEI and o de elop p o iles o each one,
gene a ing he codes o hei espec i e iden i ica ion in he
ma ixes whe e he esul s a e compa ed, and he ins umen and
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TABLE 1 Theo e ical cons uc s.
Va iable Definición Au o es
Knowledge
managemen
This a iable desc ibes he
ac i i ies ha gene a e knowledge
in he company, i s ela ionship
wi h inno a ion, and he
knowledge cycle.
Nonaka and Takeuchi,
1995;Nonaka and
Konno, 1998
Human capi al I e e s o he knowledge, skills,
quali ica ions, expe ience,
commi men , aining, willingness,
mo i a ion, and ap i udes o he
membe s o an o ganiza ion.
Zeghal and Maaloul,
2010;Kian o e al., 2017;
McDowell e al., 2018;Li
e al., 2021
S uc u al
capi al
I e e s o he non-human asse s o
an o ganiza ion: in o ma ion
sys ems, da abases, so wa e,
p oduc ion p ocesses, in o ma ion
echnologies, in o ma ion sys ems,
wo k p ocedu es, know-how,
inno a ions, business p ocesses,
o ganiza ional capabili ies, cul u e,
and in ellec ual p ope y.
Ed insson and Sulli an,
1996;Roos and
Whi ehill, 1998;Do
Rosa io e al., 2008;
Zeghal and Maaloul,
2010;Sa do e al., 2018
Rela ional
capi al
This a iable includes ela ionships
and knowledge o cus ome s,
supplie s, indus y, pa ne s,
connec ions, ela ionships wi h
au ho i y, s akeholde s, b and
loyal y, image, and epu a ion.
Sha aba i e al., 2010;
Kian o e al., 2017;Sa do
e al., 2018
Knowledge
ans e
The a iable e e s o he
mechanisms ha enable he low o
knowledge.
Gup a and
Go inda ajan, 2000
Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
size o he sample we e also codi ied o each HEI, as well as he
main cha ac e is ics and gene al in o ma ion o each ins i u ion.
The me hodological p ocess was ca ied ou om he
documen a y analysis and da a collec ion h ough in e iews
based on he selec ed heo e ical a iables. Subsequen ly, he
indi idual and g oup in e iews we e ansc ibed, gene a ing a lis
o ca ego ies and assigning hem o each ques ion o inish wi h he
analysis, ca ego iza ion, and de elopmen o he epo s.
Da a analysis
In his p ocess, he esponses o he pa icipan s we e
ca ego ized and codi ied, g ouping hem in an o de ly manne ,
acili a ing he comp ehension o he ca ego ies iden i ied
heo e ically (see Table 1); he a iables used o he da a analysis
ga e ise o he deduc i e ca ego iza ion (see Figu e 1), which
allowed unde s anding he cons uc ion o in ellec ual capi al.
The in o ma ion ex ac ed om he documen s was analyzed,
and bo h indi idual and g oup in e iews and obse a ions we e
ansc ibed, ca ego izing and classi ying each a iable p oposed in
a da abase using he quali a i e da a analysis so wa e ATLAS TI
22. Fo his analysis, lis s we e cons uc ed wi h he ca ego ies
o be assigned o each case, as de ined by He nández Sampie i
e al. (2014), gi ing alues ha acili a e he iden i ica ion o each
i em o da a; his lis o codes and ca ego ies was based on he
li e a u e, aking as a basis a documen a y analysis o he heo e ical
ounda ions ound o he cons uc ion o he ins umen s used.
FIGURE 1
Knowledge managemen . Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
Deduc i e encoding
This s ep began wi h he assignmen o sec ions o in e iews,
indi idual and g oup, documen s o each o he ca ego ies
iden i ied om he heo e ical e e ences o he esea ch, called
uni s o signi icance (US), which ep esen agmen s o he
in e iews, ocus g oups, and documen s analyzed ha a e
associa ed wi h each heo e ical ca ego y de ined.
Induc i e encoding
Fo his encoding, i was necessa y o pe iodically e iew and
add codes when necessa y, and he 800 (US) we e g ouped in o
codes om he da a, inding 37 codes ha allow o unde s and he
cons uc ion o in ellec ual capi al in p o essional o ma ion. This
p ocess concluded when he uni s o signi icance we e epea ed in
each o he cases, and when hey we e assigned o he ca ego ies and
inally o he codes.
Eme ging ca ego ies
The analysis o he da a esul s in he de elopmen o i e
me aca ego ies ha allow he ecogni ion o he mos impo an
elemen s o conside o he de elopmen o in ellec ual capi al in
he p o essional o ma ion model in Colombia, which a he same
ime explains how hey a o economic g ow h when closing he
academy–business gaps.
Resul s
Deduc i e codifica ion
The deduc i e codi ica ion p ocess was ca ied ou by
conside ing he a iables p oposed om he heo y ha allows
he de elopmen o in ellec ual capi al: ela ional capi al (46.5%),
human capi al (21.25%), and s uc u al capi al (32.25%). A o al o
800 uni s o meaning we e ound om he analysis o he di e en
da a collec ed (Figu e 2).
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FIGURE 2
In ellec ual capi al. Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
FIGURE 3
S uc u al capi al. Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
Induc i e codifica ion
Based on he con ibu ions made by he pa icipan s and he
analysis o he o icial documen s, 37 indica i e ca ego ies we e
iden i ied, which we e g ouped in o each o he abo emen ioned
heo e ical ca ego ies.
The s uc u al capi al buil -in p o essional o ma ion o
he pa icipan s in he esea ch should con ain he ollowing
elemen s: cla i y in he no ma i i y and inancing o he model,
he necessa y p epa a ion p ocess in he uni e si ies be o e
s a ing he in e nships, and he de elopmen o con en s ha
accoun o lea ning and app oaches om he class oom and
he company, ha ing cla i y in he lea ning e alua ion models
no only o he s uden s bu also o he o ganiza ions and o
he model i sel . This should also conside he size, capabili ies,
na u e o he companies and hei o ganiza ional cul u e, he
measu emen o he same h ough cla i y in he KPIs, he
de elopmen o knowledge codi ica ion, and he alignmen wi h
he di e en ial alue p oposi ion ha he model i sel o e s
(Figu e 3).
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Some o he a gumen s ha suppo hese esul s a e as ollows:
“The ease o applying wha we lea n depends on he size o
he company and he sec o in which hey a e, in SMEs you can
b ing mo e knowledge (S uden ).”
“The model equi es ha mony be ween he uni e si y and
he companies, bu as he e a e ew companies, i is di icul
o s uden s o do hei in e nships well applied, we ha e cases
whe e hey a e e y small companies, hen hey go o do one,
he ma ke ing in e nship, and hey pu hem o do some hing
abou quali y managemen o hey pu hem o do some hing
else, so some imes hey end o de ia e a li le om he concep
o he in e nship and hey will do i mo e o comme cial needs”
(P ac ical Coo dina o ).
S uden s can adequa ely apply hei knowledge in a la ge
company o a small company, o hey can be in a la ge company
and no apply any o he knowledge, he impo an hing is he
accompanimen ha we a e doing (Decision make s).
“The e a e egula o y ba ie s in Colombia ha ha e e y
complex inancial implica ions because in gene al, he dual
model in all coun ies whe e i has been implemen ed has a
s ong suppo om he company in e ms o inancing he
s uden s because he e is a e ibu ion in he aining p ocess”
(P og am Di ec o ).
The o ma ion o human capi al becomes he highe pu pose
ha should media e he academy–business ela ionship in
p o essional o ma ion, and he esul s show he key aspec s
o his o happen: he de elopmen o compe encies in
s uden s, eache s, and ins uc o s, a s ong componen o
aining in so skills, cons an eedback p ocesses be ween
he di e en ac o s in he p ocess, he open willingness o
employe s o ans e hei knowledge o s uden s and o
s uden s o apply he knowledge acqui ed in he class oom,
he cons uc ion o he necessa y in e ac ion o ollow-up
in e nships, and he necessa y aining o s uden s o become
he key candida es o gene a ional change in o ganiza ions
(Figu e 4).
Some o he con ibu ions made by pa icipan s we e
he ollowing:
“The coo dina ion be ween uni e si y p o esso s and
company ins uc o s allows s uden s o eel ha hey a e lea ning
and applying hei knowledge simul aneously” (manage ial
ocus g oup).
“I would be necessa y o c ea e a p ope p o ile o
o e iew o he company whe e he bes ou e is ou lined o
s uden s and o hem o apply hei wo k p oposals” (in e iew
in e nship coo dina o ).
“The DHLA eache mus be an expe ienced esea che
and use high-le el bibliog aphic sou ces in his classes; (...)
He mus know he le el o he s uden a each s age o
iden i y he app op ia e eaching ma e ial and use he mos
app op ia e me hods. The DHLA eache mus know in gene al
e ms he business aining plans and he objec i es (acco ding
o he aining amewo k plan) o each a ea.” (o icial
documen DHLA_08)
The e is a o mula ha is e y simple and p ac ical, and
i is ha in his wo k wi h he company he uni e si y mus
selec p o esso s o do he ollow-up he e, bu addi ionally, he
companies mus assign men o s, hese men o s wo k oge he
wi h he p o esso s, and hey a e he ones who a e going o
acili a e his p ocess (P og am Di ec o ).
The cons uc ion o ela ional capi al should be unde s ood as
he di e en ial o his ype o aining compa ed o o he exis ing
ones. The i s elemen is he uni e si y–business a icula ion, he
possibili y o c ea ing ne wo ks o pa ne s, he sha ed coo dina ion
o he model, he closing o he gap be ween academia and
business in e ms o ime and esou ces, he cons an de elopmen
o in e nships o s uden s, he de elopmen o channels o
he cons an exchange o o mal and in o mal knowledge, he
possibili y o aceabili y o he aining and g ow h o s uden s,
he bidi ec ional low o knowledge, he spaces in he o ganiza ions
ha allow he aining o s uden s and p omo e employabili y,
he ecogni ion o he alue o he knowledge gene a ed, and
he de elopmen o applied esea ch and inno a ion p ocesses
(Figu e 5). In his ega d, he pa icipan s s a e ha :
“The s uden is implemen ing wi hin he company
imp o emen s, which is a compe i i e ad an age o he
company” (en ep eneu ).
“S udying gi es us he possibili y o b ing new and
c ea i e ideas o he company, helping in he c ea ion o mo e
alue” (s uden ).
“I help hem in aining, bu when hey a e al eady ained I
wan hem o help me in he business as well” (en ep eneu ).
“Wi h he uni e si y business model, wha he company does
is ha i an icipa es he aining p ocess o he wo ke s and gains
he pe son’s s udy ime wi h a lea ning p ocess and when ha
pe son joins he company a e inishing hei s udies hey will be
much mo e p oduc i e han ano he pe son who comes om a
con en ional model” (en ep eneu ).
“F om my poin o iew, i depends a lo on he
company whe e you can apply wha you a e seeing a he
momen ” (s uden ).
“The mos aluable hing abou he model is he oppo uni y
o capi alize on he s uden ’s knowledge in he o ganiza ions,
h ough he in e nship p ojec s” (in e nship coo dina o ).
“The company p o ides a con ibu ion in knowledge
managemen om o ganiza ional s uc u es and he business
en i onmen o he academy in a o o compe i i eness and
alue c ea ion” (P og am Di ec o ).
De elopmen o he final
ca ego ies—Me aca ego ies
A o al o i e inal ca ego ies eme ged om he codi ica ion
and ca ego iza ion p ocess ca ied ou du ing he analysis p ocess.
The p oposed ca ego ies allow comp ehending o he necessa y
elemen s o he cons uc ion o in ellec ual capi al in p o essional
o ma ion, unde s anding ha his p ocess akes place in he
academy–en e p ise ela ionship.
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FIGURE 4
Human capi al. Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
The ca ego ies ha eme ge allow explaining he necessa y
elemen s ha in e ene in he cons uc ion o he in ellec ual
capi al academy–en e p ise ela ionship a e as ollows (Figu e 6):
1. Decision-making mechanisms.
2. In e o ganiza ional coo dina ion.
3. Knowledge ans e capabili ies.
4. Knowledge sys ema iza ion.
5. Added alue o he p o essional o ma ion model.
Discussion
This esea ch has analyzed he poin o iew o he di e en
ac o s in ol ed in he p o essional o ma ion p ocess in Colombia,
he way o build in ellec ual capi al, om he ela ionship be ween
academia and business. The esul s we e g ouped in o h ee ypes
o capi al: ela ional capi al, s uc u al capi al, and human capi al,
based on he p ocesses o gene a ion and ans e o knowledge
o hei analysis. The unde s anding o how in ellec ual capi al
de eloped om he implemen a ion o p o essional o ma ion
makes i possible o explain how he gap be ween academia
and business can be closed in a way ha a o s he coun y’s
economic g ow h.
Decision-making mechanisms
Acco ding o he indings, he decision-making mechanisms
in he p o essional o ma ion p ocesses in Colombia a e linked
o he s uc u al capi al necessa y o i s ope a ion, and hese
condi ions a y in di e en coun ies whe e he model has been
implemen ed; in he La in Ame ican case, speci ically in Colombia,
he academia–indus y ela ions occu a he mic o-le el, i.e.,
only be ween ins i u ions. Ge many, on he con a y, p esen s
di e en le els o ela ionships, being he ole o he go e nmen
a ele an poin , s a ed also by Gessle (2017a) de eloped
by Rojas He nández e al. (2019). This becomes a challenge o
Colombia, whe e p o essional o ma ion as an educa ional model
has been egula ed o a ew yea s and he implemen a ion
mechanisms a e s ill poo ly unde s ood.
In e o ganiza ional coo dina ion
The esul s show ha lea ning spaces mus be explained om
hei pa icula i ies and needs, i is necessa y o unde s and he
cu icula model o aining ha mus be implemen ed in he
companies and o ecognize his space as a aining space a he
han a p ac ice space; on he con a y, uni e si ies mus manage
o inco po a e he lea ning p omo ed by he business sec o .
T aining spaces mus be aligned o he p ope de elopmen o
aining whe e he con ex plays a undamen al ole (Lucas e al.,
2012). Addi ionally, he esul s e idence he impo ance o in e -
o ganiza ional dialog and he ele ance o u o s, coinciding wi h
Gessle and Hin ichs (2015).
Knowledge ans e capabili ies
Knowledge ans e p ocesses be ween he class oom and
business a e media ed by he in e es o he pa ies, so he e mus
be an awa eness o he gene a ion o alue om hem ( on K ogh
e al., 2001). In his ega d, he pa icipan s s a ed ha he e is a high
in e es in sha ing knowledge by he en ep eneu s; howe e , his is
linked o he size o he company, he spaces, and channels o dialog,
and he business cul u e, which ag ees wi h Rod íguez Gómez
(2009) who s a es ha knowledge ans e is s ongly ela ed o
he o ganiza ional cul u e. Rega ding he channels h ough which
knowledge ans e akes place, he in o man s s a ed ha hey
a e mos ly in o mal, which is suppo ed by Eom and Lee (2010)
indings, who also iden i ied ha in o mal channels a e he mos
used way o ans e knowledge be ween he academy and business,
F on ie s in Sociology 07 on ie sin.o g
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Vélez-Rolón e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.969285
FIGURE 5
Rela ional capi al. Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
FIGURE 6
Me aca ego ies. Sou ce: Au ho ’s elabo a ion.
he communica ion and ans e channels mus be clea ly de ined
o cap u e knowledge mo e e ec i ely, and he mo i a ion o
in e ac plays an impo an ole o he use o hese channels (D’Es e
and Pe kmann, 2011). Conce ning he use o knowledge, he
indings show how his is a p ocess ha is condi ioned by he ype
o o ganiza ion, i s willingness o coope a e, and he s uc u e o he
educa ional Ins i u ion, and on his, Kanama and Nishikawa (2017)
s a e ha companies can imp o e hei inno a i e pe o mance
F on ie s in Sociology 08 on ie sin.o g
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Vélez-Rolón e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.969285
when collabo a ing wi h academia, only i he e is cla i y abou he
alue o knowledge.
Conce ning he ans e , he mos ele an issue is o
unde s and wha is he eal alue o knowledge, he esul s in his
sense show ha he e is a high po en ial o use he knowledge
gene a ed in he academy–business ela ionship, and i is necessa y
o ha e all he s uc u e o i s use; in his sense, di e en s udies
aise he impo ance o ac i a ing his knowledge (Gup a and
Go inda ajan, 2000), and his equi es he de elopmen o a
coo dina ed s a egy o his o occu .
Knowledge sys ema iza ion
To unde s and how o c ea e in ellec ual capi al capable
o con ibu ing o economic de elopmen om p o essional
o ma ion, i is necessa y o implemen measu emen and
moni o ing p ocesses ha allow no only he aceabili y o he
p ocess bu also o demons a e he ue alue o aining. These
indings coincide wi h he esul s ob ained by di e en au ho s
(Hin ichs, 2014;Gessle and Hin ichs, 2015).
