Van Ginkel-Kempenaa , Willianne; Ke kho , Toon
A icle
Indi idual w ong o sys emic ailu e? Mo al judgemen s
abou he in eg i y o poli icians in he wake o du ch
in eg i y scandals
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Van Ginkel-Kempenaa , Willianne; Ke kho , Toon (2024) : Indi idual w ong o
sys emic ailu e? Mo al judgemen s abou he in eg i y o poli icians in he wake o du ch in eg i y
scandals, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14, Iss. 12, pp. 1-23,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14120331
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/321134
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Ci a ion: Van Ginkel-Kempenaa ,
Willianne, and Toon Ke kho . 2024.
Indi idual W ong o Sys emic Failu e?
Mo al Judgemen s Abou he In eg i y
o Poli icians in he Wake o Du ch
In eg i y Scandals. Adminis a i e
Sciences 14: 331. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/admsci14120331
Recei ed: 10 Oc obe 2024
Re ised: 28 No embe 2024
Accep ed: 1 Decembe 2024
Published: 6 Decembe 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
A icle
Indi idual W ong o Sys emic Failu e? Mo al Judgemen s Abou
he In eg i y o Poli icians in he Wake o Du ch
In eg i y Scandals
Willianne Van Ginkel-Kempenaa 1,2 and Toon Ke kho 3,*
1S ich ing Landme k, He ens aa 43, 3512 KB U ech , The Ne he lands; [email p o ec ed]
2
PhD Candida e Philosophy o Cul u e, Poli ics and O ganisa ion, V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam, De Boelelaan
1105, 1081 HV Ams e dam, The Ne he lands
3
Ins i u e o Public Adminis a ion, Facul y o Go e nance and Global A ai s, Leiden Uni e si y, Tu ma k 99,
2511 DP The Hague, The Ne he lands
*Co espondence: a.d.n.ke kho [email p o ec ed].nl
Abs ac : This a icle ocuses on mo al judgemen s abou he in eg i y o poli icians exp essed by
a ious ac o s in public opinion in he wake o Du ch in eg i y scandals. The esea ch assesses he
link be ween a supposed ac on he one hand and mo al judgemen s o he ac o s in ol ed on he
o he in an e o o imp o e ou unde s anding o how poli ical in eg i y is pe cei ed and how
i is used in public and poli ical deba e. This explo a o y s udy akes h ee Du ch case s udies o
supposed con lic s o in e es . Each case o e s a iew on judgemen s conce ning poli ical in eg i y
om a ious media ou le s, ocused on h ee di e en le els: judgemen s o pe sonal in eg i y, ole
in eg i y and poli ical sys em in eg i y. This no el heo e ical cons uc se es o see whe he and,
i so, how mo al judgemen s abou poli ical in eg i y a e linked o sys emic (dis)sa is ac ion wi h
go e nmen and poli ics. In addi ion—and ocusing on he Du ch con ex only— he a icle assesses
how people’s supposed place on a poli ical ideological spec um om le o igh migh in luence
hei mo al judgemen . The a icle unde sco es he heo e ical no ion ha he meaning o poli ical
in eg i y is inhe en ly subjec o a ied in e p e a ion and con ex o place and ime. This also has
impo an p ac ical implica ions o managing and imp o ing poli ical in eg i y.
Keywo ds: mo al judgemen s; poli ical in eg i y; in eg i y iola ions; in eg i y scandals
1. In oduc ion: Judgemen s o Poli ical In eg i y in he Wake o Scandal
Al hough mos would ag ee ha poli icians need o ha e in eg i y, i o en emains
unclea wha his en ails. Hube s (2018, p. 20) o e ed a de ini ion o in eg i y as “ he
quali y o ac ing in acco dance o ha mony wi h ele an mo al alues, no ms, and ules”.
Al hough sui able (and employed as such in his pape ), i canno be sha p enough o
se le i s exac meaning, i ha is e en easible o necessa y a all o cou se. A e all,
one could ask which alues, no ms, and ules a e ele an acco ding o whom. Fo
example, illegal beha io can be conside ed mo ally p ope (e.g., when one is igh ing
unjus laws, such as seg ega ion legisla ion). The e e se can equally be he case, o
ins ance, when poli icians a e mo ally condemned while law ully decla ing hei expenses.
This means in eg i y is a bes a con es ed concep as well as an umb ella e m e e ing
o wholeness, cohe ence, p o essional esponsibili y o mo al e lec ion (Hube s 2014).
Fu he mo e, poli ical in eg i y speci ically is somewha o a con adic ion in e ms. A e
all, a e poli icians no always essen ially ‘con lic ed’ due o se ing a ious in e es s? And
should, o example, “hones y” (acco ding o many, an in eg al pa o in eg i y) always
be expec ed om poli icians? In poli ics, elling a lie (o a leas wi hholding a pa o he
u h) can also be conside ed a good hing. When a Uk ainian poli ician lies o o wi hholds
u h om he p ess which would aid Russian in elligence conce ning he Uk aine wa ,
(s)he would mos likely be conside ed o ac ually ha e much in eg i y.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14120331 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 2 o 23
This is o say ha di e en meaning and mo al judgmen a e o en a ibu ed o speci ic
ac s, depending on con ex , ime, place and pe son and ha he meaning o (poli ical)
in eg i y is inhe en ly luid. This is pa icula ly isible du ing (alleged) in eg i y scandals
(Mancini 2018a;Moodie 1989). Du ing such momen s o in ense mo al disag eemen ,
di e en ac o s oice a ious and o en opposing ideas on wha i means o ha e in eg i y
(Ke kho and O e eem 2021). Deba e hen a ises be ween con lic ing mo al judgmen s
by poli ical allies o opponen s, legal o o he schola s, he media and—las bu ce ainly
no leas — he gene al public and i s a ious subg oups. These deba es a e c ucial o
unde s and wha is conside ed igh o w ong a any gi en momen in ime by di e en
and possibly opposing ac o s. In eg i y scandals he e o e se e as a mi o o unde s and
di e ing no ma i e posi ions on good and bad go e nmen .
This esea ch ocuses on mo al judgemen s o poli ical in eg i y as exp essed by
a ious ac o s in public opinion in he wake o Du ch poli ical in eg i y scandals. I does so
o gain g ea e insigh in o judgemen s abou supposed mo al misconduc by poli icians,
how poli ical in eg i y is used in public deba e and wha he link is be ween he supposed
ac on he one hand and mo al judgemen s o he ac o s in ol ed on he o he . I is
no he aim o his p esen esea ch o o e easons o changes in poli ical beha io as
such o a iew on changes in how poli ical beha io is pe cei ed o e ime. Ins ead, he
aim is o in es iga e o wha ex en and how poli ical beha io (o a he , pe cei ed lack
o poli ical in eg i y) is judged di e en ly by a a ie y o ac o s in poli ical and public
deba e, seemingly cha ac e ized by inc easing socie al and mo al he e ogenei y. As will
be explained in mo e de ail below, o do so, his explo a o y s udy looks a accusa ions
and opinions conce ning he in eg i y o poli icians in a ious media ou le s as ocused on
h ee di e en le els: judgemen s o pe sonal in eg i y, ole in eg i y and poli ical sys em
in eg i y. In addi ion, i is assessed how one’s supposed place on he poli ical ideological
spec um migh play a pa in his.
Such an inqui y is ele an o ou main easons. Fi s , i adds o exis ing esea ch
(Ke kho and O e eem 2021) by c ea ing mo e insigh in o how poli ical in eg i y is
pe cei ed and gains meaning in con ex in he wake o scandal. Second, by including a
a ie y o opinions, also hose on online media pla o ms (see below), he inqui y adds
impo an bu o en o e looked ac o s in socie al in eg i y deba es. By and la ge, he gene al
public (in all i s a ie y) seems o be o en igno ed in poli ical deba e (and schola ly esea ch)
on in eg i y, i only because i is o en qui e di icul o ge a iew on how ‘ egula ’ ci izens
pe cei e he mo ali y o elec ed o icials. This could poin o a gap be ween go e nmen
and ci izens in how in eg i y and ‘good go e nance’ a e pe cei ed, which may well be
conside ed a democ a ic de iciency since democ a ic discussions on in eg i y and good
go e nance a e likely se ed by being open and inclusi e.
Thi d, he ocus on judgmen s abou pe sons, oles and/o poli ical sys ems is a no el
heo e ical dis inc ion ha helps o u n (pe cei ed) lacking in eg i y in o an indica o o
(dis)sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen o poli ics in gene al. Dis inguishing be ween hese h ee
le els c ea es he oppo uni y o be e unde s and di e ences in sa is ac ion wi h poli ics
in gene al (i.e., he poli ical sys em) as opposed o poli icians as p o essionals (i.e., hei
ole) o indi idual pe sons ega dless o hei poli ical ole (i.e., hei pe son). Such an
analysis can cla i y whe he people ega d poli icians as me e ex ensions o hei ole o
also he sys em hey a e a pa o .
Fou h, and inally, he pape has a me hodological aim o u he enhance esea ch
o judgemen s o poli ical in eg i y wi h an explo a o y case s udy design and quali a i e
analysis o a ious media sou ces conce ning h ee (Du ch) in eg i y scandals. This design
(discussed mo e below) u he mo e links people’s p esumed ideological posi ion on a
ough le /p og essi e, igh /conse a i e scale o hei judgemen o poli ical in eg i y.
To be su e, his is a highly con es ed and con ex -speci ic discussion and he inqui y he e
e lec s he Du ch con ex only. S ill, i o e s a way o assess such dynamics elsewhe e oo.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 3 o 23
2. Mo al Judgemen s on Poli ical In eg i y
Exis ing esea ch, e.g., McG aw (1990,1991) and Schönbach (1990), has con i med
a clea ela ion be ween poli ical beha io and people’s judgmen . In addi ion, he e is
ample esea ch o show how pe cep ions o lacking public in eg i y a ec bo h he in e nal
unc ioning o public o ganiza ions (Hoeks a 2022;Maesschalck 2004) as well as—mo e
b oadly— us in and legi imacy, c edibili y and eliabili y o go e nmen as a whole,
which a ec le els o (dis)sa is ac ion. This is comp omised when ci izens pe cei e public
o icials o be abusing hei unc ions o o he wise ac ing wi hou in eg i y (Bachman 2018;
Blind 2006;Bouckae and Van de Walle 2001;Uslane 2018) because o he eal o pe cei ed
injus ice ha i c ea es (Feldman 1983;Kubbe 2013;OECD 2022;Ro hs ein 2011;Spi ina
and Maximo a 2023).
I is he e o e known ha pe cep ions o lacking in eg i y ma e o us , legi imacy,
e c., ega dless o hei ac ual basis. Wha seems o be missing, howe e , is wo k ha
pays speci ic a en ion o how and by whom hese pe cep ions a e shaped. The speci ic
heo e ical model p oposed he e (see Figu e 1) allows o a mo e nuanced measu emen and
unde s anding o his. The model consis s o h ee key elemen s. Fi s , i assumes a ela ion
be ween a pe cei ed ac and he pe cep ion o (lacking) poli ical in eg i y. I is assumed
he e ha i ma e s wha poli icians do o say, especially when i conce ns pe cei ed ac s
o lacking in eg i y. Second, he model b eaks up he concep o poli ical in eg i y by
dis inguishing be ween h ee ypes o mo al judgmen : aimed a an indi idual pe son, ha
pe son’s p o essional ole and he poli ical sys em (s)he is a pa o . A judgemen o he i s
ype conce ns he beha io o he poli ician as an indi idual and p i a e mo al agen , i.e., a
judgmen ha is no explici ly connec ed o he speci ic ole as a poli ician. Judgemen s
o he second ype ocus on speci ic beha io ha is o is no deemed be i ing he ole
o poli ical o iceholding as such, le us say as a membe o pa liamen as opposed o a
minis e . Judgemen s o he hi d ype ocus on how supposedly lacking poli ical in eg i y
is belie ed o e lec deepe sys emic poli ical p oblems, such as in he p ocess o ob aining
poli ical o ice o in he ole played by poli ical pa ies.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 23
In a nu shell, he concep ual model unde lying his esea ch (see Figu e 1) hypo he-
sizes ha a supposed poli ical in eg i y iola ion (A) in combina ion wi h one’s place on
he poli ical–ideological spec um (A1) in o ms in eg i y judgemen s ocused on pe son,
ole and/o he poli ical sys em (B). This o e s a possible link be ween speci ic pe cep ions
o poli ical in eg i y (C) on he one hand and possible (dis)sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen
(C1) on he o he . In o he wo ds, a ocus on ole, pe son and/o poli ical sys em in eg i y
can be linked o mo e/less sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen . As he analysis will show, his
model se es o be e unde s and mo al judgmen s abou and public discussions on po-
li ical in eg i y. I can as such be hypo hesized ha o he Du ch con ex a leas , people
who a e by and la ge less sa is ied wi h go e nmen a e also mo e likely o see (pe cei ed)
indi idual in eg i y iola ions as symp oms o sys ema ic poli ical in eg i y p oblems o
o a “co up ed” poli ical sys em (i.e., as hey e e o “co up ” pa ies, s uc u es and
p ocesses o decision making, e c.), a he han pe sonal o ole laws.
Figu e 1. Concep ual model.
3. Design and Me hod
Poli ical in eg i y scandals a e o en in hemsel es impo an ca alys s o socie al
no ma i e change (Ke kho 2011; Mancini 2018b; Moodie 1989; Van Eijna en e al. 2008).
While his emains a somewha con en ious issue (compa e Alle n and Von Siko ski 2018;
Sass and C osbie 2013), scandals can e en be conside ed unc ional in ein o cing and e-
ju ena ing he poli y, democ a ic ins i u ions and he democ a ic p ocess, a he han be-
ing “ana hema o democ a ic poli ics, a cause o public dis ac ion o a sign o ins i u ional
deg ada ion” (Sass and C osbie 2013, p. 851). Fo his eason, scandals o supposed lack-
ing poli ical in eg i y a e aken o es he concep ual model o his esea ch.
In addi ion, he design has mo e unc ions. Fi s , his a icle o e s a b ie quali a i e
analysis o h ee empi ical cases om he Du ch poli ical con ex ha all e ol e a ound
supposed con lic s o in e es , i.e., si ua ions in which pe sonal o p i a e in e es s seem-
ingly collide wi h he public in e es du ing he execu ion o one’s public du ies. Al hough
Figu e 1. Concep ual model.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 4 o 23
Thi dly, he model in Figu e 1hypo hesizes how di e ences in pe cep ions o poli -
ical in eg i y (i.e., pe son, ole o poli ical sys em) a e po en ially connec ed o people’s
poli ical ideology and ha his in u n can be aken as an indica o o (dis)sa is ac ion wi h
go e nmen as such. In o he wo ds, one’s place on he poli ical–ideological spec um
on a (admi edly ough, see below) le /p og essi e–( a ) igh /conse a i e scale can
in heo y be linked o pe cep ions o poli ical in eg i y and o a i udes owa ds and/o
sense o (dis)sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen . O cou se, much has been w i en on le – igh
scales. A he e y leas , hey end o di e pe coun y and a e big and con es ed ca -
ego ies. S ill, i is commonly accep ed ha he dis inc ion has an economic as well as a
cul u al componen . Fo he Du ch con ex (and his can be ma kedly di e en elsewhe e),
le /p og essi e ypically means being mo e a o able o he s a e’s economic in e en ion
in he public sphe e and a gene ally mo e p og essi e a i ude owa ds ‘con es ed’ policy
issues such as abo ion o inc easing he numbe o e ugees allowed o en e he coun y.
Righ /conse a i e would be he opposi e o his. Impo an ly, esea ch consis en ly shows
how Du ch igh -leaning o e s gene ally dis us go e nmen mo e han le -leaning o e s
(VU Ve kiezingsonde zoek Tweede Kame e kiezingen 2021 n.d.). I is he e o e hypo hesized
he e ha because people mo e owa ds he ( a ) igh o he poli ical spec um end o be
mo e c i ical o go e nmen and a e mo e dissa is ied wi h poli ics as a whole, hey a e
he e o e mo e likely o ega d indi idual (supposed) poli ical in eg i y iola ions as a
symp om o some hing la ge , i.e., he co up ion o a p o essional ole and/o ‘ he poli ical
sys em’. Con e sely, i can be a gued ha people mo e on he le a e gene ally mo e
sa is ied wi h (and ha e mo e us in?) poli ics and go e nmen and a e hus mo e likely
o see an indi idual ansg ession as jus ha o , a mos , as he co up ion o a speci ic ole.