The added alue o he p o essional
o ma ion model
P o essional o ma ion alue c ea ion can be unde s ood om
di e en pe spec i es, and one o hem is he possibili y o
gene a ing new applied knowledge om inc emen al inno a ion
p ocesses, coinciding wi h he con ibu ions o Eule (2013)
ega ding he implemen a ion in o he coun ies, and Kaise e al.
(2015), who highligh s he ole o ne wo ks o inno a ion. Thus,
he academy–business ela ionship no only p omo es coope a ion
and knowledge gene a ion bu also esul s in he gene a ion o
inno a ions ha enable economic g ow h and sophis ica ion o he
p oduc i e sec o ( on K ogh e al., 2001;Eom and Lee, 2010).
On he con a y, p o essional o ma ion enables as e business
esponse imes (Gessle and Hin ichs, 2015), allows s uden s
o in luence he imp o emen o p ocesses h ough lea ning
(Bandu a, 2010), and imp o es knowledge ans e h ough
collabo a ion (Chiabu u e al., 2010).
In ellec ual capi al, p o essional o ma ion,
and economic g ow h
Based on he ca ego ies analyzed, he cons uc ion o
in ellec ual capi al h ough p o essional o ma ion is e idenced
by i s human capi al, s uc u al capi al, and ela ional capi al
dimensions and i s impac on closing gaps be ween business
and academia.
Human capi al is buil mainly om he de elopmen o
pe sonal skills and he willingness o ans e knowledge, h ough
in e -ins i u ional coo dina ion, s uden compe encies, aining o
ins uc o s, and cons an eedback in he ca ego y o knowledge
ans e capabili ies, ollow-up o in e nships, and he gene a ional
elay and applica ion o knowledge as e idence o he added alue
gene a ed by he p o essional o ma ion model.
The s eng hening de ini ion o s uc u al capi al om
he dual model is demons a ed ac oss he egula ions and
inancing as decision-making mechanisms, he implemen a ion o
in e -o ganiza ional coo dina ion ha p epa es s uden s o he
in e nships, de elops con en , o mula es he lea ning model, and
es ablishes bo h o ganiza ional and he model lea ning assessmen .
Mo eo e , his capi al is s eng hened by he abili y o ans e
knowledge be ween academia and business h ough he p oposal
and es ablishmen o lea ning s a egies and e alua ion p ocesses,
conside ing he capabili ies and size o companies, hei na u e,
and o ganiza ional cul u e, o malized in a speci ic measu emen
sys em and he codi ica ion o knowledge. The added alue c ea ed
by he p o essional o ma ion model is e lec ed in a di e en ial
alue p oposi ion o he pa ies in ol ed.
Finally, ela ional capi al managemen p omo es he model
s eng hening h ough he mechanisms used o decision-making
om he a icula ion be ween academia and business, and he
gene a ion o ne wo ks and hei aceabili y. Simila ly, wi h
in e -o ganiza ional and knowledge coo dina ion, he gap be ween
academia and business is closed, which p omo es he de elopmen
o success ul in e nships, he o mal and in o mal knowledge
exchange, and he gene a ion o alue o he p o essional o ma ion
is e idenced by win–win ela ionships, he employabili y o
young people, he c ea ion o inno a ions and knowledge, and
collabo a i e esea ch p ocesses.
Conclusion
Human capi al is a de e mining ac o in he economic
g ow h o a coun y, especially in he so-called knowledge socie y,
so i becomes a eal ac o o p oduc ion. In his way, i is
impo an o coun ies o commi in e ms o in es men in he
educa ion o compe en human capi al, esea ch, inno a ion, and
echnological de elopmen , o imp o e he p oduc i e s uc u e
o he business (Hyde, 2015;G eine e al., 2016;S igli z and
G eenwald, 2016).
In he case o Colombia, i becomes a necessi y, i s ,
o ain he exis ing labo o ce, which is low-skilled and
much ocused on low- alue-added se ices, and his should be
shi ed in o concei ing educa ion as an endogenous ac o in
i s economic g ow h o mula (Thelen, 2006;Ace edo, 2007).
Second, he g ea changes in o ganiza ional models, he speed
wi h which en e p ises g ow, and he new no mali y esul ed
om he COVID-19 pandemic p o ide a a o able con ex o
p o essional o ma ion o become a model ha accoun s o
hese changes, especially because o he immedia e esponse in
academic aining.
Consequen ly, a posi i e ela ionship is ound be ween
he de elopmen o in ellec ual capi al h ough p o essional
o ma ion models and economic g ow h and decen wo k,
h ough he closing o academia and business gaps. The
comp ehension o he business, economic and social needs by
highe educa ion ins i u ions, and knowing hei capaci y o
espond in an a icula ed manne wi h he company p omo e
F on ie s in Sociology 09 on ie sin.o g
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B oeche and Pain e 10.3389/ soc.2023.1164293
mu ual lea ning, as was once he case in a na u al way. O cou se,
in he pas , he e we e o en powe s uc u es, dependencies, pee
p essu e, o a lack o accep ance o indi iduali y. Taking ca e no o
e e o p io imes, ye p ese ing he bes ideas and expe iences,
we would combine hem wi h a new ans o ma i e philosophy.
The humane alues a e always decisi e, he o ien a ion owa d he
good, as we can lea n om communi a ianism o he philosophy
o O’Donohue (1998). Along wi h hese social conside a ions, he
a m p ojec in Anhal is abou e y p ac ical hings (B oeche ,
2023a,b). Lea ning oppo uni ies include epai ing, ebuilding, and
mode nizing his o ic buildings, a mhouses, s ables and ba ns,
and pa ly imbe - amed buildings. These ac i i ies p ese e
he a ea’s cul u al he i age and s a o implemen ecologically
aluable building ma e ials and sma echnologies (Figu es 1,2).
O he lea ning a eas unde explo a ion a e o ganic a ming, ui
g owing, and sheep a ming.
Discussion
This s udy aims o connec he c i ical analysis o social
s uc u es wi h an ou line o an al e na i e model o wo king,
lea ning, and li ing, a model ha aims a sus ainable de elopmen
o all, including na u e, wildli e, and he whole plane (Uni ed
Na ions, 2016). P o iding an uncondi ional basic income and
con e ing s a e-con olled compulso y schooling in o sel -
designed compulso y educa ion a e wo cen al pa ame e s o
he change sough he e. In sho , we ad oca e he ans o ma ion
o lea ning, g owing up, wo king, and li ing, as a eas na owly
in e wined. Signi ican suppo exis s in Ge man socie y o
es ablishing uncondi ional basic income, bu he e is also
opposi ion. In he Uni ed S a es, many deem his policy as oo
adical, al hough he e a e places open o discussion. Skep ical
ci izens dis us such a solu ion, ea ing exploi a ion. O he s
ejec basic income because hey see i as a o m o social
edis ibu ion which encou ages passi e and sel ish beha io . Bu
his p ojec iews he p esence o a basic income as an incen i e
o ac en ep eneu ially and o ake on social esponsibili y.
Examining con empo a y Ge man socie y, he con e sion o
compulso y schooling in o a sel -designed compulso y educa ion
is di isi e. Homeschooling and ee lea ning o ma s ha e
exis ed in he Uni ed S a es o e ime. In Ge many, howe e ,
opponen s epea edly exp ess a ea ha child en and young
people will esis lea ning on hei own. Con e sely, e en
unde he cu en condi ions, he e is an eme ging g oup
o s uden s who lea n oo li le o who do no go o school
egula ly, causing a a ie y o p oblems, excessi e cos s, and
subsequen p oblems. The e o e, despi e e e y hing, he e is
a need beyond school o al e na i e places o lea ning. This
ans o ma i e communi y-p ojec mo emen , like mos e o m
mo emen s, does no appea wi hou i s skep ics and c i ics. They
ques ion he idea o es ablishing ans o ma i e communi ies
because hey ela e he idea o abuse o powe , manipula ion,
and exploi a ion. Fo example, hey make he connec ion wi h
such abysmal p ojec s as Colonia Dignidad. To be success ul,
go e nmen agencies mus o e see hem so ha hose in ol ed
ha e hei human igh s gua an eed, and democ a ic p inciples
a e a eali y. T anspa ency and accessibili y a e pa amoun o
he p ojec s, as a e clea philosophical explica ion and inancial
disclosu e. These p ojec s mus p ohibi he condi ioning o
indoc ina ion o you h in eligious, poli ical, and o he espec s.
They mus no subjuga e ideologies, manipula e, o exploi
hem. Lea ning and age-app op ia e wo k condi ions should
ha e olun a y pa icipa ion. I is impo an o ealize ha
in con empo a y Ge man socie y, he e is s ill a g ea deal o
mis us o a concep like he commons. This mis us ecalls
he socialism ha exis ed, as was p esen in he GDR and o he
Eas e n Eu opean coun ies. Human cha ac e laws will emain
a challenge when, o example, sel ishness and ego ism p e ail in
dealing wi h he esou ces ha should be a ailable o e e yone
(Ha din, 1968). We hope o s imula e discussion so ha people
ques ion he ixa ion on he accumula ion o ma e ial goods
ha is dominan in oday’s Wes e n socie ies due o capi alism
and he manipula ion echniques ha wo k wi hin i (Ma cuse,
2014), hoping o a i e mo e a a philosophy o being (F omm,
2013).
Conclusion
Uncondi ional basic income would allow o he disman ling
o he gigan ic adminis a i e appa a uses ha dis ibu e social
ans e paymen s. Tax money eleased could be edi ec ed o he
p ojec s, o he people hemsel es. Such a shi would allow ci il
socie y o assume maximum esponsibili y o i sel . The s a e
school sys em would con inue o exis o e all, bu ans o ma i e
communi y p ojec s could educe hei capaci y. Young people
should ne e be le wi h no educa ional oppo uni ies a all. This
app oach would p o ide op ions o a pa h o educa ion in a
adi ional sense, and one o he ans o ma i e p ojec s men ioned.
Ideally, eache educa ion o he u u e could include he con ex
o social, economic, and ecological ans o ma ion, including
pa icipa o y and collabo a i e p ac ices (Alsop e al., 2007). Thus,
he eaching p o ession could be ein igo a ed and cha ged wi h
new a ac i eness. Wo k would be mo e sel -de e mined and
he e o e heal hie , esul ing in educed medical expenses. Mobili y
on he oads could be educed, wi h posi i e e ec s on he clima e,
as child en and youngs e s would no longe ha e o be shu led as
much, and he seden a y ime du ing anspo o adul s would
be less. This new pace would lead o a decele a ed way o li e
ha would bene i people cu en ly li ing in s essed en i onmen s
bo h locally and globally. Howe e , a s udy om Japan (Klien,
2019) indica ed ha he mindse o people who long o mo e sel -
c ea ed wo k can be s ongly in luenced by he capi alis sys em.
This s udy no ed ha people need o lea n o elease he men al
p essu e hey ca y om such a sys em. Wha a ascina ing p ospec
o young people o g ow in o a heal hie wo ld igh om he
s a , wi h solid social embedding, allowing hem o de elop hei
indi idual po en ial, always wi h a iew o he o e all con ex on
his plane .
F on ie s in Sociology 05 on ie sin.o g
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B oeche and Pain e 10.3389/ soc.2023.1164293
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
Publicly a ailable da ase s we e analyzed in his s udy. The e
a e wo documen a ion olumes published by Books on Demand,
No de s ed , Ge many, abou he p ojec wi h a o al o a ound
700 pho os and g aphics. Bo h books a e a ailable in p in and
as e-books. Fo bibliog aphic in o ma ion, see he e e ence lis
B oeche (2023a,b).
Au ho con ibu ions
Bo h au ho s lis ed ha e made a subs an ial, di ec , and
in ellec ual con ibu ion o he wo k and app o ed i o
publica ion.
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s hank F iedhelm Deche , Uni e si y o Siegen,
Ge many, o discussing wi h us he heo e ical amewo k o
his a icle and o sha ing his knowledge o sociological and
philosophical li e a u e.
Conflic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could be
cons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he
au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
Supplemen a y ma e ial
The Supplemen a y Ma e ial o his a icle can be ound
online a : h ps://www. on ie sin.o g/a icles/10.3389/ soc.2023.
1164293/ ull#supplemen a y-ma e ial
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F on ie s in Sociology 07 on ie sin.o g
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TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 03 Augus 2023
DOI 10.3389/ soc.2023.1158770
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Magdalena Klimczuk-Kocha´
nska,
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Poland
REVIEWED BY
Kanayo Ogujiuba,
Uni e si y o Mpumalanga, Sou h A ica
Mano Ashish T ipa hi,
Mo ilal Neh u Na ional Ins i u e o Technology
Allahabad, India
*CORRESPONDENCE
S. Na een
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 04 Feb ua y 2023
ACCEPTED 14 July 2023
PUBLISHED 03 Augus 2023
CITATION
Na een S, Pa ida JK and Panda I (2023) T ibal
women empowe men h ough
en ep eneu ship: e idence om Mayu bhanj
Dis ic , Odisha. F on . Sociol. 8:1158770.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2023.1158770
COPYRIGHT
©2023 Na een, Pa ida and Panda. This is an
open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms
o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License
(CC BY). The use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion
in o he o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided he
o iginal au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s)
a e c edi ed and ha he o iginal publica ion in
his jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h
accep ed academic p ac ice. No use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which
does no comply wi h hese e ms.
T ibal women empowe men
h ough en ep eneu ship:
e idence om Mayu bhanj
Dis ic , Odisha
S. Na een*, Jayan a Kuma Pa ida and I ish ee Panda
School o Social, Financial and Human Sciences (KSFH), Kalinga Ins i u e o Indus ial Technology (KIIT)
Deemed o be Uni e si y, Bhubaneswa , Odisha, India
In oduc ion: Empowe ing women in a ibal con ex h ough en ep eneu ship is
an app oach o enabling and making hem economically and socially iable. This
pape aims o highligh en ep eneu ship in a specific ibal con ex and p o ide
insigh on some ins ances o cases ela ing o women’s empowe men . Al hough
he e a e many ini ia i es om in e na ional o ganiza ions and go e nmen al
ins i u ions o suppo women en ep eneu s, especially ibal women, hey su e
om isola ion as a esul o hei language and li es yle di e om he es
o socie y, which made he g ow h o hei business and abili y o compe e
a duous, and hus a ec ed hei abili y o make a ious decisions in hei li es.
This s udy examines he pa hway o a be e unde s anding o inc easing access
o en ep eneu ship o ibal women in Mayu bhanj dis ic , Odisha.
Me hods: The sample size was 111 San hal ibal women en ep eneu s, and all o
hem we e in e iewed using an in e iew schedule and Focus G oup Discussions
(FGDs). Two analy ical ools we e used (a linea eg ession model o find which
dependen a iables influence en ep eneu s and he Women’s Empowe men
Index (WEI) o measu e he p og ess in social and economic oppo uni ies). The
esponden s was in e iewed and asked on he a ious WEI indica o s be o e and
a e an en ep eneu ship in e en ion.
Resul s and discussion: I was obse ed h ough he esul s ha he
empowe men o women has changed in a posi i e di ec ion a e es ablishing
hei wo k; acco ding o he indica o s o he s udy, he Women’s Empowe men
Index has changed om 0.61 o 1.26. I was also ound ha en ep eneu ship has
a posi i e and significan impac on women’s decision-making wi hin he amily,
and he e o e, i was sugges ed h ough esea ch o inc ease he in e en ion om
he go e nmen and ela ed o ganiza ions wi h mo e ini ia i es ha con ibu e o
he possibili y o inc easing women’s educa ion and hei financial abili y o open
new en e p ises.
KEYWORDS
en ep eneu ship, women, ibal, Women Empowe men Index, empowe men
1. In oduc ion
Women in India a e en i led o equal igh s wi h men acco ding o he
cons i u ion and laws es ablished by he go e nmen . Howe e , u al women do no
enjoy he same social and economic eedoms as men, as is he case in u ban
a eas (Kuma , 2013;Ag awal and Kha e, 2019). They s ill ely on men o p o ide
he amily’s income and spend mos o hei ime on household cho es (Da a and
Gailey, 2012). Empowe ing women can se e as a co ne s one o de elopmen o
achie e Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), pa icula ly in ela ion o amilies,
communi ies, and e en na ions (Williams e al., 2022). I is he p ocess ha equips
F on ie s in Sociology 01 on ie sin.o g
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Na een e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1158770
women wi h he knowledge and skills necessa y o
expand hei pa icipa ion, con ol, and decision-making
(Akh e and Cheng, 2020). The end o making women play an
impo an ole has begun o inc ease in he pas wo decades,
as hey s a ed o acqui e skills on an equal oo ing wi h men
and a emp ed o c ea e hei own p ojec s (Kapoo , 2019).