In a nu shell, he concep ual model unde lying his esea ch (see Figu e 1) hypo hesizes
ha a supposed poli ical in eg i y iola ion (A) in combina ion wi h one’s place on he
poli ical–ideological spec um (A1) in o ms in eg i y judgemen s ocused on pe son, ole
and/o he poli ical sys em (B). This o e s a possible link be ween speci ic pe cep ions o
poli ical in eg i y (C) on he one hand and possible (dis)sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen (C1)
on he o he . In o he wo ds, a ocus on ole, pe son and/o poli ical sys em in eg i y can
be linked o mo e/less sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen . As he analysis will show, his model
se es o be e unde s and mo al judgmen s abou and public discussions on poli ical
in eg i y. I can as such be hypo hesized ha o he Du ch con ex a leas , people who
a e by and la ge less sa is ied wi h go e nmen a e also mo e likely o see (pe cei ed)
indi idual in eg i y iola ions as symp oms o sys ema ic poli ical in eg i y p oblems o
o a “co up ed” poli ical sys em (i.e., as hey e e o “co up ” pa ies, s uc u es and
p ocesses o decision making, e c.), a he han pe sonal o ole laws.
3. Design and Me hod
Poli ical in eg i y scandals a e o en in hemsel es impo an ca alys s o socie al
no ma i e change (Ke kho 2011;Mancini 2018b;Moodie 1989;Van Eijna en e al. 2008).
While his emains a somewha con en ious issue (compa e Alle n and on Siko ski 2018;
Sass and C osbie 2013), scandals can e en be conside ed unc ional in ein o cing and
eju ena ing he poli y, democ a ic ins i u ions and he democ a ic p ocess, a he han
being “ana hema o democ a ic poli ics, a cause o public dis ac ion o a sign o ins i u ional
deg ada ion” (Sass and C osbie 2013, p. 851). Fo his eason, scandals o supposed lacking
poli ical in eg i y a e aken o es he concep ual model o his esea ch.
In addi ion, he design has mo e unc ions. Fi s , his a icle o e s a b ie quali a i e
analysis o h ee empi ical cases om he Du ch poli ical con ex ha all e ol e a ound
supposed con lic s o in e es , i.e., si ua ions in which pe sonal o p i a e in e es s seem-
ingly collide wi h he public in e es du ing he execu ion o one’s public du ies. Al hough
o he in eg i y iola ions could ha e been esea ched (see Las huizen e al. 2011 o a ypol-
ogy), con lic s o in e es seem especially in e es ing as hey a e o en subjec o deba e and
disag eemen . Concep ually and in line wi h he li e a u e (see Di Ca lo 2013;He es e al.
2021), i is impo an o keep in mind ha con lic s o in e es a e ega ded as dis inc om
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 5 o 23
con lic ing in e es s. The la e deno es only he possibili y o he isk o a po en ial con lic
o in e es , while he o me deno es he (pe cei ed) occu ence o an ac ual con lic (i.e.,
an in eg i y iola ion) whe e he public in e es is ha med h ough p i a e gain (mone a y
o o he wise).
Secondly, while he main p o agonis s in he cases below a e all poli icians, hey hail
om di e en poli ical a enas (see Table 1 o an o e iew). This is due o a lack o compa-
able quali a i e case ma e ial and migh lead o some bias as people may simply know
mo e abou ce ain oles han o he s (e.g., a minis e e sus a p o incial adminis a o ). A
he same ime, howe e , conside ing di e en public o ices also helps o see po en ial di -
e ences and commonali ies. Wha is mo e, he heo e ical assump ions and me hodological
conside a ions o his explo a o y pape can s ill be es ed jus as well.
Table 1. Sea ch s a egy and ope a ionaliza ion.
Van Rey (VVD Pa y) Du hle (VVD Pa y) Tichelaa (P dA Pa y)
Rele an ime pe iod 9/1/2011–9/1/2019 1/1/2011–5/21/2019 2/25/2017–9/30/2017
Main p o agonis (le el
and unc ion)
Jos an Rey, local poli ician
(alde man), sena o Anne-Wil Du hle , sena o Jacques Tichelaa , egional
poli ician (CdK)
Examples o ele an sea ch
e ms (in Du ch)
Jos an Rey, Van Rey, Jos an
Rey co up ie, Jos an Rey
belangen e s engeling
Du hle , Anne-Wil Du hle ,
VVD Du hle , Du hle b ie en
Tichelaa “Huize Te ode”,
Jacques Tichelaa , Ve gade ing
PS D en he 1 maa 2017
Sou ce o judgmen s
by newspape s NRC Handelsblad, Teleg aa NRC Handelsblad, Teleg aa Volksk an , Teleg aa
Sou ce o judgmen s by
poli icians
Twi e , na ional and local
newspape s, o icial poli ical
documen s
Twi e , na ional newspape s,
o icial poli ical documen s
Twi e , na ional and local
newspape s, o icial
poli ical documen s
Sou ce o judgmen s by
ele an public(s) GeenS ijl, Joop GeenS ijl, Joop GeenS ijl, Joop
Thi dly, cases we e selec ed ha led o conside able media a en ion and public opinion
o unea h as much deba e as possible. Public opinion was ope a ionalized in h ee ways,
as exp essed in (1) newspape s (including a a ie y o a icles, such as op-eds and edi o ials,
news i ems, and columns), (2) judgmen s o ellow poli icians in newspape s, pa liamen a y
deba es and on X (s ill Twi e a he ime o esea ch) and (3) a en i e publics and mass
audiences (see P ice 2008) on dis inc i e jou nalism o news pla o ms. Judgmen s among
and wi hin hese segmen s o public opinion a e expec ed o di e , which o e s a iew on
a ich public deba e conce ning how poli ical in eg i y is pe cei ed and judged.
To accoun o he possible link be ween one’s place on a le – igh poli ical spec um
and judgmen s o poli ical in eg i y, h ee la ge and poli ically–ideologically dis inc Du ch
na ional newspape s we e chosen. De Teleg aa on he one hand and NRC Handelsblad
and De Volksk an on he o he gene ally ca e o qui e di e en audiences. Resea ch
by Bos e al. (2016) has shown how De Teleg aa — he bigges abloid newspape in he
Ne he lands—is gene ally ead by a mo e conse a i e and igh -leaning audience. The
NRC Handelsblad, on he o he hand, is conside ed a newspape o mo e highly educa ed
and mo e eli e echelons o Du ch socie y. I is also gene ally ead by a mo e p og essi e,
academic and cen al-leaning audience. The same is ue o De Volksk an , which is,
howe e , conside ed o be mo e le -wing han NRC Handelsblad (Dome scek 2006, p. 77).
In sho , people who o e le a e less likely o ead De Teleg aa and mo e likely o ead
NRC Handelsblad and/o (especially) De Volksk an (Mi chell e al. n.d., pp. 4, 6) and
ice e sa.
Simila ly, judgmen s by a en i e publics we e aken om wo online (pa ly pa ici-
pa o y) news pla o ms GeenS ijl and Joop.nl. Al hough hese pla o ms canno be said o
cons i u e a ep esen a i e sample o Du ch socie y o he Du ch mediascape, including
hem adds an in e es ing laye o exis ing esea ch o public opinion and iews on poli ical
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 6 o 23
in eg i y. Fu he mo e, much like he newspape s men ioned, hese pla o ms can equally
be ega ded as ideologically dis inc , si ua ed as hey a e on qui e opposi e ends o he
poli ical–ideological spec um. The websi e GeenS ijl, an ini ia i e by h ee o me Teleg aa
jou nalis s, ends o be ega ded as mo e igh -leaning (Mi chell e al. n.d., p. 8). I s mo o
(“ enden ious, un unded and needlessly hu ul”) p o ides somewha o a clue al eady.
In ele ised o m, i u he mo e b oadcas s as PowNed, a igh -wing ‘sa i ical’ ou le o
news and commen a y, mos popula among igh -wing populis s (Bos e al. 2016). Joop.nl
on he o he hand is gene ally ega ded as a mo e le -leaning pla o m. In pa his is
because o i s o igins as a pla o m e ec ed by he Du ch social democ a ic b oadcas e
BNNVARA. Joop.nl ega ds i sel as a p og essi e and le -leaning news si e, “s i ing
owa ds di e si y, inclusi i y, sus ainabili y, social equi y and emancipa ion” (Mediamake s
Voo Kansengelijkheid. Beleidsplan BNNVARA 2022–2026 2021, p. 6).
The h ee cases in his explo a o y s udy ha e been quali a i ely analyzed by means
o wo d-by-wo d analysis in a de ailed sea ch s a egy (see Tables 1and 2). An analysis
was conduc ed o a sizeable sample o s a emen s ela ed o each case. These we e hen
ca ego ized as posi i e, nega i e o ambiguous judgmen s o pe son, ole and/o sys em
in eg i y. O cou se, i was no always possible o clea ly dis inguish be ween indi idual,
ole o poli ical sys em judgmen s. In ac , some pe cep ions o en emained qui e gene al.
Whe e i was impossible o see, s a emen s we e le ou . In addi ion, while posi i e
and nega i e s a emen s we e gene ally mo e easily spo ed, an ambiguous ca ego y was
ese ed o judgemen s ha we e unclea , o example, when people did no clea ly de ine
whe he and, i so, why some hing was igh o w ong. Fu he mo e, people some imes
simply chose o wi hhold judgmen , o example, while a case was s ill in cou .
Table 2. Quan i a i e in o ma ion on da a collec ion.
Van Rey (VVD) Du hle (VVD) Tichelaa (P dA)
Newspape : NRC 20 a icles 24 a icles n/a
Newspape : Volksk an n/a n/a 15 a icles
Newspape : Teleg aa 10 a icles 19 a icles 10 a icles
Poli icians: Twi e 10 wee s 4 wee s 4 wee s
Poli icians: newspape s 10 a icles 9 a icles 6 a icles
Poli icians: o icial
pa liamen a y documen s 4 con ibu ions 1 con ibu ion 10 con ibu ions
Gene al public: GeenS ijl 100 commen s ( o 5 a icles) 100 commen s ( o 5 a icles) 20 commen s ( o 1 a icle)
Gene al public: Joop 100 commen s ( o 5 a icles) 55 commen s ( o 3 a icles) 17 commen s ( o 1 a icle)
I ems in public opinion (see Table 2) we e also coded o some ex en (see Table 3).
Coding was deduc i ely based on he h ee key ca ego ies o pe son, ole and poli ical
sys em in eg i y bu he ea e occu ed induc i ely, g ounded in he da a collec ed. Table 3
shows examples o s a emen s ha clea ly e e o pe son, ole o poli ical sys em in eg i y
in all he la e ’s a ie y. Wi h only a e e ence o pe son, a he han a speci ic ole o
he wide poli ical sys em, s a emen s would be ca ego ized as being ocused on pe son
in eg i y, and simila o he o he wo. The ca ego y o poli ical sys em was induc i ely
coded, based on elemen s ha we e men ioned om he wide poli ical a ena (see abo e).
As such, he codes ha induc i ely eme ged helped o de elop a ich desc ip ion o a ying
pe cep ions o poli ical in eg i y, wi hou needing o indica e p ecisely how o en a code
was applied.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 7 o 23
Table 3. Coding ( ansla ed om coding in Du ch).
Ca ego y Main Code Subcodes Examples (T ansla ed om Du ch)
Pe son
“Bo n and aised in Roe mond, his bu che ’s son was no i uous
al eady. He is a D au gänge (da ede il).”
Role “An expe ienced manage like Tichelaa should know ha his
in eg i y is a s ake when he ac s o he bene i o ela i es”
Poli ical sys em
Poli ical pa y VVD,
P dA
“I is in he genes o P dA membe s o be in ol ed in a ai s
like his.”
Local go e nance “The issues a ound Van Rey a e ha m ul owa ds he epu a ion
and unc ioning o local go e nance”
T us in poli ics “In eg i y iola ions like his o m he basis o ou (nega i e)
hough abou poli ics and bu eauc acy”
Democ acy and
legi imacy “The democ acy in The Ne he lands is co up .”
Rule o law
“The ‘T ias Poli ica’ is was ing millions o eu os and Van Rey ge s
away wi h 240 h o communi y se ice. The s a e is
p o ec ing i sel .”
P o ince Limbu g,
D en he
“The p o ince [o D en he] is in amous o in eg i y a ai s
like his”
Vo e s “I says much abou he o e s, i he yields 7 o 8 sea s in he
local council”
The media “Media don’ ell us any hing abou his [in eg i y iola ion]
because hey’ e all ocused on Baude ’s la es e e ”
The sena e “All hese sena o jus si he e o en ich hemsel es . . .”
Poli icians “S ange guys, hese poli icians. They’ e like c ocodiles: la ge
mou h, li le sense”
Th ee poin s mus be emphasized be o e p oceeding o cases and analysis. Fi s ,
his pape se es as an explo a o y s udy only, in o de o es he concep ual model
and o explo e he me hodological me i o his ype o esea ch. Th ee cases—and jus
o he Du ch con ex alone a ha —a e ob iously oo limi ed a numbe o o e gene al
conclusions. S ill, de ailed analysis o hese h ee does allow one o (a) es he use o
a dis inc ion be ween pe sonal, ole and sys em in eg i y and (b) he possible ela ion
be ween people’s ideological poli ical s ance on judgemen s o poli ical (mis)beha io and
sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen as such.
Secondly, i is impo an o ecognize ha people migh no only ail o make dis inc-
ions be ween pe sonal, ole and poli ical sys em in eg i y a all, bu can also pick mul iple
ones simul aneously when o e ing mo al judgemen . I can u he mo e be a gued ha he
ca ego y o ole in eg i y in pa icula can easily be misunde s ood since people may no
know wha di e en oles in go e nmen (e.g., sena o , go e no , minis e , e c.) ac ually
en ail o wha ules and p ocedu es a e in place.
Thi dly, ‘sys emic poli ical in eg i y’ in pa icula is an inhe en ly b oad ca ego y, open
o in e p e a ion and impossible o delinea e be o ehand. Ra he (and as he cases will also
show) di e en hings can be conside ed (pa o ) a poli ical sys em in speci ic cases when i
comes o in eg i y pe cep ions. By poli ical sys em, his a icle means o deno e some hing
ha is open o in e p e a ion and he e o e—impo an ly—no easily de ined. I is p ecisely
he agueness o “ he poli ical sys em” as pe cei ed by a ious ac o s in in eg i y deba es
ha se s i apa om he ca ego ies o pe son and ole in eg i y. The “poli ical sys em”
can mean many di e en hings o di e en ac o s, e.g., e e ing o obse able poli ical
o ganiza ions (such as pa ies) o he (supposed) p ocess o making o icial go e nmen
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 8 o 23
decisions gi en speci ic legal, social and cul u al quali ies. E en mo e b oadly, i can e e
o complex sys ems in ol ing he ques ions o who should ha e au ho i y and wha he
go e nmen in luence on i s people and economy should be. Fo example, people migh
e e o “ he poli ical sys em” when hey men ion he poli ical pa y a poli ician belongs
o, o his o he social ci cles, and/o go e nmen as a whole. The key poin o conside is
he possibili y ha in public pe cep ion, indi idual public o icial beha io can be linked
o some hing la ge (i.e., ole o sys em). Simply pu , he ac o a single poli ician can
be aken as a sign o wide ailu e o ei he he ole o he sys em. In addi ion, despi e
people’s knowledge o go e nmen o hei (in)abili y o dis inguish be ween di e en
in eg i y ca ego ies, i can easonably be a gued ha wha e e hey choose o ocus on
du ing an in eg i y scandal has much o say abou hei expec a ions owa ds poli ical
beha io , poli ics and go e nmen . In o he wo ds, pe cep ions ma e and people’s ocus
on ei he o all ca ego ies o poli ical in eg i y is likely o be indica i e o hei iew on and
sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen and poli ics.