Women’s engagemen in business enhances hei capaci y in h ee
di ec ions: asse owne ship, business cycle owne ship and he e o e
income, and achie emen (And iamahe y and Qam uzzaman,
2022). En ep eneu ship has become common among women
in India (Da a and Gailey, 2012). I has signi ican ly inc eased
in he pas wo decades and has become a d i ing o ce o he
economy (Jahanshahi e al., 2011). Local and non-go e nmen al
o ganiza ions, as well as go e nmen al o ganiza ions, ha e
signi ican ly ocused on ibal women, p o iding nume ous
ini ia i es and poli ical decisions, and o e ing many oppo uni ies
o wo k in poul y and li es ock a ming, c op cul i a ion, ui and
ege able g owing, and o he ypes o en ep eneu ship. Women’s
pa icipa ion om e hnic, ibal, o indigenous backg ounds can
con ibu e o inc easing human esou ces in he coun y (Sa ma,
2014). Howe e , ibal women in India spend mos o hei ime
pe o ming hei school du ies and ace nume ous challenges
such as ood insecu i y, lack o educa ion, domes ic iolence, and
poo heal hca e (Mai i e al., 2005). The e o e, en ep eneu ship
is no an easy op ion o hem, especially in an en i onmen ha
su e s om unde de elopmen and economic weakness. Lack o
unding, educa ion, and di icul y in accessing esou ces make hei
business ac i i ies less p o i able and less e ec i e when compa ed
o o he communi ies.
S udies on women’s empowe men h ough income-gene a ing
ac i i ies a e commonly conduc ed, howe e , ibal s udies in his
a ea a e a e and ha e no add essed he San hal ibe loca ed in
he Mayu bhanj Dis ic , whe e women ha e been neglec ed o
excluded om esea ch. To da e, he e ha e been no s udies on
ibal women’s leade ship in he Mayu bhanj Dis ic , which is
pa o he s a e o Odisha in India, and no p e ious s a is ical
s udies ha e been conduc ed on he signi icance o he s a is ical
ela ionship be ween en ep eneu ship, women’s empowe men ,
and decision-making. These a e he esea ch gaps ha his s udy
will add ess, making i dis inc om o he s udies. The u gen need
o unde s and how ibal women can con inue hei businesses is
a dis an ision o bo h he go e nmen and policy make s, and i
should mo i a e esea che s o conduc u u e esea ch.
This s udy will con ibu e o add essing se e al ques ions, such
as: How can ibal women en ep eneu s succeed in empowe ing
hemsel es in hei communi ies? Can ibal women eally
make mo e household decisions wi h inc eased empowe men
in en ep eneu ship? The ela ionship be ween ibal women’s
empowe men and household decision-making will be explo ed in
o de o b ing abou social change. This s udy has he po en ial o
posi i ely impac u u e esea ch by unde s anding he impac o
en ep eneu ship on women’s empowe men .
The g ow h o business en ep eneu ship among ibal women
is e y limi ed and slow, and he s udy was limi ed o 111 ibal
women, i may ha e been di icul o conduc an in es iga ion
abou ibal socie y due o i s special na u e. The s udy was limi ed
o empowe ing women in decision-making wi hin he amily,
knowing ha he e a e a ious o he ac o s such as compe ence
and sel -de e mina ion and sa is ac ion wi h li e a e no aken
in o accoun .
In his pe spec i e, in-dep h esea ch is needed o ind ou
whe he en ep eneu ship inc eased hei decision-making powe
and made hem inno a i e, isk- ake , and p o-ac i e o con inue
hei business ac i i ies o no . Besides, schola s will ge o
unde ake u u e esea ch on ha issue.
2. Li e a u e e iew
Women’s empowe men p ocedu es con ibu e o he
imp o emen o women and a e signi ican change agen s (Meh a,
1997). The s udies ha e ound ha empowe men is an in eg a ed
p ocess (Naila, 2005;Akh e and Wa d, 2009) ha con ibu es o
inc easing women’s abili y o each g ea ba gaining powe when
hey wo k ou side hei homes (Ande son and Eswa an, 2009).
O he s udies ha e shown ha gi ing women he oppo uni y
inc eases hei abili y o con ol hei income and inc eases he
labo o ce in gene al (Field e al., 2021). To es o e gende balance,
aining can c ea e income o women (C ee ey and Edge on,
1997), inc ease hei asse s and ea nings, and inc ease he supply o
emale labo ; howe e , i p esen s many challenges (Bandie a e al.,
2017).
Oppo uni y is one o he impo an concep s in
en ep eneu ship, as esea che s conside ha en ep eneu s
seize oppo uni ies because hey ha e p io knowledge o he labo
ma ke , o as a esul o de eloping hei social ne wo ks and hus
knowing he ma ke ’s need, and because hey a e dis inguished by a
se o pe sonal cha ac e is ics such as op imism ha always d i es
hem as a belie o achie e success in En ep eneu ship (A dich ili
e al., 2003;McMullen e al., 2007). Maslow’s heo y elies on
h ee dimensions o human needs, including g ow h, connec ion,
and connec ion, and ha ela es o linking he need-sa is ac ion
ela ionship s ongly (Alde e , 1969).
The e a e ce ain ools ha aid in p omo ing he employmen
o women as Ag i-en ep eneu s. These include land owne ship,
coope a i e ag icul u e, policy implica ions, and ICT ools, SHG—
SME. Rega ding he possibili ies ha can be aken ad an age o ,
K ishi Vigyan Kend as (KVKs), non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions,
and uni e si ies ha aim o ad ance ag icul u al wo k a e a ew
examples (Jena e al., 2018). Mic oc edi is one me hod o assis ing
En ep eneu s in he Odisha egions, and i has a signi ican
posi i e e ec in a numbe o a eas. Howe e , he e a e some
challenges o En ep eneu s, including he low loan amoun s
compa ed o hose a he na ional and egional le els, hei eliance
on middlemen, and a lack o ma ke access (Rajpal and Tamang,
2021).
Ag icul u al educa ion in India can help encou age
en ep eneu ship and ollow he bes me hodologies o succeed
in i , as a s udy by Bane jee e al. (2020) he e is a co ela ion
be ween he desi e o wo k in en ep eneu ship, ca ee planning,
and ag icul u al labo capaci y. An Indian ag icul u al uni e si y’s
s uden s we e he subjec s o his s udy.
Using he analy ical SOWT me hod, Re elsal and o he s
examined he ex e nal and in e nal ac o s in luencing a small
F on ie s in Sociology 02 on ie sin.o g
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Na een e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1158770
FIGURE 1
Concep ual amewo k.
a me suppo p og am called you h ag ip eneu ship de elopmen
(YAD). I was disco e ed ha bo h independence and knowledge
can be in e nal ac o s ha ha e an impac on he communi y unde
s udy, as well as ex e nal ac o s like imposi ion b ough abou
by he p og am’s esou ces and h ea s om bo h inno a ion and
pa ne ships. To o e come h ea s, a ious s a egies ha e eme ged,
such as inc easing knowledge, using independen echnology o
inc ease knowledge, and using bo h o he knowledge ne wo ks
(Re iswal e al., 2021).
A one-o -a-kind s udy by Sa angi e al. (2022) o he impac
o immig an s and indigenous en ep eneu s on de elopmen in
he s a e o Odisha. Indigenous en ep eneu s ha e demons a ed
a posi i e impac by inc easing o e all employmen oppo uni ies
and acili a ing access o immedia e employmen and adequa e
li elihoods o ma ginalized low-skilled wo ke s.
Wi h he help o a s uc u ed ques ionnai e, a s udy on abou
40 en ep eneu s by Aga wal e al. (2021) was ca ied ou ac oss
a ious egions o India (Bungalu, Mumbai, Pune, and oughly
11 o he ci ies). Ag icul u al en ep eneu s aced se e al p oblems,
including high cos s, sho age o skilled labo , and ma ke ing issues.
One o he mos impo an p oposals o he s udy was he c ea ion
o a da abase h ough which income and expendi u es could be
eco ded o all u ban en ep eneu ial ag icul u al p ojec s. In
o de o es ablish aquacul u e p oduc ion on a la ge scale, he s udy
also sugges s changing some policies o edis ibu e land uses and
demons a ing g ea e in e es in esea ch collabo a ion be ween
he public and p i a e sec o s. Encou aging he de elopmen o
a able ga dens and landscape design will also help o ac i a e he
oles o a chi ec s and ga dene s.
Joseph Schumpe e ga e one o de ini ions o en ep eneu ship
and said ha e e y pe son who wo ks o c ea e a new p ojec
and ealizes he impo ance o he oppo uni y o c ea e a
business is conside ed an en ep eneu (Gill and Ganesh, 2007).
Bu his de ini ion has changed o e he yea s. Acco ding o
Nkechi e al. (2012), he en ep eneu was desc ibed as a c ea i e
and inno a i e pe son who unde s ands p oblems and inds
app op ia e solu ions o hem. He is he pe son who pe o ms
he en ep eneu ial unc ion. Women’s en ep eneu ship appea ed
in he la e nine ies and became impo an o esea che s abou
30 yea s ago. S ephens e al. (2021) men ioned ha emale
en ep eneu s se e he communi y and bea all he isks in o de
o gain economic eedom and eel empowe ed. The esea ch
de eloped he hypo hesis based on he concep s o empowe men
and en ep eneu ship.
3. Concep ual amewo k
This pape used he concep s o women’s empowe men and
en ep eneu ship by ollowing he p e ious me hodologies wi h
he addi ion o modi ica ions commensu a e wi h he subjec
o he s udy and he esea ch a ea. The e m “empowe men ”
F on ie s in Sociology 03 on ie sin.o g
67

Na een e al. 10.3389/ soc.2023.1158770
FIGURE 2
Loca ion map o he s udy a eas in India.
was de eloped so ha i akes on many isions, some o whom
men ioned ha i is a pe son’s abili y o li e as he wan s (Kabee ,
1999), and i was de eloped o mean he abili y o achie e and
ob ain esou ces, and he app oach o women’s empowe men was
widely used by academic esea che s and policy make s (Lincoln
e al., 2002). I measu es income, employmen , and he abili y o
decision-make s wi hin he amily; all o hese a e ela ed o he
social and economic dimensions, and all s udies ound ha women
a e able o achie e sa is ac ion h ough hei wo k and p o ide
adequa e suppo o he amily.
The p ocess o linking en ep eneu ship, empowe men ,
and decision-making is no easy because he concep o
en ep eneu ship has many dimensions and is di icul o measu e.
Inc easing p o i s and he concep o empowe men mus be linked
o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ship, as mo e achie emen s a
he le el o en ep eneu ship will gene a e mo e p o i s and hus
be e lec ed in empowe men and he decision-making p ocess.
As he empowe men ool is he main key o he success o
se ing up any en e p ise, i is weigh ed by ma e ial p ocu emen ,
managing he ac i i ies o a business, labo hi e, p ice se ing, and
selling p oduc s. Fo amily issues, amily li e educa ion, household
main enance, sa ings and expendi u es balance, medical ca e,
coping mechanisms, a anged ma iage, e c. a e all conside ed.
T aining pa icipa ion, abili y o isi iends, amilies, and o he s,
abili y o use public anspo a ion, and women’s use o media,
e c. a e measu ed o mobili y. Knowledge is weigh ed by wo king
igh s knowledge; educa ion is impo an , as a e sani a ion, pu e
d inking wa e , ood p ese a ion, and ea men .
Figu e 1 shows he a ailable oppo uni ies o
en ep eneu ship. In his app oach, we ind ha en ep eneu ship
makes women ac i e, isk- aking, inno a i e, and aces many
challenges o each a success ul and p o i able business, I also
makes women con iden in making indi idual decisions and eels
empowe ed.
This esea ch doesn’ jus add a new de ini ion and meaning o
“en ep eneu ship” and “women’s empowe men ,” i also p o ides
new ools and indica o s ha may be used o measu e he
impo ance o ibal women in India.
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TABLE 1 Cha ac e is ics o women en ep eneu s in he sample (n=111).
Social
cha ac e is ics F equencies %
Age g oup Women up o
35 yea s old
15 13.5
Women om
35 o 45 yea s
old
75 67.6
Women abo e
45 yea s old
21 18.9
Family size Small amilies
(1–3
membe s)
22 19.8
Medium
amilies (4–6
membe s)
66 59.5
La ge amilies
(7 and abo e)
23 20.7
Li e acy a e Women wi h
li e acy
16 14.41
Economic cha ac e is ics - -
Pe sonal business
e enue
Below Rs.
10,000
22 19.8
F om Rs.
10,000 o
25,000
70 63.1
Abo e Rs.
25,000
19 17.1
Household
expendi u e based
on he impo an
Child en
educa ion
20 18
Food 70 63.11
Clo hes 12 10.8
Medicine 5 4.5
O he s 4 3.6
Type o he house Pucca 95 85.6
Ka cha 10 9
Hal building 6 5.4
Own esea ch.
The s udy is an analysis o eali y and a ansla ion o wha
exis s o ibal en ep eneu ship, and i s aims a e as ollows: (1)
Find he ac o s o en ep eneu ship o women in he s udied
a ea (empowe men and decision making). (2) To es ima e he
ela ionship be ween empowe men and en ep eneu ship. (3)
To know he basics o eaching decisions wi hin he amily o
ibal women.
4. Ma e ials and me hods
The s udy was conduc ed in Mayu bhanj Dis ic , which is
loca ed in Odisha s a e, India. The da a we e collec ed om
Bija ola block, whe e San hal ibes cons i u e abou 77% o i s o al
popula ion (Mohan y, 2017). A mul i-s age sampling echnique was
used o selec sample a m households in he s udy a ea. The i s
s age was o selec 13 illages in which San hal ibes a e p esen .
In o de o iden i y he women en ep eneu s in hese illages,
he second s age was o con ac key in o man s in each illage;
he ea e , simple andom sampling was used o selec 111 women
en ep eneu s. The in e iew schedule has been designed based on
he concep ual amewo k o conduc ace- o- ace in e iews and
ocus g oup discussions (FGDs) wi h 20 pa icipan s in each illage
o collec some p ima y da a in o ma ion and each he esea ch
objec i e (Figu e 2).
Linea eg ession model used o iden i y he in luencing ac o s,
whe e en ep eneu ship was dependen a iable (Y), and he
independen a iables we e as ollows: age (X1), amily size (X2),
li e acy (X3), membe ship wi h NGOs (X4), numbe o aining
hou s (X5), and pe sonal business e enue (X6). He e is he o mula
ha was used:
Yi=a+β1X1+β2X2+β3X3+B4X4+β5X5+β6X6+Ui
He e, he change in one o he eg essions is measu ed by
he ma ginal e ec (ME). Ma ginal e ec s assess disc e e change
as a me hod o p edic ing p obabili y changes when independen
a iables a e p esen . In his aspec , six social and economic
a iables—including age, educa ion, numbe o aining cou ses,
business e enue, amily size, and membe ship wi h NGOs—a e
aken in o conside a ion o assess a eliable es ima ion o he ex en
o change in en ep eneu ship. When all o he a iables we e held
cons an a hei means, he ma ginal e ec s demons a ed how he
iden i ied ac o s changed om 0 o 1.
Women Empowe men Index (WEI) used conside ing
be o e and a e he en ep eneu ship si ua ion. A e he
en ep eneu ship si ua ion. Non-en ep eneu ial si ua ions o he
selec ed ibal women was he bes o baseline da a. This is based
on choosing a base o end line o en ep eneu ship, which anges
om 5 o 7 yea s o expe ience. Expe s, ele an indi iduals,
and esea che s discussed he choice o 20 indica o s o women’s
empowe men , which a e: i e o se ing up an en e p ise, six o
amily issues, ou o mobili y, and i e o knowledge, which
we e used in he s udy, so ha he highes alue is 2 (women a e
leade s in decision-making) and is in a s a e o empowe men ,
and he lowes alue is 0, which indica es men’s con ol o e
decision-making is in a s a e o disempowe men .
Women Empowe men Index (WEI) was gi en in equa ions
(Bose e al., 2009) as he ollowing:
WEIi=Pn
i=1xi
n
Whe e women a e no empowe ed when he WEI is ≤1, and
hey a e empowe ed when he WEI is mo e han 1, and nis based
on he numbe o dimensions unde each indica o , such as amily
issues, n is equal o 6.
Women’s en ep eneu ship was e alua ed on he basis o h ee
componen s, including inno a ion, isk- aking, and p o-ac i i ies,
which we e u he e alua ed by nine i ems, h ee o each. While
he ou componen s o he decision-making p ocess we e used
o unde s and he le el o empowe men among ibal women
en ep eneu s, Con i ma o y Fac o Analysis (CFA) was used
o alida e he la en cons uc ’s i ness, eliabili y, and alidi y.
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TABLE 2 Maximum Likelihood Es ima ion (MLE) esul s.