4. Cases o Supposed Con lic s o In e es
4.1. Jos an Rey: Cha ges o Co up ion in he Ci y o Roe mond
4.1.1. The Case
On 1 Oc obe 2011, Jos an Rey was accused o ha ing a con lic o in e es in he
egional newspape he Limbu gs Dagblad (Goossen and Snieke s 2011). A ha ime, Van
Rey was alde man in he municipali y o he ci y o Roe mond, and a membe o he Du ch
Sena e. As a esul o he accusa ion, he mayo o Roe mond appoin ed an in es iga ion
commi ee. In 2012, he Du ch Public P osecu ion Se ice also s a ed an in es iga ion. The
newspape a icle accused Van Rey o ha ing con lic ing in e es s due o his iendship
wi h p ojec de elope Pie an Pol. Van Pol was an in es o in a ious building p ojec s
in and a ound Roe mond, anging om indus ial a eas o shopping malls. As alde man,
Van Rey was esponsible o decisions abou such p ojec s, as he was cha ged wi h spa ial
planning, economic de elopmen , and ci y cen e managemen . Van Rey and Van Pol also
socialized, as hey isi ed socce games oge he and wen ou o dinne s. They a eled
oge he nume ous imes and isi ed eal es a e ai s. To he jou nalis s, i emained unclea
how much Van Rey had paid o hese isi s and aca ions, as bo h Van Pol and Van Rey
we e no willing o commen . Fu he mo e, al hough Van Rey epo ed he isi s and
aca ions o he municipali y as he was supposed o, he jou nalis s concluded ha his
did no , howe e , end he appea ance o con lic ing in e es s. Van Rey, o example, also
chai ed some mee ings in which ep esen a i es om Van Pol’s company, alde men and
ci il se an s came oge he o discuss bo h planned and u u e de elopmen s. In addi ion,
Van Rey also owned his own eal es a e in Roe mond. Acco ding o he newspape a icle,
he di e en in e es s o Van Rey, bo h as a p i a e pe son and as alde man, hinde ed
his independence and impa iali y. Sho ly a e he a icle was published, he mayo o
Roe mond appoin ed a esea ch commi ee, which concluded ha Van Pol had bene i ed
om his iendship wi h Van Rey. Van Rey had, howe e , no gained any mone a y
bene i s himsel , no did he inancially disad an age he municipali y. The commi ee also
emphasized ha Van Rey had always been open abou his iendship wi h Van Pol. The
commi ee did poin o cases o he appea ance o con lic ing in e es s and lamen ed he
lack o checks and balances in he municipali y. Van Rey was also guil y o wo con lic s o
in e es due o ha ing his own eales a e po olio (F issen and So gd age 2012, pp. 44–48).
In 2012, he Du ch Public P osecu ion O ice (OM) also launched an in es iga ion in o
Van Rey. In a aped elephone con e sa ion, Van Rey had sha ed con iden ial in o ma ion
wi h a candida e o he posi ion o mayo o Roe mond abou an upcoming job in e iew.
The OM aided Van Rey’s home and o ice. Th ee days la e , Van Rey esigned as alde man
and sena o . Nex o leaking con iden ial in o ma ion, he OM also b ough o he cha ges o
co up ion due o allegedly accep ing gi s in exchange o g an ing con ac s and p ojec s
o his iend Van Pol. He was also cha ged wi h elec ion aud o illegally ec ui ing o es
o municipal council elec ions. A hi d cha ge was o accep ing b ibes om ano he
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 15 o 23
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 23
Figu e 5. Judgmen s o Du hle by a en i e audiences (absolu e and pe cen age).
4.2.3. Concluding Rema ks on Du hle
In he case o Sena o Du hle , judgmen s we e ei he nega i e o ambi alen . Rela i ely
ew people iewed Du hle as an indi idual (as a pe son) o in he ole and mos aimed o
he sys em by ega ding Du hle as exempla y o hings going w ong wi h (pa y) poli ics and
Figu e 5. Judgmen s o Du hle by a en i e audiences (absolu e and pe cen age).
4.2.3. Concluding Rema ks on Du hle
In he case o Sena o Du hle , judgmen s we e ei he nega i e o ambi alen . Rela-
i ely ew people iewed Du hle as an indi idual (as a pe son) o in he ole and mos
aimed o he sys em by ega ding Du hle as exempla y o hings going w ong wi h (pa y)
poli ics and go e nmen in gene al and he sena e in pa icula . As such, he case o Du hle
clea ly shows how he indi idual and his/he beha io can ade in o he backg ound while
ocus is di ec ed owa ds he sys em. A he same ime, Du hle was no excused o he
beha io and was i ed om he pa y. Du ing he nex elec ion, she was no e-elec ed.
Being pa o a lawed sys em appa en ly did no mean she was no esponsible o he
own ac ions anymo e.
4.3. Jacques Tichelaa : Nepo ism and he Reno a ions o a S a ely Home
4.3.1. The Case
On 25 Feb ua y 2017, newspape s De Volksk an and Dagblad an he Noo den published
an in es iga ion in o he edeco a ion o a mansion house ‘Huize Te ode’, a na ional
monumen , p ope y o he p o ince o D en he, and si ua ed in i s capi al ci y Assen (Be g
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 16 o 23
2017;Be g and Bodde 2017a). In 2015, he p o ince wan ed a edesign o i s in e io . A ha
ime, he building’s use ‘P ojec enbu eau D en he’ appoin ed an in e io designe om
Assen o o e a edeco a ing design. This ad ice was p esen ed on 2 No embe 2015, a e
which his designe signed a con ac o he job.
A ew days la e , howe e , on 5 No embe , he P ojec enbu eau D en he ecei ed an
email om he housing coo dina o o he p o ince, s a ing ha he Commissione o he
King (CdK) o he p o ince o D en he, Jacques Tichelaa o he Du ch Social Democ a ic
pa y (P dA), had appoin ed a di e en in e io designe o he job. Al hough he was
poli ically esponsible o he building’s managemen , i was and is highly unusual ha
he CdK in e e es in such a way. Mo e oubling was he ac ha Tichelaa appoin ed his
sis e -in-law Ka in Klinkenbe g o he job. In he end, he sis e -in-law ecei ed EUR 3.105
o he ad ice. The designe who had ini ially been appoin ed ecei ed a compensa ion
o EUR 3.500 ( an den Be g and Bodde 2017b). Na u ally, he appea ance o con lic ing
in e es s h ough amily ela ions and nepo ism was immedia ely c ea ed.
I was no he i s ime ha Tichelaa caused he appea ance o a con lic o in e es .
In 2013, he had media ed in a con lic be ween he municipali y o Coe o den and Jos
Wijland. He e oo, accusa ions o nepo ism we e made, since Wijland, an en ep eneu in
he ca e ing indus y, was Tichelaa ’s b o he -in-law. Con on ed wi h his case, Tichelaa
s a ed ha he only ac ed as a acili a o in a since e way. In addi ion, he said ha he
had no in e e ed wi h he con en o he ma e and ha his amilial ela ionship wi h
Wijland was i ele an ( an den Be g and Bodde 2017b). This appea ed o be un ue a e
an in es iga ion by De Volksk an and Dagblad an he Noo den. Se e al sou ces had old
hem ha Tichelaa p essu ed he municipali y ou side o he con e sa ions o compensa e
his b o he -in-law. In addi ion, a le e by Tichelaa o he P o incial Council om 2013
eme ged in which he admi ed ha his in e e ence had no been co ec and p omised
ne e o ac as an in e media y again in he u u e whe e a amily membe may be in ol ed
( an den Be g and Bodde 2017b). Moun ing p essu e om opposi ion and coali ion pa ies
in D en he a e he Te ode a ai , in he con ex o his ea lie simila ansg ession wi h his
b o he -in-law, o ced Tichelaa o s ep down as CdK on 1 Ma ch 2017, despi e he ac ha
he e en ually admi ed he had ac ed w ongly.
4.3.2. Resul s
Poli icians on Tichelaa
Judgmen s by ellow poli icians we e o e whelmingly nega i e (see Figu e 6A), de-
spi e some mo e neu al commen s in he p o incial council mee ing leading up o his
esigna ion ha Tichelaa should no be judged un il he had had a chance o explain hings.
Judgmen s we e also p ima ily aimed a his ole as CdK (see Figu e 6B). Some wonde ed
how an expe ienced poli ician such as Tichelaa could make he same mis ake wice. O he s
emphasized he exempla y unc ion o Tichelaa as CdK and ound such con lic s o in e es
unbecoming o his posi ion. Mos poli ical pa ies poin ed ou ha hei us in Tichelaa
as CdK had been damaged oo much o him o con inue his wo k. His lack o in eg i y
was openly ques ioned. Rela i ely ew judgmen s we e speci ically aimed a he sys em
(see Figu e 6B). Some ellow poli icians poin ed ou how such pe cei ed lack o in eg i y
o he CdK unde mined he us in he poli ical sys em in gene al, and he p o ince o
D en he in pa icula . D66 pa y leade in D en he Ma ianne an de Tol, o example, said
how “ his is ye ano he case ha shows how his small p o ince is big in nas y a ai s”
(Be g and Bodde 2017b).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 17 o 23
Figu e 6. Judgmen s o Tichelaa by poli icians and in newspape s (absolu e and pe cen ages).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 18 o 23
Newspape s on Tichelaa
Qui e a di e ence can be seen in he judgmen s ound in he wo newspape s. In De
Volksk an , he a ai was pe cei ed nega i ely o i was appa en ly downplayed, as a ious
commen s emained mo e neu al (see Figu e 6C). One commen a o called Tichelaa ’s con-
lic ing in e es s a “nepo is ic insigni icance”. Ano he simila ly s a ed how “on ele ision I
see mo e shameless nepo ism han his.” Someone else wonde ed i Tichelaa had eally had any
bad in en ions because he sum o money paid o his sis e -in-law was so li le. Rega ding
Tichelaa in his ole as CdK, some u he mo e a gued ha such con lic ing in e es s should
no happen o such an expe ienced poli ician. O he s, simila o he poli icians discussed
abo e, accused Tichelaa o making he same mis ake wice. Conside ing judgmen s abou
he sys em, newspape commen a ies seemed o mos ly poin a he misbeha io o highe
public o icials in gene al. I was o en implied ha Tichelaa ’s beha io was no an in-
di idual inciden , bu pa o a o en sys em in which o he s like him beha ed jus he
same. Some di e ences can be obse ed be ween newspape s. Commen s in De Teleg aa
we e mo e o en posi i e han hose ound in de Volksk an (see Figu e 6C,D), which had no
posi i e commen s bu a he a high pe cen age o neu al opinions. On he pe son, ole o
sys em di ide, di e ences can be seen as well (see Figu e 6E,F). While, o example, The
Volksk an , had opinions on he pe son, de Teleg aa had none. De Teleg aa also o e ed mo e
ambi alen posi ions. Sys em judgemen s we e ew. De Volksk an men ioned democ a ic
and legi imacy de ici s, a ge ing poli icians se ing hei own ins ead o public in e es s.
The one sys em judgemen in De Teleg aa e e ed o lacking public us as a esul o
Tichelaa ’s ansg essions.
A en i e audiences on Tichelaa
None o he sou ces in es iga ed o a en i e audiences con ained posi i e judgmen s.
Joop.nl only o e ed sligh ly mo e neu al posi ions han de Teleg aa (see Figu e 7A,B). Wi h
ega d o pe son, ole and sys em, dis inc a ia ion can be obse ed. A ew commen s
we e aimed a he in eg i y o Tichelaa as a pe son. Much mo e han Joop,Geens ijl p e-
dominan ly ocused on he sys em. Some seemed o ocus p ima ily on Tichelaa ’s poli ical
pa y (P dA), e.g., “in eg i y iola ions a e in hei genes”. O he s called Tichelaa “a
ypical manage ” who “is no ashamed o any hing”, he eby appa en ly dis inguishing be-
ween poli icians and manage s, and expec ing he i s o be o be e beha io . Tichelaa ’s
beha io led some o ques ion he ule o law in he Ne he lands: “in a democ a ic ule o
law s a e, hese ( he es ablished poli ical pa ies) should be called c iminal o ganiza ions.
In he Ne he lands i is called espec able. Tain o eason
. . .
” O he s also wonde ed
whe he Tichelaa ’s alleged in eg i y iola ions could eally be conside ed inciden s, o i
hey e lec ed a pa y cul u e o clien elism and co up ion, and seemed o imply ha he
Du ch poli ical sys em was undamen ally lawed.
In e es ingly, commen s on Joop we e p edominan ly aimed no a he sys em bu a
Tichelaa ’s ole as CdK. Some implied ha Tichelaa ’s alleged beha io did no i wi h
his ole since he appa en ly “ ages h ough he p o incial house as a po en a e”. O he s
accused he CdK o hinking he was abo e he law, “like a egen om ano he cas e”.
Qui e a ew commen a o s explici ly w o e ha Tichelaa should esign om his ole as
CdK, also conside ing his p e ious in eg i y iola ion. On Joop, he e was also a subs an ial
numbe o commen s aimed a he in eg i y o he sys em in a ious o ms, mos ly he
poli ical sys em as such and he P dA pa y. In a ypical commen , someone poin ed o he
poli ical pa y P dA as he sou ce o all e il, “unsu p isingly aking communi y money”.
Ano he judged he p o ince o D en he, bu also Limbu g, o be co up on he whole:
hose “Banana Republics, o and by amily and suppo e s”.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 19 o 23
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 o 23
his ole since he appa en ly “ ages h ough he p o incial house as a po en a e”. O he s
accused he CdK o hinking he was abo e he law, “like a egen om ano he cas e”.
Qui e a ew commen a o s explici ly w o e ha Tichelaa should esign om his ole as
CdK, also conside ing his p e ious in eg i y iola ion. On Joop, he e was also a subs an-
ial numbe o commen s aimed a he in eg i y o he sys em in a ious o ms, mos ly he
poli ical sys em as such and he P dA pa y. In a ypical commen , someone poin ed o
he poli ical pa y P dA as he sou ce o all e il, “unsu p isingly aking communi y
money”. Ano he judged he p o ince o D en he, bu also Limbu g, o be co up on he
whole: hose “Banana Republics, o and by amily and suppo e s”.
Figu e 7. Judgmen s o Tichelaa by a en i e audiences (absolu e and pe cen ages).
Figu e 7. Judgmen s o Tichelaa by a en i e audiences (absolu e and pe cen ages).
4.3.3. Concluding Rema ks on Tichelaa
In he case o Tichelaa , simila elemen s we e discussed as we ha e seen in he o he
cases. Judgemen s we e o e whelmingly nega i e. Fu he mo e, poli icians did no ocus
on he pe son bu a he on he in eg i y o he ole, whe eas he gene al public also by
and la ge igno ed he pe son and p edominan ly ocused on he sys em. In he judgmen s
by a en i e audiences, bo h he pe son o Tichelaa and his ole as CdK aded o he
backg ound. Ins ead, commen e s judged he sys em o be co up ed as hey e e ed o his
poli ical pa y, he p o ince o poli ics in gene al. Fewe sys emic judgmen s we e ound
in he newspape s and among ellow poli icians. When hese issued sys emic judgmen s,
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 20 o 23
hey we e usually mo e neu ally ph ased, o example, when i was s a ed ha Tichelaa ’s
beha io hu he epu a ion o he p o ince o D en he.
5. Conclusions and Discussion
The co e ques ion o his esea ch was o wha ex en mo al judgemen s conce ning
poli ical in eg i y in a ious media ou le s by di e en g oups in he public domain show
a en ion o di e en le els o in eg i y, i.e., judgemen s o pe sonal in eg i y, ole in eg i y
and poli ical sys em in eg i y. In addi ion, he a icle assessed he link be ween one’s
supposed place on he poli ical–ideological spec um and one’s pe cep ions o (lacking)
in eg i y and wha ha migh imply abou (dis)sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen o poli ics
in gene al.