Explana o y a iables Coe icien S anda d e o Z-s a is ic P obabili y
Age (X1) 0.061 0.312 0.71 −0.0412
Family size (X2) −0.045 0.111 −0.39 −0.221
Li e acy (X3) 1.062∗∗ 0.323 4.50 0.614
Membe ship wi h NGOs (X4) 2.160∗∗ 0.361 8.14 1.735
Numbe o aining (X5) 2.537∗∗ 0.482 5.91 1.435
Pe sonal business e enue (X6) 0.00041∗0.00026 2.11 0.001
Cons an −7.553 1.257 −2.34 −12.131
Pseudo R20.7518
LR Chi squa e 512.22
Log likelihood −37.321176
∗Signi ican a 5% le el.
∗∗Signi ican a 1% le el.
TABLE 3 Ma ginal p obabili y esul s.
Explana o y a iables S anda d e o Z-s a is ic P obabili y Ma ginal e ec
Age (X1) 0.022 0.71 0.421 0.0031
Family size (X2) 0.0412 −0.39 0.564 −0.013
Li e acy (X3) 0.071 4.50 0.000 0.514∗∗
Membe ship wi h NGOs (X4) 0.05103 8.14 0.000 0.711∗∗
Numbe o aining (X5) 0.0776 5.91 0.000 0.513∗∗
Pe sonal business e enue (X6) 0.00014 2.11 0.017 0.00041∗
∗Signi ican a 5% le el.
∗∗Signi ican a 1% le el.
Composi e eliabili y es ing was also done o gua an ee he da a’s
in e nal consis ency.
5. Resul s and discussion
En ep eneu s we e di ided acco ding o age in o se e al
g oups, and he highes pe cen age was (67.6) be ween 35 and 45
yea s old, and he pe cen age o women who could w i e and ead
was abou 14.41%. This low pe cen age may be due o he di icul y
o eaching ibal women, o i may be he esul o he educa ional
cu icula (Mohan y, 2017), o caused by he poo inancial si ua ion
o he amily and hei inabili y o go o school, because hey wo k
in collec ing o es p oduc s o hei li elihood (Tudu and Das,
2022). A s udy by Haddad e al. (2016) indica es ha educa ion
is ac o ha can in luence choice beha io and p o oundly a ec
pe sonal de elopmen . Abou 59.5% o he households in he
esea ch sample we e ound o ha e households wi h an a e age
numbe o 4–6 membe s, which is highe han he na ional a e age
household size based on Global Da a 2021. I was also no ed om
Table 1 ha a numbe o women in he sample ha e pe sonal
business e enue ha exceeds 10,000 upees, which is abou 80.2%
o he o al. Women indica ed ha he e is a p io i y in spending,
and he impo ance is di e en , as spending on ood is ollowed
by spending on educa ion o child en, and hen clo hes. Table 1
shows ha amilies li e in Pucca houses wi h mud walls and in
oo s (85.6%), and some women li e in houses wi h bamboo oo s.
The sani a y sys em is no good, and 9% o he women houses
(wi h hal o he building) is no used. Socioeconomic s a us o
ibal women has s udied by a ew esea ches (Sub amanian e al.,
2006;Mung eiphy and Kapoo , 2010); o ind ou hei sus ainable
li elihood s a us, Kaushal and Kala (2004) conduc ed a s udy and
measu ed hei li elihood dispa i ies.
Fou o he explana o y a iables ha con ibu ed o aking up
en ep eneu ship, success, inc ease income (li e acy, membe ship
wi h NGOs, numbe o ainings, and pe sonal business e enue).
Li e acy and he numbe o aining sessions helped hem make
mo e in o med decisions in hei en e p ise by di ec ly upda ing
hei knowledge and inc easing hei capaci y o unde s anding.
They we e able o inc ease hei con idence and lessen hei
economic ulne abili y due o highe pe sonal business e enue
and membe ship wi h NGOs.
Age is one o he a iables posi i ely a ec ing en ep eneu ship,
bu in he s udied case, age was no signi ican ly associa ed wi h
en ep eneu ship, and his may be because he majo i y o he
esea ch sample we e middle-aged women ( om 35 o 45 yea s
old) and hey we e no e y in e es ed in new p ojec s bu a he
in de eloping hei adi ional p ojec s. Table 2 shows ha he size
o he amily con ibu ed nega i ely o en ep eneu ship, which
may be a esul o he inc eased wo k ha women do a home and
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TABLE 4 Resul s o Women Empowe men Index.
Indica o s WEI be o e en ep eneu ship WEI a e en ep eneu ship
Se -up an en e p ise 0.55 1.30
Ma e ial p ocu emen 0.28 1.15
Managing he ac i i ies o a business 0.67 1.27
Labo hi e 0.25 1.17
P ice se ing 0.71 1.49
Selling p oduc s 0.82 1.44
Family issues 0.67 1.28
Family li e educa ion 0.73 1.13
Household main enance 0.77 1.33
Sa ings and expendi u es balance 1.04 1.55
Medical ca e 0.41 1.29
Coping mechanisms 0.30 1.16
A anged ma iage 0.76 1.25
Mobili y 0.61 1.32
T aining pa icipa ion 0.67 1.44
Abili y o isi iends, amilies, and o he s 0.51 1.06
Abili y o use public anspo a ion 0.66 1.35
Women’s social es i al a ending 0.95 1.43
Knowledge 0.62 1.14
Wo king igh s knowledge 0.51 1.06
Educa ion impo an 0.41 1.05
Sani a ion 0.56 1.08
Pu e d inking wa e 0.66 1.34
Food p ese a ion and ea men 0.96 1.15
O e all WEI 0.61 1.26
Own esea ch.
TABLE 5 Reliabili y and alidi y es s esul s.
Cons uc Concep C onbach’s
alpha Reliabili y
es esul
En ep eneu ship Empowe men 0.501 0.146
Decision making 0.289 0.079
Own esea ch.
he lack o ime du ing which hey can con ol he p ojec . I may
also be due o a lack o money a e secu ing he a ious needs o
he amily.
Acco ding o Table 3, he chance o s a ing a p ojec inc eases
by 0.3% as age inc eases 1 yea . O he a iables also had he
same posi i e e ec , such as changes in educa ion, he numbe
o ainings, and pe sonal income, which inc eased by 51, 7, and
0.04%, espec i ely. As o he membe ship wi h o ganiza ions, i
was he only one wi h a posi i e and signi ican e ec , a 71%.
Se e al s udies ha e been conduc ed on ibals in Mayu bhanj
Dis ic , Odisha, on hei adi ional knowledge (Panda e al.,
2011), hei educa ion s a ue (Behe a, 2015), he impac o women
pa icipan s in Sel -Help G oups (SHGs) mic o inance p og ams
(Rajpal and Tamang, 2014;Rajpal, 2016), and he cons ain s aced
by hem o become en ep eneu s (Mohapa a e al., 2012).
The women’s empowe men index o en shows he ex en o
which women a e able o ake a se o ac ions and decisions
as a esul o en ep eneu ship, as hey can achie e inancial
independence and become mo e powe ul han be o e in many
ways, such as making he decision o ma y and child en, con ol
li ing expenses, and a end social es i als. Wi h some excep ions
o men, which gi e men he abili y o make decisions, such
as ec ui men p ocesses o labo o assis in en ep eneu ial
ac i i ies. We no e om Table 4 ha women en ep eneu s
ha e been empowe ed o a g ea e ex en compa ed o be o e
en ep eneu ship, and he women’s empowe men index eached
1.26. I is no ed om he able ha among ibal women,
women ha e been empowe ed in e ms o mobili y (1.32),
ollowed by decisions ela ed o he se up o an en e p ise
(1.30), hen decisions ela ed o amily issues (1.28), and inally
knowledge (1.14).
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F on ie s in Sociology 05 on ie sin.o g
ci cums ances, i is mo e likely ha he e e se causal link p e ails
(F ey and MacNaugh on, 2016). Fo ins ance, sociologis s like
Hamme e al. (2022) emphasize ha signi ican o mal job inc eases
ha e no been made despi e indus ial p og ess. In eali y, he in o mal
sec o p edomina es and is cha ac e ized almos uni e sally by
subsis ence pay, employmen , and social ins abili y, all o which all
unde immo al wo k (Hamme e al., 2022). The p oblem is ha he
wo king condi ions o hose employed in he uno ganized sec o a e
isky, lack social p o ec ion, and a e pollu ing, which inc eases he
likelihood ha employees will ge sick o inju ed and jeopa dize hei
heal h and well-being (Adei e al., 2021).
Acco ding o an ILO assessmen om 2019, mos coun ies s ill
ha e a long way o go be o e a aining inclusi e and decen
employmen o all, and de elopmen on SDG 8 was slowing down.
Acco ding o Hamme and Ness (2021), om a socio-poli ical
pe spec i e, he agenda o SDG 8 and simila in e en ions ail
because no enough a en ion is gi en o he he e ogenei y and
complexi y o in e sec ing social and ma e ial ela ions ha suppo
in o mal and p eca ious wo k and i s ole in capi al accumula ion. Fo
ins ance, businesses in en ionally al e he makeup o hei wo k o ce
o limi labo ’s abili y o nego ia e and lowe he alue o labo powe
(Chigbu and Nekhwe ha, 2022c). The issue is ha unionized wo ke s
a e mo e likely han hei non-union colleagues o speak up agains
indecen wo kplaces, which includes an inc easing p e e ence o
non-unionized emale wo ke s and u al and semi- u al wo ke s
(Hamme and Ness, 2021; Sojou ne and Yang, 2022). C i ical ac o s
in luencing capi al accumula ion wi h consequences o he s uc u e
and di e en ia ion o he wo k o ce include he asymme ical powe
ela ions be ween capi al and labo and he s a e’s in ol emen in
ins i u ionalizing a lexible labo egime (Hamme and Ness, 2021).
Ha ing gi en he in oduc ion o his sec ion, ou esea ch
objec i es a e me hodically cons uc ed and accomplished o g apple
wi h he complexi y o c ea ing decen employmen wi hin he
auspices o SDG 8. Fi s , we ho oughly examine he delica e link
be ween gende income dispa i y and he achie emen o decen wo k
wi hin he con ex o SDG 8. Second, ou scien i ic in es iga ion
ex ensi ely explo es he injus ices inhe en in pu ely ma ke -based
labo ma ke s, examining hei nume ous con ibu ions o he e ain
o decen labo . The hi d goal o he s udy is o shed a en ion on he
complica ed di icul ies con ained wi hin in o mal employmen and
he la ge economy, which a e some imes dis ega ded wi hin he
scope o SDG 8. Finally, ou esea ch emphasizes he c i ical need o
s eng hen he in eg a ion o en i onmen al sus ainabili y in o he
undamen al ab ic o SDG 8. These p oblems illus a e he i al need
o an in-dep h analysis o he challenges and sho comings o
pu suing decen employmen and economic expansion.
4.1 Gende and income inequali y: decen
wo k
Gende dispa i ies in he labo ma ke emain a pe sis en challenge
and should bea he hea o decen wo k discou se because women
o en ace ba ie s o accessing decen wo k, including gende -based
disc imina ion, wage gaps, and limi ed ep esen a ion in decision-
making posi ions. Achie ing gende equali y in he wo kplace equi es
add essing hese challenges and p omo ing policies ha ensu e equal
oppo uni ies, ai pay, and wo k-li e balance o all gende s. Gende
equali y is essen ial o bo h sus ainable de elopmen and economic
p ospe i y. Keeping in mind he SDG 8 goals, he objec i e is o
achie e ull and p oduc i e employmen and decen wo k o all
women and men by 2030. The p oblem is ha when women en e he
wo k o ce, hey a e less likely han males o ind employmen (ILO,
2017). Fo ins ance, S a is ics Sou hA ica (2021) shows ha he
unemploymen a e o women in Sou hA ica is 8.1% poin s g ea e
han ha o males. Men a e mo e likely han women o ha e paid
employmen ega dless o ace. S ill, women a e mo e likely han
males o beengaged in unpaid wo k, e en in Asia and Ge many,
indica ing ha he labo ma ke is mo e a o able o men han women
(ILO, 2020; Toczek e al., 2021).
Many a iables, such as long-s anding ins i u ional impedimen s,
socioeconomic and echnical de elopmen , and economic d i e and
shocks, pe sis en ly d i e gende inequali ies in he wo k o ce (WEF,
2022). Because o he pe asi e gende dispa i y in he labo ma ke
(Khai y and Ghoneim, 2023), women ha e ewe oppo uni ies o
ad ance p o essionally and aise hei sala ies han men (Khai y and
Ghoneim, 2023). This is especially ue in male-domina ed ields such
as enginee ing, cons uc ion, and in o ma ion echnology (Khai y
and Ghoneim, 2023). Among he ac o s ha make i di icul o
women o ge accep able employmen a e he “glass ceiling” and o he
o ms o wo kplace disc imina ion agains emale employees, wo king
condi ions, and occupa ional seg ega ion, all o which a e signi ican
challenges o o e come (de P yck and Te mine, 2014; Khai y and
Ghoneim, 2023). Acco ding o he In e na ional Labo O ganiza ion’s
2017 Wo ld Employmen and Socie al Ou look – T ends o Women,
social no ms and a a ie y o socioeconomic obs acles, including
wo k-li e balance, ma i al s a us, and lack o anspo a ion, a e
p e en ing women om ad ancing in he wo k o ce (de P yck and
Te mine, 2014). Also, economic ha dships, sexism, and acism
expe iences ha e his o ically p e en ed women om accessing decen
employmen (Au in e al., 2022) and ha e been signi ican ac oss
indus ies (Fab y e al., 2022).
Acco ding o Fe an e al. (2014), women spend 2–10 imes as
much ime as males on unpaid ca e labo . The une en alloca ion o
ca ing obliga ions is connec ed o disc imina o y social s uc u es and
s e eo ypical iews on he app op ia e oles o men and women. The
examina ion o gende dispa i ies in labo ou comes, such as labo
o ce pa icipa ion, sala ies, and job quali y, ails o ake in o accoun
gende dispa i y in unpaid ca e wo k (Fe an e al., 2014), and his is
one o he missing links. As Vyas (2021) pu o wa d, i is no longe
accep able o a ibu e women’s s agna ion in he labo ma ke o a
lack o educa ion o conce ns abou hei sui abili y o a pa icula
posi ion. Despi e hei c eden ials, women all o e he globe a e aking
on he dual du y o ca ing o o he s and wo king, and as a esul , hey
o en ha e o accep insecu e jobs. This is because women mus
pe o m unpaid ca e labo due o amily commi men s (Vyas, 2021).
The posi ion o women in he labo ma ke and hei s a us and
au ho i y inside he amily a e all impac ed by he male– emale wage
gap (Wi kowska, 2013; Toczek e al., 2021).
In conclusion, acco ding o he li e a u e, objec i e 8.5, which
calls o ull and p oduc i e employmen , decen wo k o people o
bo h gende s and equal emune a ion o labo o equal wo h, has no
ye been a e agely a ained. Objec i e 8.8 goal o p omo ing sa e and
secu e wo king condi ions o all employees, pa icula ly hose in
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F on ie s in Sociology 06 on ie sin.o g
p eca ious employmen (women), is cu en ly di icul o achie e.
SDG 8 seeks o p omo e decen jobs and economic p ospe i y o all
pe sons, bu con inuing gende inequi ies in he labo ma ke pose
subs an ial hu dles o a aining hese goals. Gende disc imina ion,
income inequali ies, and a lack o ep esen a ion in leade ship oles
a e jus a ew o how women’s ca ee s a e held back (Menéndez-Espina
e al., 2020; Smi h e al., 2021). To p omo e gende equali y in he
wo kplace, sus ainable de elopmen , and economic success, hese
obs acles mus be o e come. Women al eady expe ience
disc imina ion in he wo kplace because o hei gende , and he
sala y di e ence, poo wo king condi ions, and occupa ional
seg ega ion only wo sen hings. Again, women’s access o sa e,
espec able jobs is hampe ed by he ime and ene gy equi ed o
unpaid ca e du ies.
Policymake s and s akeholde s mus apply a ious s a egies o
o e come hese p oblems and ealize SDG 8’s goals and a ge s 8.5
and 8.8:
▪ P omo ing Equal Oppo uni ies: Enac ing ules ha elimina e
disc imina o y p ac ices and obs acles o access in he wo kplace
o bo h men and women.
▪ Suppo ing Wo k-Li e Balance: Policies p omo ing wo k-li e
balance should beenac ed o aid wo king mo he s in juggling
hei p o essional and pe sonal li es.
▪ Closing he Wage Gap: Equal pay o equal e o , as well as
add essing he gende wage gap ia equi able compensa ion
me hods, is essen ial o closing he wage gap.
▪ Re e sing Gende Roles in he Wo kplace: P omo ing emale
engagemen in his o ically male-domina ed ields ia s a egic
p og ams and ini ia i es.
▪ C ea ing Sa e and Secu e Wo k En i onmen s: P io i izing he
p omo ion o sa e and secu e wo king condi ions, especially o
women in p eca ious employmen , is c ucial o c ea ing sa e and
secu e wo k en i onmen s.