This explo a i e exe cise has a guably u he ed insigh in o how he concep o
poli ical in eg i y gains meaning in con ex and how i is used in public deba e in he
wake o scandal. In addi ion, he inclusion o a a ie y o opinions has added impo an
bu o en o e looked ac o s in socie al deba es conce ning poli ical in eg i y. This o e ed
a connec ion be ween poli ical–ideological s ance on he one hand and pe cep ions o
poli ical in eg i y and poli ical (dis)sa is ac ion on he o he . A e all, he ex en o which
people iew an inciden o lacking in eg i y as a pe sonal, ole o sys emic ailu e ells us
some hing abou his.
The p e ious analysis o he deba es su ounding he h ee case s udies o supposed
con lic s o in e es has unde sco ed ha while he as majo i y o commen s we e nega i e,
di e en meaning and mo al judgmen we e indeed o en a ached o speci ic ac s o
supposedly lacking in eg i y, depending on con ex . As i u ns ou , di e en ac o s (i.e.,
poli icians, newspape s and a en i e audiences) ended o ha e qui e di e en iews on
wha poli ical in eg i y was o should ha e been. The analysis sugges s he e is indeed
a gap be ween poli icians on he one hand and ci izens and commen a o s on he o he .
Fellow poli icians mos ly ocus on ole in eg i y. This makes sense. Poli icians a e likely
eluc an o make o he connec ions because hey like o sepa a e pe sonal and p o essional
oles, because hey a e pa o he poli ical sys em hemsel es and because hey ac ually
know he oles be e han mos . Newspape s and a en i e audiences, on he o he hand,
ocused much mo e on pe son and especially poli ical sys em in eg i y. The e, an indi idual
ansg ession was much mo e o en seen as a pe sonal cha ac e law. This also makes
sense. Pe son and ole a e less likely sepa a ed by media and, especially, a en i e audiences
whe e he e is gene ally much in-dep h knowledge o wha ce ain oles ac ually en ail.
Especially s iking, u he mo e, is he conclusion ( o now a leas ) ha he u he
emo ed people a e om he ac ual business o poli ics (i.e., in newspape s and by a en i e
audiences), he mo e likely i is ha indi idual in eg i y iola ions a e ega ded as signs o
sys emic ailu e o ‘poli ical co up ion’, b oadly unde s ood. In addi ion, when he dis-
inc ion be ween he h ee le els o in eg i y is coupled wi h people’s p esumed ideological
posi ion on a ough le /p og essi e and igh /conse a i e scale, his opens he heo e ical
possibili y ha di e ing pe cep ions o lacking in eg i y a e a iable indica o o gene al
(dis)sa is ac ion wi h go e nmen . The explo a o y analysis has shown ( o he Du ch
con ex o cou se) ha he u he people a e si ua ed owa ds he igh /conse a i e scale,
he less sa is ied hey seem o be wi h go e nmen and he mo e inclined hey a e o ega d
poli icians as me e ex ensions o a ‘co up ed sys em’. People on he le /p og essi e side
o he scale ins ead end o ocus ela i ely less on poli ical sys em in eg i y. They seem o
be mo e sa is ied wi h he poli ical sys em o begin wi h. In sho , supposed poli ical in-
eg i y iola ions, in combina ion wi h igh /conse a i e poli ical ideology, lead o speci ic
mo al judgemen s ha ell us some hing abou gene al (dis)sa is ac ion wi h poli ics and
go e nmen . Conce ning hese poli ical sys em judgmen s, a ie y can u he mo e be seen
in wha his ‘sys em’ supposedly consis s o . This ca ch-all e m seems o deno e di e en
hings o di e en people and g oups. Common elemen s, howe e , we e he poli ical pa y
o he pe son in ol ed ( wice VVD and once P dA), he egion (s)he ope a ed in (e.g., he
p o ince o Limbu g) and o cou se, go e nmen , poli ics o poli icians in gene al.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 21 o 23
Na u ally, he limi ed numbe o cases explo ed he e, he sole ocus on he Du ch
con ex as well as he choice o one pa icula ype o in eg i y iola ion do no allow o
gene al conclusions. In addi ion, da a collec ion has been limi ed o published s a emen s
conce ning di e en cases. As such, adding mo e ad anced coding and mo e igo ous legal
analysis could be wo hwhile. Howe e , we a gue his is no necessa y o he pu poses o
his essen ially explo a i e s udy, which does show he alue o po en ial u u e la ge -scale
quan i a i e and quali a i e compa a i e case s udy esea ch on he opic. This could, o
example, u he es he dis inc ion be ween pe son, ole and poli ical sys em in eg i y as
a heo e ical cons uc . In addi ion, wo d-by-wo d measu emen o deba es su ounding
mo e cases would allow one o unea h ye mo e con ex ualized mo al judgemen abou
poli ical in eg i y. The link be ween in eg i y judgemen s and poli ical ideology is also
wo h u he explo a ion in o de o be e gauge le els o public (dis)sa is ac ion wi h
poli ics and go e nmen among di e en sec ions o socie ies and he ole played in his
his by pe cep ions o poli ical in eg i y. Finally, in such u he esea ch, i would be
wo hwhile o explo e he op ions o AI o o he ools o analyze cases on a much la ge
scale, al hough his would also equi e e en mo e cases o i s be quali a i ely desc ibed
and mapped (Ke kho and O e eem 2013).
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, W.V.G.-K. and T.K.; Me hodology, W.V.G.-K. and T.K.;
Fo mal analysis, W.V.G.-K. and T.K.; In es iga ion, W.V.G.-K.; Da a cu a ion, W.V.G.-K.; W i ing–
o iginal d a , W.V.G.-K. and T.K.; W i ing– e iew & edi ing, W.V.G.-K. and T.K.; Visualiza ion,
W.V.G.-K. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : E hical e iew and app o al we e wai ed o his s udy
since case desc ip ions consis solely o ma e ial ha is al eady publicly a ailable in a ious me-
dia. Fu he mo e, he a icle does no weigh in on he legal na u e and/o (im)mo ali y o he
ac s desc ibed.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was wai ed since all case ma e ial is aken om
publicly a ailable sou ce ma e ial and no addi ional in e iews we e held.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle can be made
a ailable by he au ho s on eques .
Acknowledgmen s: The au ho s wish o hank he pa icipan s, and Ch is oph Demmke in pa icula ,
o he 2024 IRSPM panel “F om In en ions o Impac : In eg i y an eceden s and an i-co up ion
policies” o hei aluable commen s on an ea lie d a o his pape (Van Ginkel-Kempenaa &
Ke kho , 2024).
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Re e ences
Alle n, Sigu d, and Ch is ian on Siko ski. 2018. Poli ical scandals as a democ a ic challenge: F om impo an e ela ions o
p o oca ions, i iali ies, and neglec . In oduc ion. In e na ional Jou nal o Communica ion 12: 3014–23.
Bachman, Reinha d. 2018. Ins i u ions and us . In The Rou ledge Companion o T us . Edi ed by Rosalind Sea le, Ann-Ma ie Nienabe
and Sim Si kin. London: Rou ledge, pp. 218–27.
Be g, Ju e an de . 2017. De commissa is, he amilielid en de gouden s oelen. De Volksk an , Feb ua y 25.
Be g, Ju e an de , and A noud Bodde. 2017a. “Sjaak” egel he . Dagblad an He Noo den, Feb ua y 25.
Be g, Ju e an de , and A noud Bodde. 2017b. Spoeddeba in Assen o e inmenging Tichelaa . Leeuwa de Cou an , Feb ua y 27.
Blind, Pe ide. 2006. Building T us in Go e nmen in he Twen y-Fi s Cen u y—Re iew o Li e a u e. Poli ical Me hodology 9: 341–54.
Bos, Linda, Sanne K uikemeie , and Claes de V eese. 2016. Na ion Binding: How Public Se ice B oadcas ing Mi iga es Poli ical
Selec i e Exposu e. PLoS ONE 11: e0155112. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
Bouckae , Gee , and S e en Van de Walle. 2001. Go e nmen Pe o mance and T us in Go e nmen , 38p. A ailable online:
h ps://www. esea chga e.ne /p o ile/S e en-Van-De-Walle/publica ion/228767477_Go e nmen _Pe o mance_and_T us _
in_Go e nmen /links/02e7e521e026c60989000000/Go e nmen -Pe o mance-and-T us -in-Go e nmen .pd (accessed on 30
No embe 2024).