▪ Add essing Unpaid Ca e Wo k: Taking up he issue o
uncompensa ed ca e wo k means ad oca ing o an equal
alloca ion o ca egi ing obliga ions and ecognizing and
espec ing uncompensa ed ca e labo .
▪ Challenging Gende No ms: P omo ing gende equali y h ough
comba ing he assump ions and disc imina o y p ac ices ha
keep women a a disad an age in he wo kplace is a i al pa o
he mo emen o challenge gende no ms.
▪ In es ing in Educa ion and Skills De elopmen : In es ing in
educa ion and aining helps women acqui e he knowledge and
abili ies hey need o secu e s able employmen .
▪ Ad oca ing o Women’s Empowe men : Pushing o mo e
oppo uni ies o women o ake on posi ions o in luence in
o ganiza ions and socie y.
▪ Da a Collec ion and Moni o ing: S eng hening da a collec ing
and moni o ing mechanisms o measu e p og ess owa d SDG 8
and elimina ing gende inequali ies in he wo kplace.
P io i izing and execu ing hese policy measu es may help na ions
make subs an ial p og ess owa d achie ing SDG 8 and o he
associa ed SDGs by educing he gende gap in he labo ma ke and
os e ing decen employmen o e e yone. The labo ma ke and
inclusi e and sus ainable economic de elopmen a e bols e ed when
ba ie s o gende equali y and sui able employmen a e emo ed.
4.2 The injus ices o ma ke economy:
e hinking sus ainable de elopmen goal 8
The s uggles o decen wo k and economic g ow h wi hin he
pu ely ma ke -based labo ma ke s ha e been mul i ace ed and
deba ed o many yea s. While ma ke economies ha e p omo ed
inno a ion, e iciency, and o e all economic g ow h, hey also ace
challenges ha can hinde decen wo k oppo uni ies, equi able
economic p og ess, and SDG 8. The ise o capi alism was he ca alys
o bo h cu en economic expansion and he igh o decen
employmen . The ques o pu ely ma ke -based labo ma ke s o
compe e globally has led o economic concen a ion (Sell, 2020).
Gi en ha capi alism is inhe en ly g ow h-o ien ed and is based on
he logic o compe i ion and accumula ion (Hall and Da is, 2021), i
p oduces he mode n p oblems o unemploymen and labo -capi al
con lic s (Xu and Chak abo y, 2021), as well as income inequali y
(Chowdhu y and Żuk, 2018; Ranaldi and Milano ić, 2022).
The eme gence o pu ely ma ke -based labo ma ke s esul ed in
a signi ican educ ion in human well-being ac oss all a eas, wi h
sala ies alling below he minimum necessa y o sus enance and a
decline in human size (Sulli an and Hickel, 2023). Like ne e be o e
in he his o y o capi alism, he global economic geog aphy has
unde gone a signi ican ans o ma ion in e ms o he magni ude and
con en o in e na ional lows o commodi ies, se ices, and inancial
asse s, as well as he localiza ion o indus ial ac i i y, mainly
manu ac u ing (Ricci, 2021). The libe aliza ion o local and
in e na ional ma ke s o commodi ies, capi al, and labo , pushed ia
a wide ange o neolibe al economic policies by almos all go e nmen s
wo ldwide, has been he de ining ea u e o his pe iod (Ricci, 2021).
Global alue chains ha e been claimed o lead o new ypes o wo ke
po e y, and many sec o s’ mos ly emale wo k o ces a e hype -
exploi ed (gi en sala ies below he le el necessa y o subsis ence)
(Selwyn, 2019). Wo ke s in a ma ke economy a e unde emendous
p essu e o mee e y high and ising p oduc i i y goals, ecei e base
pay ha is insu icien o co e hei needs o indi idual and social
ep oduc ion, pu in a lo o o e ime, and as a esul o hese
combined p essu es, su e physical and emo ional deg ada ion
(Selwyn, 2019).
Yang e al. (2021) emphasized ha capi alis s a e engaged in “wage
he ,” which is he illegal unde paymen o non-paymen o
employees’ wages and ha e en wo ke s’ minimal legal igh s a e no
en o ced (Cole e al., 2022). This also includes paying less han he
minimum wage, e using o pay o labo du ing egula business
hou s o au ho ized o e ime, denying b eaks, and making employees
pay o supplies o damage (Be nha d e al., 2009). As wo k has
become mo e p eca ious, ma ked by unce ain y, low income, and
limi ed social bene i s and en i lemen s (Menéndez-Espina e al.,
2020), i is eg e able ha e en he ad anced economy wi h a well-
es ablished legal and ins i u ional amewo k has ailed o en o ce
e en basic legal s anda ds (Sell, 2020; Yang e al., 2021). The necessi y
o capi al o ex ac su plus alue om labo leads o wage he , and
mos ob iously, unlaw ul unde paymen allows managemen o
enhance ac ual su plus alue by documen ing legal sala ies while
educing cash paymen s (Yang e al., 2021). Despi e hese ala ming
issues, wo ke s pa icipa e in hei exploi a ion and wo k in p eca ious
condi ions due o inadequa e wo k p o ec ion, which may ha e se e e
consequences o p oduc i e employmen and decen jobs, − which
a e essen ial componen s o Goal 8 o he SDGs (Silaban e al., 2021).
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F on ie s in Sociology 07 on ie sin.o g
Addi ionally, encou aging p eca ious posi ions may make i mo e
challenging o implemen Goal 8 on decen wo k (Silaban e al., 2021).
Rega dless o a coun y’s deg ee o de elopmen , c i ical pe sonnel
a e o en unde paid by 29%, wi h his pe cen age being no ably high
in high-income na ions ha employ a signi ican p opo ion o o eign
wo ke s (ILO, 2023). Many o hese employees in se e al essen ial
indus ies ha e li le unioniza ion and collec i e ba gaining co e age
o none a all (ILO, 2023). These p oblems a e seen as a so o
con empo a y sla e y known as labo exploi a ion, in which a pe son
is made o wo k agains hei will, is unde hei boss’s au ho i y, and
is compelled by economic ci cums ances o accep inadequa e
compensa ion (Yang e al., 2021). Despi e he subs an ial economic
expansion, he e is cons an p oo o wo ke exploi a ion in he
pe iphe y o he new global economy and labo p essu e in olde ,
mo e es ablished indus y cen e s (Maye and Pickles, 2010).
Th ough inno a ion and ma ke compe i ion, pu ely ma ke -
based labo ma ke s o e oppo uni ies o skills de elopmen and
adap a ion; howe e , due o i s emphasis on p o i -d i en ma ke
dynamics, apid echnological ad ancemen s, and he alloca ion o
esou ces based on ma ke o ces, ma ke economies ha e impac ed
skills misma ch in he labo ma ke . Due o his, he e is a disc epancy
be ween he alen s ha companies alue and hose ha job seeke s
possess (Li ings one, 2019; Chigbu and Nekhwe ha, 2022a; Chigbu
e al., 2023). Due o he capaci y o ma ke economies o de elop and
adap new echnology, he labo ma ke is cons an ly dis up ed and
al e ed (Min e  al., 2019; Minbae a, 2021; Le è e e  al., 2022).
Addi ionally, he emphasis on e iciency and compe i i eness unde
capi alism p essu es companies o change and con inue o
besuccess ul. This need o e iciency o en leads o he au oma ion o
epe i i e ope a ions and he need o highe -le el abili ies ha can
complemen and collabo a e wi h echnology (B ugge and Geh ke,
2018; Ra e  al., 2019; Chigbu and Nekhwe ha, 2022b). The
consequence migh bea skills misma ch as people lacking he equi ed
abili ies may s uggle o ind accep able jobs. Va iabili y and
unp edic abili y, upskilling, deskilling, and skills pola iza ion (Mish a
e  al., 2019), he eplacemen o people wi h machines in he
wo kplace, and he “deskilling” o exis ing unc ional jobs (B a e man,
1998) a e all con ibu ing o he unskilled p ole a ia .
The SDGs’ sus ainabili y goals a e iola ed by Goal 8 (Hickel,
2019: 1) because he “global g ow h o 3% pe yea ende s i
empi ically in easible o achie e (a) any educ ions in agg ega e global
esou ce use and (b) educ ions in CO2 emissions apid enough o
s ay wi hin he ca bon budge o 2°C.” While SDG 8 is based on he
idea o enhancing he ela ionship be ween a business and i s wo ke s,
job au oma ion has he opposi e impac , unde mining he
undamen al no ion o decen employmen and leading i ms away
om a he han owa d he ul illmen o SDG 8 (B aganza e al.,
2021). These a e ai s o deg ading employmen p ac ices and ma ke
economies’ labo es uc u ing. Many s uggle o ind quali y
employmen because hey lack he skills o p ospe in he changing
indus y. To os e economic de elopmen and p o ide ai
employmen oppo uni ies, i is c i ical o close he skills gap ia
educa ion, aining, and li elong lea ning (Chigbu e al., 2023).
As p oduc ion inc eases, he wo k o ce does no expe ience he
same posi i e g ow h in he manu ac u ing indus y (Chigbu and
Nekhwe ha, 2022c). This migh be he eason why c i ics ha e
emphasized ha expanding p oduc i i y as s ipula ed in SDG 8 has
no esul ed in a concomi an imp o emen in he s anda d o li ing
o people, and sus ainable de elopmen canno bebased on u he
economic g ow h (Rob a and Heikku inen, 2019). The inequi ies
inhe en o he sys ema ic p ocesses o exploi a ion ha a e dis inc i e
o ma ke economies a e no conside ed by SDG 8 o i s la ge
sus ainabili y agenda (Bianchi and de Man, 2021). The logic o g ow h,
compe i ion, and p o i -making ha unde pin he con inuous
de elopmen and expansion o speci ic indus ies a e in opposi ion o
he SDG-led agenda (Bianchi and de Man, 2021). The idea o sus ained
and inclusi e g ow h ein o ces he p imacy o capi al and ma ke
no ions o jus ice and con inues o pe pe ua e a g ow h-d i en
de elopmen model a he han add essing he s uc u al injus ices
ha en ench inequali ies and ep oduce exploi a i e labo p ac ices
(Bianchi and de Man, 2021). The SDGs a e ye ano he in e na ional
ins umen , as s a ed by Mili oje ic e  al. (2020), ha makes
he o ically solid commi men s o he in e sec ions o labo ,
mig a ion, and exploi a ion bu lacks he cla i y and ope a ional
s eng h i equi es o lead he pa h in educing, i no elimina ing,
such exploi a i e p ac ices.
The elemen s ha suppo o con ibu e o he ci cums ances o
labo exploi a ion a e s ill no aken in o accoun by his ool
(Mili oje ic e al., 2020). T ebilcock (2005) linked a lack o compe en
go e nance o a lack o decen wo k. A lack o go e nance, poo
ins i u ions, and con adic o y poli ical commi men s may hinde
p og ess on human igh s conce ns such as a ge 8.8’s labo igh s.
1
The commi men o a ge 8.6 o d ama ically imp o e he labo
ma ke si ua ion o young people o NEET by 2020 was no me ; o
ins ance, see s a is ics in s udies by Cieslik e al. (2022) and Pica os e
and Rod iguez-C espo (2020). Poli ical will, commi men , and he
s uc u es and mechanisms o p ope go e nance a e essen ial
(T ebilcock, 2005) in achie ing decen wo k wi hin SDG 8. Sadly, he
new 2030 de elopmen plan a o s ma ke -based economic g ow h
ac ics abo e he a ainmen o e e yone’s en i lemen o ull
employmen and a easonable s anda d o li ing (F ey and
MacNaugh on, 2016). In his scena io, SDG 8’s exp ession and
measu emen o economic p og ess con inue o lea e many people
behind (Meu s e  al., 2019) due o he ongoing ise in insecu e
employmen (Silaban e al., 2021) and inc easing wo ke exploi a ion
(Selwyn, 2019).
In conclusion, o his sec ion, he ad en o ma ke economies has
been connec ed wi h con empo a y economic expansion and he igh
o decen labo . This complex link sugges s ha he objec i e o a
decen job canno bewholly ealized wi hin he exis ing economic
sys em. Pu ely ma ke -based labo ma ke s, d i en by compe i ion
and accumula ion, ha e spawned a ious p oblems, such as
unemploymen , labo -capi al dispu es, and cha ges o exploi a ion and
unde paymen . Mo eo e , he g ow h o ma ke economies has
esul ed in a decline in human well-being, including subsis ence-le el
income and de imen al e ec s on human heigh . The impac o
capi alism has also ans o med he global economic geog aphy,
spu ed by neolibe al policies ha ha e libe alized ma ke s and led o
new ypes o wo ke po e y, which disp opo iona ely a lic emale
wo ke s. The ubiqui ous p oblem o “wage he ,” which in ol es
illegal non-paymen o unde paymen o wo ke s’ wages, occu s e en
hough he mos undamen al legal no ms a e no en o ced unde
1 unescap.o g
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F on ie s in Sociology 08 on ie sin.o g
insecu e wo king ci cums ances. Despi e SDG 8’s ocus on inclusi e
and sus ainable de elopmen , capi alism’s s uc u al inequi ies and
exploi a i e labo p ac ices a e no su icien ly add essed. In addi ion,
he SDGs’ pledges o add ess labo exploi a ion and he
in e connec ions o labo and mig a ion ha e no been ansla ed in o
adequa e ope a ional capaci y o minimize o e adica e exploi a i e
beha io s. Wi h uns able labo on he ise, secu ing sui able
employmen emains a challenge. Economic ci cums ances con inue
o p omo e labo exploi a ion, de ined by o ced wo k and insu icien
emune a ion, as con empo a y sla e y. Ex eme income and weal h
dispa i ies mus beadd essed o human igh s, heal h, poli ical and
economic s abili y, and wo ld peace. I is i al o challenge ma ke
economies’ p e ailing g ow h pa adigm and p omo e a coun e -
hegemonic discou se o add ess hese challenges and hose linked
wi h in o mal labo success ully.
4.3 Challenges and neglec ed eali ies o
in o mal wo k and economy wi hin SDG 8
The SDG8 may no adequa ely add ess wo ke s’ challenges
(home-based wo ke s, s ee endo s, domes ic wo ke s, was e
picke s) in he in o mal sec o , who o en lack legal p o ec ion, social
secu i y, and essen ial bene i s such as heal hca e and pensions.
O e coming he challenges associa ed wi h he in o mal economy is
i al o achie ing decen wo k and inclusi e economic g ow h.
Acco ding o Tucke and Anan ha aman (2020), “in o mal wo k”
e e s o a ious income-gene a ing ac i i ies no co e ed by s a e
labo laws and wage ela ions. In addi ion, “in o mal sec o employe s
a e equen ly ha sh, igno e he law, and easily dismiss hei wo ke s
wi h li le o no ecou se o legal emedies” (Bonne and Spoone ,
2011). Fo Dewick e al. (2022), he na u e o in o mal wo k is hea ily
pollu ed wi h illegal ac i i ies such as disguised child labo (Singh
e al., 2023), which goes unmoni o ed by any o m o go e nmen
(Padma a hi and A una, 2022). I has been a gued ha he ma ke and
s a e ha e ailed in deli e ing op imum economic wel a e o in o mal
wo ke s e en in he case o well-planned and highly u banized ci ies
(Singh e al., 2023), as i is some imes s igma ized as oublesome and
unmanageable (Padma a hi and A una, 2022). E en while he
in o mal economy con ibu es o he GDP (Cha mes, 2012; Dell’Anno
and Adu, 2020) and o e all p oduc ion and consump ion in bo h
de eloping and de eloped coun ies (Ho odnic e al., 2022), i is
some imes no included in a na ion’s GDP, unlike he o mal sec o
(Padma a hi and A una, 2022). In a di e en iew, women o en
engage in in o mal wo k, pa icula ly in domes ic se ices, which is
unde alued and un ecognized, pe pe ua ing nega i e s e eo ypes
(Jackson, 2019). C i ics ha e exp essed wo y abou he escala ing
dispa i ies su ounding he gende wage gap, pa icula ly abou he
unpaid labo ha women engaged in domes ic wo k in he in o mal
sec o (Jackson, 2019; Singh e  al., 2023). Add essing his issue
in ol es ecognizing and aluing unpaid domes ic wo k, challenging
nega i e pe cep ions, and ensu ing equal oppo uni ies o all gende s
(Jackson, 2019). To p omo e sus ained inclusi e and economic g ow h
o all in line wi h SDG 8, i is c ucial o p io i ize gende equali y
(Jackson, 2019).
Un o una ely, ade unions and o he wo ke s’ o ganiza ions
undoub edly ace many eal challenges in o ganizing he in o mal
wo k o ce, i espec i e o sec o o coun y (Bonne and Spoone ,
2011), due o a lack o adi ion o democ a ic unc ioning, inancial
sel - elian o pay egula membe ship dues, legal and egula o y
amewo k, s able and speci ic wo kplaces, wo ke iden i y and
unde ined wo kplaces (Bonne and Spoone , 2011). The exclusiona y
aspec o o ganized ade unions inad e en ly excludes a sizable
segmen o he wo k o ce. The ulne abili y o in o mal wo ke s is
exace ba ed by hei lack o legal ecogni ion (Rou h, 2015; Be nal-
To es e al., 2019), which con adic s he undamen al idea o decen
wo k ensh ined in SDG 8. Fu he mo e, SDG 8 unde lines he
signi icance o p o iding sa e and secu e wo king condi ions o all
wo ke s, ega dless o employmen s a us. Howe e , he lack o legal
p o ec ions exposes in o mal wo ke s o exploi a i e beha io s,
unde mining he p omo ion o ai wo king condi ions (Williams and
Yousse , 2014). Fu he mo e, he absence o knowledge and awa eness
abou igh s and he exis ence o ade unions among in o mal wo ke s
impedes he achie emen o SDG 8. The SDGs iew decen wo k as
equi ing wo ke s o beempowe ed wi h knowledge and pa icipa e in
decision-making p ocesses, hampe ed by his lack o awa eness.
Too o en, policy eli es, including hose p omo ing sus ainable
de elopmen , o e look ha in o mal wo ke s p oduce u ban
economies wi h social and en i onmen al alue (Tucke and
Anan ha aman, 2020) and p omo e he ci cula economy and
sus ainable de elopmen (Di Maio and Rem, 2015). The indus y is
c ucial o su i al and, mo e likely, con inued li elihoods o pe sons
wi h low skill le els (Jackson, 2019). Howe e , g ow h-o ien ed
economies – he co e o SDG 8 – ep oduce en i onmen al
de e io a ion, economic inequali y, and po e y, he exac ac o s ha
d i e so many people o engage in in o mal labo (Tucke and
Anan ha aman, 2020). The undamen al p oblem is ha policymake s
s ill do no ha e a eliable KPI o boos ing he in o mal sec o (Di
Maio and Rem, 2015). Despi e e o s o in eg a e he Decen Wo k
agenda in o social policies and p og ams, poli ical p ocesses a e
s uc u ally uns able; he e o e, he e a e no p ecise s a egic
app oaches o add essing a capaci y gap pa icula o he in o mal
sec o (Dhakal and Bu gess, 2021).
Ou p ima y conclusion in his sec ion is ha SDG 8 may no
su icien ly add ess he issues aced by wo ke s in he in o mal sec o ,
esul ing in a lack o legal p o ec ion, social secu i y, and decen
wo king condi ions. Casual wo ke s, who cons i u e a subs an ial
componen o he labo popula ion in se e al de eloping na ions,
engage in income-gene a ing ac i i ies ou side o o icial labo
egula ions and a e ulne able o exploi a ion by employe s who o en
lou he law. Consequen ly, he go e nmen does no o e see se e al
aspec s o indecen labo in his a ea. In addi ion, he gende dispa i y
gap, especially in e ms o unpaid labo unde aken by women in
domes ic employmen , is a wo ying p oblem ha ein o ces nega i e
s e eo ypes and necessi a es equi able oppo uni y and
acknowledgmen o unpaid domes ic wo k. Un o una ely, au ho i ies
o en dis ega d he subs an ial con ibu ion o in o mal labo o u ban
economies, social alue, and en i onmen al sus ainabili y. In addi ion,
unions and wo ke s’ g oups con on obs acles in o ganizing he
in o mal wo k o ce, such as he absence o a his o y o democ a ic
unc ioning, inancial independence, legal and egula o y amewo ks,
s able wo kplaces, wo ke iden i y, and unclea wo k a angemen s.
Fo os e ing sus ainable de elopmen , eaching SDG 8, and
con ibu ing o educing ca bon emissions ha ha m he en i onmen ,
i is c ucial o ecognize he in o mal sec o ’s signi icance and es ablish
app op ia e me ics o suppo i s g ow h.
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4.4 The need o s eng hen he in eg a ion
o en i onmen al sus ainabili y wi hin he
amewo k o SDG 8
The phenomenon o indecen wo kplaces poses exis en ial se e e
h ea s o achie ing SDG 8 (Raimi, 2020). Fo example, due o g owing
unemploymen a es and g ea e le els o p eca ious employmen in
he labo ma ke , Sub-Saha an A ica has a low inclina ion owa d
decen wo k (Raimi, 2020), while hei ocus is on economic g ow h
ha migh hampe he en i onmen . Schola s ha e a gued ha SDG
8 is p esen ly pa o a clima e delay a gumen since he inclusion o
economic de elopmen and he emphasis on boos ing employmen
bo h con ibu e o unsus ainable and un ai esul s (K einin and
Aigne , 2022), se e e se e al en i onmen al and human heal h
p oblems (Sun e  al., 2016). Fo example, China is he wo ld’s
manu ac u ing powe house, wi h manu ac u ing accoun ing o
app oxima ely 30% o o al economic p oduc ion. The as economic
g ow h o China and he expanded a ailabili y o goods and se ices
aise he need o ene gy, such as hyd oelec ici y usage. Su e,
hyd oelec ici y consump ion hu s CO2 emissions, which helps o
mi iga e en i onmen al deg ada ion; howe e , i also has ad e se
en i onmen al and socie al isks, such as degene a ed wildli e habi a ,
wo sened wa e quali y, obs uc ed ish mobili y, and sh unk
ec ea ional oppo uni ies on i e s, which canno beo e looked
(Adebayo e al., 2021). China’s economic de elopmen , o example,
has d ama ically dec eased po e y in ecen decades, allowing i o
en e he anks o uppe -middle-income na ions. Un o una ely, i s
economic p ospe i y has been accompanied by subs an ial dec eases
in ai quali y; in ac , i s ai pollu ion has inc eased a quicke han
i s economic de elopmen (Dang and Se ajuddin, 2020). Ano he
oubling p oblem is ha as many as 96 na ions lack da a on SDG 13,
“Clima e Ac ion,” making i di icul o adequa ely assess p og ess
ac oss coun ies and ime (Dang and Se ajuddin, 2020).
The e has been much discussion on absolu e decoupling, which
happens when en i onmen al p oblems a e dec eased bu economic
de elopmen is main ained. Since capi alism, no ma e whe e i is, is
p one o c ises, g ow h-dependen , and ma ke expansion, i is
impossible, acco ding o he p esen s a e o clima e science, o he e
o bea ime o no g ow h o “de”-g ow h unde ma ke economies
(Hall and Da is, 2021). Howe e , al hough ela i e decoupling has
been demons a ed in ce ain na ions, o al decoupling emains
challenging owing o pu ely ma ke -based labo ma ke g ow h and
dynamics (Wa d e  al., 2016). GDP g ow h would ha e o
be signi ican ly decoupled om ene gy and ma e ial usage and
en i onmen al epe cussions o i o besus ainable; ye , he e is no
e idence ha GDP g ow h can bede ached in he long un (Wa d
e al., 2016). Ne e heless, a he co e o g een manu ac u ing is he
need o he indus y o combine nume ous goals, including equi able
de elopmen , en i onmen al p o ec ion, and p oduc i i y, ia a
ple ho a o egula o y amewo ks (Fu and I an, 2022).
In conclusion, while SDG 8 a ge 4 aims o “imp o e
p og essi ely, h ough 2030, global esou ce e iciency in consump ion
and p oduc ion and s i e o decouple economic g ow h om
en i onmen al deg ada ion,” i does no explici ly emphasize he need
o sus ainable economic p ac ices ha minimize en i onmen al
impac s caused by in ense economic compe i ion and g ow h-o ien ed
ma ke economies. In a neolibe al capi alis socie y, pu suing GDP
de elopmen o en comes a he p ice o ecological sus ainabili y. In
addi ion, China’s indus ial sup emacy and economic g ow h ha e
esul ed in a subs an ial ise in ene gy use, no ably hyd oelec ici y,
which has had de imen al en i onmen al e ec s. The di icul y is
achie ing comple e decoupling, in which economic expansion
con inues bu en i onmen al consequences decline. This wo k
becomes mo e complex, pa icula ly gi en ha many na ions lack
adequa e da a on clima e ac ion, highligh ing an u gen need o
enhanced moni o ing and epo ing me hods.
5 Discussion – complex pa h o SDG
8: un a eling challenges and cha ing
u u e cou ses
The global communi y aces nume ous hu dles in achie ing SDG
8. This deba e goes in o ou c ucial s udy indings, each o which
sheds ligh on c i ical impedimen s impeding he achie emen o SDG
8’s objec i es. Weexplo e he in ica e apes y o challenges and
oppo uni ies inhe en in he pa h owa d sus ainable and decen
employmen o all by add essing gende dispa i ies, g appling wi h
he nuances o ma ke economy sys ems, con on ing he eali ies o
he in o mal sec o , and na iga ing he in ica e balance be ween
economic expansion and en i onmen al sus ainabili y.
5.1 Gende dispa i ies: b eaking he chains
o disc imina ion
The pe sis ence o gende dispa i ies in he labo ma ke is a
subs an ial impedimen o achie ing SDG 8. Despi e emendous
p og ess in ecen yea s (Fink e al., 2018; T ipa hy, 2018; Samuel e al.,
2020), women ace o midable obs acles, anging om sys emic
p ejudice o socioeconomic dispa i ies. Gende equali y in he
wo kplace is no jus a mo al issue; i is also a s a egic necessi y.
Resea ch egula ly shows ha economically empowe ed women lead
o mo e conside able socie al bene i s, such as inc eased economic
g ow h and social cohesion (Cos a e al., 2023; Na een e al., 2023).
Comp ehensi e s a egies and a ge ed ac i i ies a e equi ed o b eak
down hese ba ie s. Encou agemen o emale in ol emen in
educa ion and aining, p omo ion o men o ship p og ams, and
ad ocacy o equal pay a e all c i ical s eps owa d making he job
ma ke a ai playing ield o all women (Pigna i, 2016; Tabassum,
2019; De adas and Kim, 2020).
5.2 Ma ke economies pa adox: balancing
g ow h and social equi y
A close look in o ma ke economic sys ems shows a pa adox a
he hea o economic de elopmen . While pu ely ma ke -based labo
ma ke s p omo e economic p og ess and inno a ion, hey also
encou age income inequali y, job insecu i y, and exploi a ion (W ay,
2009; Galanis e al., 2017; He, 2022). Because o his dicho omy,
economic policy mus becomplex. Go e nmen s and ins i u ions
mus ac i ely lessen he nega i e impac s o uncon olled capi alism
by ins i u ing p og essi e axa ion, assu ing equi able sala ies, and
s eng hening social sa e y ne s. Fu he mo e, cul i a ing a co po a e
social esponsibili y cul u e can incen i ize co po a ions o con ibu e
82
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F on ie s in Sociology 10 on ie sin.o g
cons uc i ely o socie y (Ve ma, 2015; Va ona, 2020; Chigbu and
Nekhwe ha, 2022c), he eby balancing he ensions be ween economic
g ow h and social equali y.
5.3 The in o mal sec o : b idging gaps in
legal igh s and social secu i y
Al hough he in o mal sec o employs a sizable ac ion o he
global wo k o ce, i is ne e heless unde se ed by SDG 8. Wo ke s in
in o mal economies equen ly lack legal igh s and social secu i y,
exposing hem o exploi a ion and po e y (Ga zón-Duque e al.,
2017; Dwi Wina ni e  al., 2019). Recognizing he eno mous
con ibu ion o he in o mal sec o o economies, go e nmen s mus
p o ide legal p o ec ions and social wel a e bene i s o hese people.
Fo malizing he in o mal sec o h ough accessible egis a ion
p ocesses, ailo ed inancial se ices, and oca ional aining can upli
millions, os e ing inclusi e g ow h and na owing dispa i ies
(Ca he ine and Jacob, 2014; Khamis, 2014; Ta a e al., 2020).
5.4 Balancing economic expansion and
en i onmen al sus ainabili y: a delica e ac
Economic g ow h, a c ucial aspec o SDG 8, equen ly collides
wi h en i onmen al sus ainabili y impe a i es. Rapid indus ializa ion
and esou ce-in ensi e p oduc ion pu a s ain on ecosys ems (Sha ma,
2018; Bandu in and Bandu ina, 2021), o e ing conside able challenges
o achie ing sus ainable de elopmen (Kuzne so a e  al., 2020).
Re olu iona y changes in p oduc ion p ocesses and consump ion
pa e ns a e equi ed o each equilib ium. Emb acing g een
echnologies, de eloping ci cula economies, and in es ing in
enewable ene gy sou ces a e c i ical measu es (Be g e  al., 2018;
Adeosun e al., 2023). Simul aneously, aising awa eness and cul i a ing
an en i onmen al cul u e can s imula e beha io al shi s, suppo ing
sus ainable p ac ices h oughou companies and communi ies.
As we ace hese p oblems head-on, wese he g oundwo k o a
mo e equi able, sus ainable, and p ospe ous socie y in which he
p omises o SDG 8 become li ed eali ies o e e y indi idual,
ega dless o gende , socioeconomic backg ound, o job posi ion.
6 Conclusion
This de ailed s udy del es in o he unde lying complexi y o he
cu en labo ma ke by e alua ing he complica ed web o p oblems
wi hin he goal o Decen Wo k and Economic G ow h – SDG 8. Ou
aims we e designed o elucida e he mul i ace ed dimensions o his
pu sui , and he indings, as p esen ed, highligh he c i ical need o
nuanced and holis ic s a egies in he ace o gende and income
inequali ies, he inhe en injus ices o ma ke economies, he o en-
o e looked eali ies o in o mal wo k, and he impe a i e o
in eg a ing en i onmen al sus ainabili y in o economic p ac ices.
Wedisco e ed ha con inuing gende gaps in he labo ma ke pose
a subs an ial ba ie o ealizing SDG 8’s objec i e. Women con inue
o encoun e eno mous obs acles, anging om disc imina ion o
occupa ional seg ega ion. Examining ma ke economic sys ems ound
a pe plexing link be ween economic de elopmen and adequa e
employmen . While capi alism p omo es economic g ow h and
inno a ion, i p oduces income inequali y, insecu e wo k, and
exploi a ion. Ou s udy indica ed ha he in o mal sec o , which
employs a sizable p opo ion o he global wo k o ce, is s ill
unde se ed by SDG 8. Wo ke s in his sec o lack legal igh s and
social secu i y and a e equen ly exploi ed. Economic expansion
o en collides wi h en i onmen al sus ainabili y, c ea ing subs an ial
obs acles o SDG 8. The cu en emphasis on GDP de elopmen ,
pa icula ly in capi alis cul u es, con ibu es o en i onmen al
de e io a ion, which is agg a a ed by a lack o decoupling o economic
expansion om esou ce use.
To achie e decen wo k and economic g ow h in he 21s cen u y,
a pa adigm shi is equi ed – one ha emb aces gende equali y,
challenges pu ely ma ke -based labo ma ke con en ions, empowe s
in o mal wo ke s, and p omo es en i onmen al sus ainabili y. Because
o he complexi ies o hese di icul ies, coo dina ed e o s, new
policies, and a commi men o social jus ice a e equi ed. By
con on ing hese mul i a ious conce ns head-on, na ions may pa e
he way o a u u e in which decen wo k is no jus a goal bu a
undamen al human igh , p o iding p ospe i y o e e yone and
p o ec ing he well-being o ou plane o u u e gene a ions. This
s udy is a allying c y, calling go e nmen s, schola s, and global
ci izens o collabo a e in b eaking down ba ie s and es ablishing a
pa h owa d a mo e equal and sus ainable socie y.
6.1 Fu u e esea ch di ec ion
Building on he indings and knowledge gaps iden i ied in
ou s udy, some po en ial u u e esea ch a eas can beexplo ed
o deepen ou unde s anding o decen wo k and sus ainable
economic g ow h wi hin he con ex o SDG 8. One o hese
p ospec i e s udy di ec ions includes: “Case S udies on Success ul
Decen Wo k Ini ia i es.” Conduc ing in-dep h case s udies on
coun ies o egions ha ha e made signi ican p og ess in
p omo ing decen wo k and achie ing sus ainable economic
g ow h wi hin he amewo k o SDG 8 can o e aluable insigh s
and bes p ac ices o o he na ions o adop .
Au ho con ibu ions
BC: Concep ualiza ion, Da a cu a ion, Fo mal analysis, Funding
acquisi ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, P ojec adminis a ion,
Resou ces, W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing – e iew & edi ing. FN:
Concep ualiza ion, Da a cu a ion, Fo mal analysis, Funding
acquisi ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, Resou ces, W i ing – o iginal
d a , W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
Funding
The au ho (s) decla e inancial suppo was ecei ed o he
esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle. This esea ch
was unded by he Na ional Resea ch Founda ion (NRF). Re e ence/
G an Numbe : PSTD2204133322. We also acknowledge he Go an
Mbeki Resea ch and De elopmen Cen e (GMRDC) a he Uni e si y
o Fo Ha e Sou h A ica, and he Na ional Ins i u e o he
83

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F on ie s in Sociology 11 on ie sin.o g
Humani ies and Social Sciences (NIHSS) o hei inancial suppo
o his s udy.