Di Ca lo, Emiliano. 2013. How Much Is Really Known Abou he Meaning o he Te m “Con lic o In e es ”? In e na ional Jou nal o
Public Adminis a ion 36: 884–96. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 22 o 23
Dohmen, Joep. 1996. De ienden epubliek: Limbu gse k ingen. Nijmegen: Sun.
Dome scek, E eline. 2006. Poli ieke kleu bekennen. Ro e dam: E asmus Uni e i ei Ro e dam.
Feldman, S anley. 1983. The Measu emen and Meaning o T us in Go e nmen . Poli ical Me hodology 9: 341–54.
F issen, Paul, and Winnie So gd age . 2012. De schijn en de ei en: Een onde zoek naa mogelijke belangen e s engeling in de gemeen e
Roe mond. Den Haag: Ui ge e ij.
Goossen, Hans, and Theo Snieke s. 2011. Belangencon lic Van Rey. Limbu gs Dagblad, Oc obe 1.
He es, L., K. Loyens, R. Bo s , and A. an de Wil . 2021. In diens an he belang. Een e kennend onde zoek naa belangencon lic en
na ui diens eding bij de Na ionale Poli ie en de Koninklijke Ma echaussee; We enschappelijk Onde zoek-en Documen a iecen um
(WODC) an he Minis e ie an Jus i ie en Veiligheid. A ailable online: h ps:// eposi o y.wodc.nl/handle/20.500.12832/3089
(accessed on 30 No embe 2024).
Hoeks a, Alain. 2022. In eg i y Managemen in Public O ganiza ions: Con en & Design. Ro e dam: E asmus Uni e si y.
Hoge Raad: Ve oo deling Omkoping Jos an Rey Blij in S and. 2019. RTL Nieuws. July 9. A ailable online: h ps://www. lnieuws.
nl/nieuws/nede land/a ikel/4774321/jos- ey-pie -pol-omkoping- oe mond-we houde -sena o - d-wi wassen (accessed on
30 No embe 2024).
Hube s, Leo. 2014. The In eg i y o Go e nance: Wha I Is, Wha We Know, Wha Is Done and Whe e o Go. Basings oke: Palg a e
Macmillan.
Hube s, Leo. 2018. In eg i y: Wha I Is and Why I Is Impo an . Public In eg i y 2018: 18–32. [C ossRe ]
Ke kho , Toon. 2011. O ganiza ional Re o m and Changing E hics in Public Adminis a ion: A Case S udy on 18 h Cen u y Du ch Tax
Collec ing. Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion Resea ch and Theo y 21: 117–135. [C ossRe ]
Ke kho , Toon, and A co Timme mans. 2018. De D aaideu : Van Impasse Naa Ui weg. Res Publica 60: 235–60.
Ke kho , Toon, and Pa ick O e eem. 2013. Da abase Co up ion & In eg i y in he Ne he lands (1945–P esen ). The Hague and Leiden:
Cen e o Public Values & E hics, Ins i u e o Public Adminis a ion, Leiden Uni e si y, The Ne he lands. A ailable online:
h ps:// e.leidenuni .nl/ e/public aluesande hics/co up ion (accessed on 30 No embe 2024).
Ke kho , Toon, and Pa ick O e eem. 2021. The Fluidi y o In eg i y: Lessons om Du ch Scandals. Public In eg i y 23: 82–94.
[C ossRe ]
Kubbe, Ina. 2013. Co up ion and us : A model design. Zei sch i Fü Ve gleichende Poli ikwissenscha 7: 117–35. [C ossRe ]
Kuijpe s, Dieuwe je, and Kim an Keken. 2018. Sena o Du hle (VVD) s emde o e we waa eigen bed ij aan meesch ee . Follow he
Money—Pla o m oo onde zoeksjou nalis iek. Sep embe 24. A ailable online: h ps://www. m.nl/a ikelen/du hle -ad ies-
wmo (accessed on 30 No embe 2024).
Las huizen, Ka in, Leo Hube s, and Leonie He es. 2011. How o Measu e In eg i y Viola ions. Towa ds a alida ed ypology o
une hical beha io . Public Managemen Re iew 13: 383–408. [C ossRe ]
Maesschalck, Je oen. 2004. App oaches o E hics Managemen in he Public Sec o : A P oposed Ex ension o he Compliance-In eg i y
Con inuum. Public In eg i y 7: 20–41. [C ossRe ]
Mancini, Paolo. 2018a. “Assassina ion Campaigns”: Co up ion Scandals and News Media Ins umen aliza ion. In e na ional Jou nal o
Communica ion 12: 3067–86.
Mancini, Paolo. 2018b. Poli ical Scandals as a Democ a ic Challenge “Assassina ion Campaigns”: Co up ion Scandals and News
Media Ins umen aliza ion. In e na ional Jou nal o Communica ion 12: 20.
McG aw, Ka hleen M. 1990. A oiding Blame: An Expe imen al In es iga ion o Poli ical Excuses and Jus i ica ions. B i ish Jou nal o
Poli ical Science 20: 119–31. [C ossRe ]
McG aw, Ka hleen M. 1991. Managing Blame: An Expe imen al Tes o he E ec s o Poli ical Accoun s. Ame ican Poli ical Science
Re iew 85: 1133–57. [C ossRe ]
Mediamake s Voo Kansengelijkheid. Beleidsplan BNNVARA 2022–2026. 2021. A ailable online: h ps://www.bnn a a.nl/missie-en-
iden i ei (accessed on 30 No embe 2024).
Mi chell, Amy, Ka ie Simmons, and Rachel Weisel. n.d. In o ma ieblad: Op a ingen o e Nieuwsmedia en Poli iek in Nede land. A ail-
able online: h ps://www.pew esea ch.o g/global/ ac -shee /in o ma ieblad-op a ingen-o e -nieuwsmedia-en-poli iek-in-
nede land/ (accessed on 30 No embe 2024).
Moodie, G aeme C. 1989. On Poli ical Scandals and Co up ion. In Poli ical Co up ion: A Handbook. Edi ed by A nold Joseph
Heidenheime , Michael Johns on and Vic o T. LeVine. New B unswick and Ox o d: T ansac ion Publishe s, pp. 873–86.
OECD. 2022. Building T us o Rein o ce Democ acy: Main Findings om he 2021 OECD Su ey on D i e s o T us in Public Ins i u ions.
Pa is: OECD. [C ossRe ]
P ice, Vincen . 2008. The Public and Public Opinion in Poli ical Theo ies. In The SAGE Handbook o Public Opinion Resea ch. Edi ed by
Wol gang Donsbach and Michael W. T augo . Los Angeles: SAGE Pub, pp. 11–24.
Ro hs ein, Bo. 2011. The Quali y o Go e nmen : Co up ion, Social T us , and Inequali y in In e na ional Pe spec i e. Chicago: Uni e si y o
Chicago P ess.
Sass, Jensen, and Thomas C osbie. 2013. Democ acy and Scandal: A Resea ch Agenda. Compa a i e Sociology 12: 851–62. [C ossRe ]
Schönbach, Pe e . 1990. Accoun Episodes: The Managemen o Escala ion o Con lic . Pa is: Edi ions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme.
Spi ina, Anas asya S., and S e lana G. Maximo a. 2023. Social T us and Co up ion: An Empi ical Assessmen o he Rela ionship.
In Complex Social Sys ems in Dynamic En i onmen s: Ad anced Theo ies, Inno a i e Me hods, and In e disciplina y Resea ch Resul s.
Edi ed by S e lana G. Maximo a. Be lin and Heidelbe g: Sp inge In e na ional Publishing, pp. 357–64. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 331 23 o 23
Uslane , E ic M. 2018. The Ox o d Handbook o Social and Poli ical T us . Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Van Eijna en, Jo is, James Kennedy, Ma k Ru ge s, and Pie e Wagenaa . 2008. Co up ion and public alues in his o ical and
compa a i e pe spec i e: Symposium in oduc ion. Public Voices 10: 3–6.
VU Ve kiezingsonde zoek Tweede Kame e kiezingen 2021. n.d. VU Ve kiezingsonde zoek 2021 A ailable online: h ps:// k2021. upolcom.
nl/ (accessed on 5 Decembe 2023).
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