Con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could
becons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he au ho s
and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
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86
F on ie s in Public Heal h 01 on ie sin.o g
Can COVID-19 ma k a ipping
poin o home-based elewo k?
Con lic be ween un ac
echnology and igid ins i u ions
in Ko ea
JoonmoCho
1, SangheeLee
2 and ByungjinPa k
3*
1 Depa men o Economics, Sungkyunkwan Uni e si y, Seoul, Republic o Ko ea, 2 Depa men o
Consilience, Ko ea Poly echnic Uni e si y, Siheung, Republic o Ko ea, 3 Depa men o Economics,
HRD Cen e , Sungkyunkwan Uni e si y, Seoul, Republic o Ko ea
Backg ound: P e iously, Ko ea showed a passi e a i ude owa d home-based
elewo k; howe e , his s ance apidly changed a e he COVID-19 pandemic.
Sus aining home-based elewo k en ails adjus ing p oduc i i y condi ions,
in oducing pe o mance-based e alua ions, and modi ying employmen ules,
as equi ed by he Ko ean Labo S anda ds Ac , which demand he consen o
mos wo ke s. This s udy aims o explo e he socie al and ins i u ional shi s
necessa y o ongoing home-based elewo k pos -pandemic.
Me hods: This s udy discusses he sus ainabili y o home-based wo k based on
su ey da a and ma e ials om ins i u ions and p e ious esea ch. I used da a om
he Wo kplace Panel Su ey p o ided by he Ko ea Labo Ins i u ion o 3 yea s
(2015, 2017, and 2019) o examine he s a us o home-based wo k and business
esponses. I also add esses legal issues ela ed o changes in wo king condi ions
and wo ke -managemen ag eemen s esul ing om elewo k implemen a ion.
Legal aspec s o elewo k a e explained using ele an sec ions o Ko ea’s labo
laws.
Resul s: To es ablish home-based elewo k as a wo king me hod ele an o
he Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion a e he pandemic, essen ial discussions a e
needed ega ding i s undamen al applicabili y o speci ic job sec o s. Mo eo e ,
o ac i a e home-based elewo k wi hou de e io a ing wo king condi ions,
achie ing ag eemen be ween wo ke s and managemen is impe a i e. Howe e ,
legal complexi ies necessi a e sys emic changes o e ec i e esolu ion. Fo he
sus ainable con inui y o elewo k, a blend o socie al awa eness and ins i u ional
ans o ma ions is indispensable.
Discussion: The g ow h o home-based elewo k h ough un ac echnology
expansion is hinde ed by in lexible Ko ean labo laws, judicial p eceden s,
and wo ke -managemen ela ions. The absence o necessa y legal and
o ganiza ional changes could lead Ko ea o e e o p e-pandemic no ms o
slow implemen a ion. Ini ially p e alen in IT, home-based elewo k has expanded
ac oss sec o s due o he pandemic. Leading he “new no mal,” companies
c ea i ely enhance p oduc i i y h ough elewo k, bu igid sys ems and ou da ed
cul u es could impede pos -pandemic p og ess.
Conclusion: The s udy highligh s he need o o wa d-looking ins i u ional
changes and adap a ion o ad ancing echnology. I p o ides aluable insigh s
o o ganiza ions and policymake s o op imize wo k dynamics and enhance
employee and employe well-being in he pos -COVID-19 e a.
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Delali A. Do ie,
Uni e si y o Ghana, Ghana
REVIEWED BY
Valen in Ma ian An ohi,
Duna ea de Jos Uni e si y, Romania
Denisa Vasilescu,
Bucha es Academy o Economic S udies,
Romania
*CORRESPONDENCE
Byungjin Pa k
pa k0420jin@na e .com
RECEIVED 06 Sep embe 2023
ACCEPTED 14 No embe 2023
PUBLISHED 29 No embe 2023
CITATION
Cho J, Lee S and Pa k B (2023) Can COVID-19
ma k a ipping poin o home-based elewo k?
Con lic be ween un ac echnology and igid
ins i u ions in Ko ea.
F on . Public Heal h 11:1289809.
doi: 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1289809
COPYRIGHT
© 2023 Cho, Lee and Pa k. This is an open-
access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o
he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License
(CC BY). The use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion
in o he o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided he
o iginal au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s)
a e c edi ed and ha he o iginal publica ion in
his jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h
accep ed academic p ac ice. No use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which
does no comply wi h hese e ms.
TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 29 No embe 2023
DOI 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1289809
87
Cho e al. 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1289809
F on ie s in Public Heal h 08 on ie sin.o g
immedia e esponses, we e ini ially belie ed o be unsui able o
emo e wo k. Howe e , hese jobs quickly ansi ioned o home-based
elewo k when call cen e s became si es o mass in ec ion (44). The
pandemic has o ced expe imen a ion o de e mine whe he home-
based elewo k is sui able o Ko ea.
Some examples sugges ha a su ge in home-based elewo k may
no be a empo a y measu e. Ce ain companies ha ha e
implemen ed elewo k o all employees ha e indica ed hei
in en ions o con inue elecommu ing. They en ision a cul u e o
business openness, sha ing, and communica ion h ough he
de elopmen o new business ools, possibly leading o hei
ans o ma ion in o sma o ices (45).
Conside ing his end, i is impo an o explo e whe he home-
based elewo k can become a me hod o business inno a ion no
only du ing eme gencies such as he COVID-19 pandemic bu also
in he e a o he Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion. The pandemic has
ac ed as a u ning poin o o ganiza ions, p omp ing undamen al
conce ns o e hei me hods o ope a ion and job pe o mance
e alua ion (46).
Howe e , o de e mine whe he he home-based elewo k
me hod in oduced ab up ly due o he COVID-19 pandemic in
Ko ea can las and expand in he pos -pandemic e a, a ious e iews
and assessmen s should be conduc ed. We now conside he
possibili y o expanding home-based elewo k me hods in Ko ea
ollowing his ou b eak.
3.3 Re iew on he possibili y o
home-based elewo k me hods o expand
in Ko ea
3.3.1 The possibili y o change in he passi e
a i ude o Ko ea
Conduc ing ho ough e iews om a ious pe spec i es is c ucial
o de e mine he po en ial expansion o home-based elewo k
me hods in Ko ea ollowing he pandemic. One key aspec is
iden i ying jobs ha can bee ec i ely conduc ed h ough home-based
elewo k. The su ey examined he easons o he p e ious lack o a
lexible wo king sys em in Ko ea and ound ha o e hal o all jobs
we e deemed unsui able o such a sys em. Table4 p o ides insigh
in o he easons o no u ilizing lexible wo king me hods.
Acco ding o a p e ious su ey, he main easons o di icul ies
in encou aging lexible wo k included he na u e o he job (52.3%)
and o ganiza ional cul u e and en i onmen (23.0%) (47). Collec i ely,
hese esul s indica e ha he p ima y obs acles hinde ing he
in oduc ion o home-based elewo k a e he lack o sui able job oles
and he na u e o he wo k i sel .
3.3.2 Judicial p ocedu e equi ed o he
adop ion o home-based elewo k in Ko ea
When in oducing home-based elewo k in Ko ea, i is equi ed
o ob ain he consen o indi idual wo ke s o engage in consul a ion
wi h wo ke g oups be o e making any changes o wo king condi ions.
The p ocess o implemen ing home-based elewo k includes he
ollowing scena ios:
Fi s , i a p o ision conce ning he implemen a ion o home-
based elewo k is al eady p esen in he collec i e ag eemen ,
employmen ules,
1
o labo con ac , he company can implemen
home-based elewo k by issuing an o de in acco dance wi h he
ele an p o ision. In such cases, indi idual wo ke s a e conside ed o
ha e implici ly ag eed o home-based elewo k, allowing he employe
o implemen i by exe cising he igh o pe sonnel o de s.
Addi ionally, i he indi idual labo con ac includes a p o ision
allowing he employe o designa e he wo kplace, he employe can
in oduce home-based elewo k by designa ing he employee’s home
as he wo kplace wi hou equi ing any sepa a e consen (P o ision in
Possession Me hod). Howe e , such cases a e a e in Ko ea, which has
passi ely adop ed home-based elewo k.
In si ua ions wi hou any p o ision ela ed o implemen ing
home-based elewo k, as p e iously men ioned, a company can only
in oduce home-based elewo k wi h he explici consen o indi idual
wo ke s. As mos Ko ean wo kplaces lack speci ic p o isions o
home-based elewo k, i s implemen a ion du ing he COVID-19
pandemic likely equi ed ob aining he consen o indi idual wo ke s.
Ne e heless, i social dis ancing is impe a i e o p e en he sp ead
o he in ec ion, implemen ing home-based elewo k can bejus i ied
h ough consul a ion wi h wo ke s o wo ke g oups. Consequen ly,
a s ay-home o de o home-based elewo k ( ans e ) o de , in which
he home becomes he wo kplace, can be easonably issued2 (Righ o
Pe sonnel O de Me hod).
Meanwhile, i home-based elewo k is o icially in oduced o
all employees o a speci ic job g oup, wo king condi ions, such as
he se ice egula ions ela ed o home-based elewo k applied o
ele an employees, mus bemodi ied. In such cases, condi ions
canno beal e ed solely by he consen o indi idual wo ke s;
a he , home-based elewo k mus bein oduced by amending he
employmen ules ha apply o all employees. Howe e , i he
p oposed wo king condi ions, such as he se ice egula ions o
home-based elewo k, a e no mo e disad an ageous o wo ke s
han he exis ing wo king condi ions, he opinion o he labo
union shall be hea d i such an o ganiza ion ep esen s he
majo i y o he wo ke s. In i s absence, he collec i e opinion o
he majo i y o wo ke s should be conside ed (A icle 94,
Pa ag aph 1, Main Body o he Labo S anda ds Ac , No mal
Me hod o Change Employmen Rules). Howe e , i he p oposed
1 Employmen ules speci y he wo king condi ions o beapplied uni o mly
o he wo ke s in a business place ega dless o he designa ion. In Ko ea, he
business places ha employ mo e han 10 wo ke s a e obliged o es ablish
employmen ules (A icle 94, Main Body o he Labo S anda ds Ac ). Al hough
employmen ules con ain he wo king condi ions and wo king discipline o
he wo ke s in business places exis ing in Ko ea and Japan, hey also can also
nulli y he ele an con ac p o isions i he labo con ac concluded by an
indi idual wo ke alls sho o he s anda d se by he employmen ules (A icle
97 o he Labo S anda ds Ac ).
2 A icle 23, Pa ag aph 1, o he Labo S anda ds Ac s ipula es, “The employe
shall no dismiss…lea e o absence, o ans e …wi hou good cause.” Whe he
a pe sonnel change, such as an o de o wo k om home o a s ay-home
o de ( ans e o lea e o absence), is based on a good cause is de e mined
h ough business necessi y, disad an ages in li e, and he consul a ion
p ocedu e equi ed unde he p inciple o good ai h (Sup eme Cou , Ap il 11,
2000, P onouncemen o Ruling No. 99du2963; Sup eme Cou , Sep.10, 2009,
P onouncemen No. 2009du10440, e c.)
94

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F on ie s in Public Heal h 09 on ie sin.o g
wo king condi ions, such as se ice egula ions o home-based
elewo k, a e mo e disad an ageous o wo ke s han he exis ing
wo king condi ions (e.g., i he calcula ion o wo king hou s is
disad an ageous o wages dec ease), he consen o ei he he head
o he labo union ep esen ing he majo i y o , i he e is no such
labo union, ha o a majo i y o he wo ke s is equi ed (A icle
94, Pa ag aph 1, P o iso).
No ably, i he con en o home-based elewo k being
in oduced is, in pa icula , mo e disad an ageous o wo ke s, e en
i consen is ob ained om he majo i y o he wo ke s, he change
in hei labo con ac s may no bee ec i e i no all indi idual
employees ag ee o i (Disad an ageous Change o Employmen
Rule Me hod). Fo example, i consen is ob ained om a wo ke
g oup ega ding a dec ease in commu ing allowances and meal
bene i s bu no all indi idual wo ke s ag ee o he change, he
in oduc ion o home-based elewo k may beobs uc ed, and he
p e-exis ing s anda ds will con inue o apply o hose who ha e no
ag eed o i .
3
Consequen ly, e en a e in oducing home-based
elewo k, he p e-exis ing wo king condi ions con inue o apply o
wo ke s who ha e no p o ided consen . Fu he mo e, i he g oup
ag eemen s ipula es a p ocedu e o ad ance consul a ion o he
consen o he labo union when in oducing a new wo king
me hod, such as home-based elewo k, ha p ocedu e mus
be ollowed acco dingly.
3 Sup eme Cou , No embe 14, 2019, P onouncemen o Ruling No.
2018da200709 is a uling ha s a es ha he applica ion o he sala y peak
sys em o he ele an wo ke is no e ec i e i he employe ails o ob ain
he consen o he indi idual wo ke who is agains he in oduc ion o such
a sys em on he change in he labo con ac , e en hough he labo union
o ganized wi h a majo i y o he wo ke s has ag eed on such an in oduc ion,
which dec eases he sala y a e a ce ain age. Recen ly, he e has been
conside able con o e sy ega ding his uling, and i has been a gued, o
example, ha i is a decision ha igno es he uni o m and ac oss- he-boa d
na u e, an impo an unc ion o employmen ules. Fo example, Hyungbae
Kim, Disad an ageous Change o Employmen Rules and Ad an ageous
P o isions o Labo Con ac , Socie y o Labo Law Theo y and P o ession,
Labo Law Fo um No. 29, 2020. pp.4 onwa d. Joonhee Lee, Supe io i y and
In e io i y Rela ion be ween he E ec s o Employmen Rules and Labo
Con ac – A ound he Sup eme Cou P onouncemen o Ruling No.
2018da200709 da ed No embe 14, 2019, Socie y o Labo Law Theo y and
P o ession, Collec ion o T ea ises ela ed o Labo Law No. 48, 2020.4.
pp.383 onwa d.
3.4 Ac ual in oduc ion o home-based
elewo k and e iew o he possibili y o
pos -pandemic expansion
As men ioned ea lie , nume ous a icles ha e epo ed ha home-
based elewo k will expand in Ko ea because o he COVID-19
pandemic. Howe e , in oducing and expanding home-based elewo k
in Ko ea may no bes aigh o wa d, because o he p e ailing passi e
pe cep ion o emo e wo k. The easibili y o con inuing home-based
elewo k a e he ou b eak can beassessed by examining he legal
aspec s ela ed o i s implemen a ion in Ko ea, such as he p ocess and
speci ics o he in oduc ion.
Mos home-based elewo k in Ko ea is likely o bees ablished
based on he employe ’s igh o issue pe sonnel o de s ( he Righ o
Pe sonnel O de Me hod), as seen in he judicial p ocedu es
in es iga ed ea lie . Acco ding o Ko ea’s Labo S anda ds Ac , when
employe s exe cise he igh o issue pe sonnel o de s, such as g an ing
lea es o ans e s, he e mus bea jus i iable eason wi hou excep ion
(A icle 23, Pa ag aph 1 o he Labo S anda ds Ac ). Ins uc ing
employees o empo a ily swi ch o home-based elewo k because o
s ingen social dis ancing measu es o p e en epidemics is
conside ed a jus i iable use o he igh o issue pe sonnel o de s. This
was pe o med o p o ec he sa e y o he wo kplace and wo ke s
om in ec ion. The necessi y o p e en ing COVID-19 was
acknowledged based on p eceden s se by he Sup eme Cou o
Ko ea. Mo eo e , he e we e no disad an ages because his me hod
was implemen ed wi hou al e ing exis ing wo king condi ions o
sala y le els. Fu he mo e, i was execu ed a e unde going he
equi ed consul a ion p ocedu e unde he p inciple o good ai h, o
ins ance, by conduc ing u gen consul a ions wi h wo ke s. Thus, i
can bedeemed jus i iable home-based elewo k.
The e is no gua an ee ha mos home-based elewo k men ioned
ea lie will con inue a e he ou b eak. To assess hei use ulness and
e iciency, es s should beconduc ed du ing his pe iod o iden i y
po en ial p oduc i i y issues. Thus, an app op ia e me hod o home-
based elewo k could bede eloped and expanded a e he ou b eak.
Howe e , wo ke s g adually e u ned o indus ial si es a e
success ully p e en ing he sp ead o he pandemic (48). Du ing his
pe iod o inc eased in ec ion a es, home-based elewo k was
implemen ed in Ko ea as a c isis managemen measu e, bu no
esea ch has been conduc ed o explo e i s po en ial as a long- e m
eplacemen o ace- o- ace wo k. This si ua ion may ha e hinde ed
he possibili y o conduc ing such esea ch. Mo eo e , home-based
elewo k was no ini ially designed bu a he implemen ed as an
eme gency esponse. While he numbe o companies applying o
suppo o home-based elewo k in as uc u e inc eased signi ican ly
TABLE4 Reasons why lexible wo king me hods a e no implemen ed.
To al
(numbe o
companies)
No
sui able
jobs
Di icul y in
labo
managemen
such as wo ke
e alua ion
No wo ke s
who wan i
Cus ome
ela ion
In oduc ion
p ocedu e
unknown
In oduc ion
cos
In o ma ion
secu i y
Objec ion
o
employees
100
(565,465)
68.4
(386,719)
9.2
(51,787)
12.8
(72,278)
6.7
(38,166)
1.5
(8,586)
0.8
(4,560)
0.4
(2,297)
0.2
(1,071)
Jeon e al. (39).
The su ey has been conduc ed o he people in cha ge o pe sonnel a ai s wo king in he 5,049 companies selec ed h ough he s a i ied sampling me hod by business ype and company
size om companies all o e he coun y wi h no less han i e egula wo ke s. The uni s o he numbe s in he able a e in pe cen ages, and he uni s inside he pa en heses a e he numbe o
companies.
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F on ie s in Public Heal h 10 on ie sin.o g
du ing he pandemic, i is c ucial o examine he na u e o he changes
in employmen ules equi ed o his suppo . I he changes only
main ained he p e ious wo king condi ions, hey could beconside ed
o dina y changes. Howe e , i he condi ions we e lowe ed, his would
bedisad an ageous. The Ko ean go e nmen ’s limi a ion on quali ied
applican s o home-based elewo k suppo o SMEs sugges s ha
he possibili y o wo king condi ions being lowe ed o hese
businesses is low, indica ing o dina y changes. The e o e, i is mo e
likely ha he expansion o home-based elewo k in Ko ea will
belimi ed o SMEs ha ha e applied o in as uc u e suppo . La ge
Ko ean companies ha we e highly compe i i e and p oduc i e be o e
he pandemic may ha e emained passi e in adop ing home-based
elewo k e en a e he ou b eak.
The mos signi ican conce n in in oducing home-based elewo k
in Ko ea is he po en ial change in wo king condi ions. The issue
e ol es a ound whe he exis ing se ice egula ions can
be main ained when home-based elewo king is implemen ed
uni o mly o all employees o speci ic job g oups. I elewo king is
in oduced wi hou al e ing he p e ious wo king condi ions, i is
conside ed an o dina y change in employmen ules, wi h he only
di e ence being a change in he wo kplace. The p ocedu e o his
change ypically in ol es conside ing he collec i e opinions o he
wo ke g oup. Howe e , i he change in wo king condi ions nega i ely
a ec s employees, o ins ance, i p e ious condi ions a e downwa dly
adjus ed, he consen o he wo ke g oup and, in some cases, ha o
indi idual wo ke s ega ding changes in labo con ac s may
be equi ed. Ob aining consen can bechallenging in such cases.
Va ious ac o s mus beconside ed, such as whe he home-based
elewo k will be as p oduc i e as ace- o- ace wo k and whe he
ce ain bene i s such as anspo a ion allowances o meal subsidies
should con inue o be p o ided when he na u e o home-based
elewo k. Fo example, i commu ing allowances and meal bene i s a e
pa o he egula sala y paid o all employees in Ko ea,
4
hey a e
expec ed o bemain ained e en when ansi ioning o home-based
elewo k. Howe e , employe s may hesi a e o main ain hese bene i s
i p oduc i i y is no gua an eed. Addi ionally, employe s may
be eluc an o pay sala ies based on p e ious wo king hou s because
o he igidi ies imposed by he Labo S anda ds Ac , which is a
me hod o paymen pe wo king hou , especially i he e a e no clea
p oduc i i y o pe o mance e alua ion c i e ia.
Implemen ing blanke wage sys ems o disc e iona y wo k
sys ems ha allow o he lexible u iliza ion o wo king hou s and
sala ies would be ideal, bu as discussed ea lie , his is no a
s aigh o wa d solu ion. Mo eo e , wo ke s who ha e engaged in
home-based elewo k may desi e o e u n o ace- o- ace wo k i
he home-based wo k en i onmen changes o i hey p e e
wo king a he wo kplace. Howe e , he p ocedu es o ansi ioning
be ween ace- o- ace and home-based elewo k canno be esol ed
solely h ough legal p inciples ela ed o disad an ageous changes
in employmen ules. App oaching an ag eemen be ween a
company and an indi idual wo ke on he change in he wo king
me hod as collec i e consen (p o ec ion) may lead o he possibili y
o u u e wo king me hod adjus men s owing o he in lexibili y o
he sys em.
4 Sup eme Cou 1996.5.10. P onouncemen No. 95da2227, e c.
In a coun y such as Ko ea, wi h a p e-domina ing ace- o- ace
wo k cul u e, he in oduc ion o home-based elewo k is likely o
esul in changes o exis ing wo king condi ions. The e migh
beconce ns ha elewo king may no gua an ee he same le el o
p oduc i i y as ace- o- ace wo k because o po en ial issues such as
poo p oduc i i y, he absence o a pe o mance e alua ion sys em,
and di icul ies in emo e managemen , which a e ypically a ailable
in a physical wo kplace. Consequen ly, Ko ean employe s may
be mo e inclined owa d adop ing me hods ha in ol e ce ain
disad an ageous changes o employees. One way o add ess his is
h ough consul a ion be ween wo ke s and managemen . Howe e ,
wo ke -managemen ela ions in Ko ea o en do no a o such
coope a i e app oaches, leading many o p e e he esolu ion o such
ma e s h ough legal means. Figu e7 illus a es he legal s uc u e
go e ning he adop ion o home-based elewo king.
Indeed, du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, empo a y home-based
elewo k was implemen ed in Ko ea while main aining p e ious
wo king condi ions. I such elewo k we e accompanied by a educ ion
in sala ies, many wo ke s would likely choose o con inue ace- o- ace
wo k, e en a he isk o in ec ion, a he han accep he changes.
The e o e, main aining exis ing wo king condi ions when in oducing
home-based elewo k in Ko ea is c ucial o i s success ul adop ion. A
cul u e o nego ia ion and coope a ion be ween wo ke s and
managemen will play a key ole in na iga ing any po en ial downwa d
changes in wo king condi ions.
Howe e , pas wo ke -managemen ela ions in Ko ea ha e no
been coope a i e. The e has been conside able dis us be ween
wo ke s and managemen , leading o emo ional opposi ion o e he
di ision o bene i s be ween employe s and wo ke s. Acco ding o he
Wo ld Economic Fo um’s Global Compe i i eness Repo 2019, Ko ea
anks 130 h ou o 141 coun ies in e ms o “Coope a ion in Labo -
Employe Rela ions,” highligh ing he challenges in achie ing
coope a ion be ween he wo pa ies (49). Gi en his si ua ion, he
con on a ion be ween wo ke s and managemen o e he
in oduc ion o home-based elewo k in Ko ea can lead o di icul ies
in inding smoo h esolu ions.
The apid inc ease in home-based elewo k in Ko ea since he
COVID-19 pandemic has led o di e se assessmen s o i s
e ec i eness. Howe e , as mos elewo k was implemen ed as a
measu e agains in ec ion, i p ima ily in ol ed a change in he place
o wo k wi hou al e ing he exis ing wo king condi ions, which
helped a oid signi ican implemen a ion issues. Addi ionally, as he
Ko ean go e nmen managed o con ol he ou b eak o some ex en ,
many wo ke s a e e u ning o hei wo kplaces despi e he ongoing
si ua ion. Consequen ly, i is challenging o conclude ha Ko ea has
had he oppo uni y o ully emb ace and implemen home-
based elewo k.
In Ko ea, a smoo h and uni o m in oduc ion o home-based
elewo k o all employees o speci ic wo kg oups can only beachie ed
i he e a e no changes o he exis ing wo king condi ions. I any
changes a e made o wo king condi ions ha disad an age wo ke s,
consen mus be ob ained ollowing legal p inciples ela ed o
disad an ageous changes in employmen ules. E en wi h he consen
o he wo ke g oup, indi idual wo ke s’ consen ega ding changes in
hei espec i e labo con ac s is also necessa y. I home-based
elewo k is in oduced wi h he consen o indi idual wo ke s wi hou
changing he employmen ules, any changes ha a e no in line wi h
exis ing wo king condi ions will bein alida ed, and wo ke s should
96
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F on ie s in Public Heal h 11 on ie sin.o g
be ea ed unde hei p e ious condi ions (as s a ed in A icle 97 o
he Labo S anda ds Ac 5).
Al hough Ko ea possesses supe io echnical capabili ies o
de eloping “un ac ” echnologies ( echnologies ha enable con ac less
o emo e in e ac ions), he in oduc ion and expansion o home-
based elewo k equi e a cau ious app oach. To ensu e success ul
implemen a ion, i is essen ial o awai sui able oppo uni ies o
conduc addi ional expe imen s and es ablish lexible ope a ional
condi ions o he sys em o ensu e a success ul implemen a ion. An
en i onmen o in oducing imp o emen s, such as elecommu ing,
should be p epa ed o acili a e collabo a ion wi h ad anced
echnologies and ensu e e ec i eness. Figu e8 illus a es his p ocess
in de ail.
4 Discussion
COVID-19 may become an endemic issue, pa icula ly
conside ing he ecen disco e y o asymp oma ic in ec ions (50). The
s eal h cha ac e is ics o in ec ious diseases, combined wi h he
changes b ough abou by he Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion, emphasize
5 A icle 97 o he Labo S anda ds Ac : I he wo king condi ions se by a
labo con ac all sho o he wo king condi ions p esc ibed in he employmen
ules, he pa o he labo con ac shall bein alid. In his case, o he pa
in alida ed, he s anda d p esc ibed in he employmen ules shall
becomplied wi h.
he need o ansi ion o con ac less me hods, such as home-based
elewo k. The COVID-19 si ua ion has had a ious impac s on he
labo ma ke in Ko ea, spa king a p e e ence o no el wo king
me hods o e igid ace- o- ace app oaches. Howe e , home-based
elewo k is p ima ily a empo a y measu e o comba in ec ions, and
i s in oduc ion in Ko ea equi es ca e ul conside a ion and
expe imen a ion o assess i s sui abili y.
A majo obs acle o expanding home-based elewo k in Ko ea
is he lack o ins i u ional suppo mechanisms. The Ko ean legal
p inciples conce ning disad an ageous changes in employmen
ules mus beadjus ed o accommoda e u u e wo king me hods.
The in oduc ion o home-based elewo k should no
beobs uc ed by wo ke g oups’ ailu e o ob ain consen o
changes ha may be pe cei ed as disad an ageous. Ins ead,
indi idual wo ke s should be allowed o choose home-based
elewo k based on hei olun a y and genuine in en ions.
P o ec ion should no hinde indi idual choices made eely.
Addi ionally, i he consen o he wo ke g oup is ob ained,
pu suing u he changes in indi idual labo con ac s would
be unnecessa y, as coo dina ed wo ke and managemen
au onomy has al eady been achie ed. In he digi al e a, whe e jobs
a e e ol ing wi h g ea e au onomy and mul idimensionali y,
g oup-based p o ec ion me hods om adi ional labo laws need
o coexis wi h indi idual au onomy. A nego ia ion cul u e ha
ensu es a win-win si ua ion o bo h wo ke s and managemen is
c ucial. Ins ead o s ic ly adhe ing o old wo ke p o ec ion
me hods, a mo e s a egic and calcula i e nego ia ion cul u e is
equi ed o in oduce home-based elewo k, which imp o es
p oduc i i y and wo ke ea men .
FIGURE7
Home-based elewo k ins uc ion p ocedu e.
97
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F on ie s in Public Heal h 12 on ie sin.o g
The expansion o un ac echnology may os e he g ow h o
home-based elewo k, bu i may ace challenges due o in lexible
Ko ean labo laws, judicial p eceden s, and wo ke -managemen
ela ions. I un ac echnology is well de eloped, bu necessa y legal
and o ganiza ional changes do no occu , Ko ea may e e o he
p e-pandemic pe iod, o implemen ing change may ake
conside able ime. O iginally, home-based elewo k was mo e
common in IT companies, such as Facebook and Twi e . Howe e ,
he COVID-19 pandemic has o ced he use o un ac me hods in
all aspec s o p oduc ion, including he manu ac u ing indus y.
Companies leading he “new no mal” a e c ea i ely edesigning
p oduc i i y h ough home-based elewo k and inno a i e wo king
me hods. The igidi y o exis ing sys ems and o ganiza ional
cul u es ha ail o keep up wi h echnological ad ancemen s may
become an addi ional hu dle o companies o o e come a e
a pandemic.
5 Conclusion
This s udy has c i ically examined he p o ound implica ions o
he COVID-19 pandemic on he Ko ean labo ma ke , speci ically
ocusing on he dynamics o home-based elewo k. I is e iden ha
home-based elewo k has eme ged as a ans o ma i e esponse o he
challenges posed by in ec ious diseases, ma ked by ad an ages such as
inc eased p oduc i i y and an enhanced sa e y amewo k. Howe e ,
he long- e m iabili y o home-based elewo k a e he pandemic
emains unce ain. To become a s able and endu ing sys em in he
long un, i equi es legal and social consensus on issues such as
labo -managemen ag eemen s, legal p ocedu es, and job condi ions.
Mo eo e , he e is a need o he exis ing ins i u ional amewo k o
e ol e owa d a mo e o wa d-looking di ec ion. As echnology, such
as un ac echnology, ad ances, he labo ma ke needs o adap
acco dingly. Lack o inno a i e changes in he legal and social aspec s
could hinde he echnology’s abili y o es ablish a sui able
wo k en i onmen .
In his ligh , his s udy p o ides comp ehensi e insigh s in o he
con empo a y wo k landscape pos -pandemic and o e s s a egic
guidance o op imizing he po en ial o home-based elewo k while
adep ly add essing i s mul i ace ed challenges. I se s he s age o a
mo e e icien , ha monious, and p oduc i e wo k o ce in he e a
beyond he COVID-19 pandemic. The implica ions o his esea ch
a e ins umen al o o ganiza ions and policymake s seeking o
na iga e he e ol ing wo k dynamics and enhance he well-being o
bo h employees and employe s.
This s udy ocuses on he ea ly changes du ing he onse o he
COVID-19 pandemic and pe spec i es ega ding hose changes. The
global sp ead o he co ona i us has led o he ac i a ion o a cul u e
emphasizing non-con ac p ac ices. A p ominen ans o ma ion in
wo k pa e ns, highligh ing he signi icance o non-con ac
in e ac ions, is he adop ion o elecommu ing o emo e wo k.
Howe e , i emains unce ain whe he he u iliza ion o such wo k
o ms will con inue o inc ease a e he conclusion o he COVID-19
pandemic. The e o e, u u e esea ch may need o in es iga e changes
in wo k pa e ns o e an ex ended pe iod. Addi ionally, conside ing
he e ol ing na u e o indus y s uc u es and wo k pa e ns o e
ime, esea ch aking in o accoun bo h job cha ac e is ics and
indus y cha ac e is ics is deemed necessa y.
FIGURE8
Collision be ween he echnologies and sys ems ela ed o home-based elewo k in Ko ea.
98
Cho e al. 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1289809
F on ie s in Public Heal h 13 on ie sin.o g
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
Publicly a ailable da ase s we e analyzed in his s udy. This
da a can be ound a : h ps://www.kwdi. e.k /, h ps://www.moel.
go.k /english/, h p://www. ki.o .k /Common/ Download.aspx?id
= 2d d975c-5e1 -48aa-a550-595211ae3d8 .
Au ho con ibu ions
JC: Concep ualiza ion, W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing – e iew
& edi ing. SL: Concep ualiza ion, W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing –
e iew & edi ing. BP: Da a cu a ion, W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing
– e iew & edi ing.
Funding
The au ho (s) decla e inancial suppo was ecei ed o he
esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle. This pape was
suppo ed by he SKKU Excellence in Resea ch Awa d Resea ch Fund,
Sungkyunkwan Uni e si y, 2023.
Acknowledgmen s
We would like o exp ess ou g a i ude o Jisoon Pa k o Ko ea
Uni e si y Law School o p o iding use ul ad ice on law, Soonwon
Kwon o Business Adminis a ion a Sookmyung Women’s Uni e si y
o o e ing insigh ul ad ice on labo ela ions, and SaeJung Pa k,
who assis ed his esea ch.
Con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could
becons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he au ho s
and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed o ganiza ions,
o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he e iewe s. Any p oduc
ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o claim ha may be made by i s
manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o endo sed by he publishe .
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