Di Pasquale, Giacomo; Pa azzi, Elisa
A icle
Shi s in he boo : Unde s anding inequali y's impac on
in e egional mig a ion pa e ns in I aly
Economies
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Di Pasquale, Giacomo; Pa azzi, Elisa (2024) : Shi s in he boo : Unde s anding
inequali y's impac on in e egional mig a ion pa e ns in I aly, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI,
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Ci a ion: Di Pasquale, Giacomo, and
Elisa Pa azzi. 2024. Shi s in he Boo :
Unde s anding Inequali y’s Impac on
In e egional Mig a ion Pa e ns in
I aly. Economies 12: 317. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/economies12120317
Academic Edi o : Bedassa Tadesse
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A icle
Shi s in he Boo : Unde s anding Inequali y’s Impac
on In e egional Mig a ion Pa e ns in I aly
Giacomo Di Pasquale * and Elisa Pa azzi
Nicolais School o Business, Wagne College, New Yo k, NY 10103, USA; elisa.pa azzi@wagne .edu
*Co espondence: giacomo.di-pasquale@wagne .edu
Abs ac : I aly has long expe ienced a signi ican de elopmen al gap be ween i s no he n and
sou he n egions, wi h he la e being less de eloped. The 2007–2008 inancial c isis accen ua ed his
gap, leading o dis inc pa e ns o in e egional mig a ion. This pape aims o in es iga e he e ec s
o pas mig a ion lows and income inequali y on in e egional mobili y in I aly, using a g a i y
model wi h bidi ec ional dyads and h ee di e en measu es o inequali y as dependen a iables:
Gini Index, Rela i e Po e y, and Income Ra io. P e ious esea ch has shown ha li ing in highly
unequal egions is associa ed wi h inc eased mis us and anxie y abou social s a us, con ibu ing o
unhappiness among esiden s. Using bila e al g oss mig a ion lows o he pe iod 2007–2018, he
s udy aims o con ol o he po en ial endogenei y be ween in e egional mobili y and inequali y.
The esul s indica e a posi i e ela ionship be ween high le els o inequali y and in e egional ou -
mobili y, unde sco ing he need o policies aimed a educing bo h ho izon al and e ical inequali y
wi hin and among I alian egions.
Keywo ds: inequali y; in e egional mobili y; I aly; no h; egions; sou h
1. In oduc ion
I aly has a long-s anding his o y o egional dispa i ies, wi h he sou he n egions
being less de eloped han he no he n ones. This gap became mo e accen ua ed in ecen
imes du ing he economic c isis o 2007–2008, esul ing in di e en pa e ns o in e egional
mig a ion. Unde s anding he de e minan s o in e egional mobili y in I aly is c ucial
o policymake s o design e ec i e policies ha p omo e social cohesion and educe
egional inequali ies.
The economic c isis o 2007–2008 se e ely impac ed he I alian economy, causing a
sha p inc ease in unemploymen and po e y a es, pa icula ly in he sou he n egions,
which we e al eady lagging behind in e ms o economic de elopmen compa ed o he
no he n egions (Ve a Zamagni 1993). In ac , he sou he n egion has his o ically always
been poo e han he no h, as i has ne e expe ienced a compa able p ocess o economic
g ow h; a he han an “ac i e mode niza ion”, he p ocess ha in e es ed he sou h
esembled he cha ac e is ics o a “passi e mode niza ion”, as “some hing ex aneous o
he local socie y” b ough om ou side and implemen ed by he ex ac i e eli e classes,
wi hou bene i ing he popula ion as a whole (Felice and Vas a 2015).
Sou he n egions ha e always expe ienced signi ican ou -mig a ion, bo h ab oad and
o he no he n egions, which in ensi ied in he in e wa pe iod and peaked in he 1960s;
subsequen ly, in e egional mig a ion declined in he 1970s bu e i ed in he 1990s and
he ollowing decades, exace ba ing exis ing egional dispa i ies (Vi o io Zamagni 2008;
Mussida and Pa isi 2016). The demog aphic composi ion o hese mig a ions has a ied
o e ime, and schola s ha e o mula ed a ious hypo heses o explain his inconsis ency.
Indeed, ecen mig a ion wa es, mos ly cha ac e ized by high-skilled indi iduals, gene ally
om highe social classes, di e g ea ly om he mains eam low-skilled mig an s o he
1960s. Despi e some hypo heses sugges ing demog aphic change o subs i u ion o e he
Economies 2024,12, 317. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12120317 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/economies
Economies 2024,12, 317 2 o 21
yea s, Panichella a gues ha high-skilled mig a ion has always exis ed, and has con inued
o pe sis a e he 1990s. Con e sely, low-skilled mig a ion su ged du ing he speci ic
his o ical pe iod o economic boom alongside he al eady p esen high-skilled mig a ion
low and accoun ed o he inc ease in in e egional mig a ion in hose yea s (San ilippo
2016;Panichella 2012). The 2007–2009 economic c isis exace ba ed his in e egional pa e n
o mobili y om he sou h o he no h in sea ch o be e economic oppo uni ies and
may ha e had di e en demog aphics compa ed o p e ious mig a ions (Simpson 2017)
(Figu e 1).
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 o 22
he 1960s. Despi e some hypo heses sugges ing demog aphic change o subs i u ion o e
he yea s, Panichella a gues ha high-skilled mig a ion has always exis ed, and has con-
inued o pe sis a e he 1990s. Con e sely, low-skilled mig a ion su ged du ing he spe-
ci ic his o ical pe iod o economic boom alongside he al eady p esen high-skilled mig a-
ion low and accoun ed o he inc ease in in e egional mig a ion in hose yea s (San il-
ippo 2016; Panichella 2012). The 2007–2009 economic c isis exace ba ed his in e egional
pa e n o mobili y om he sou h o he no h in sea ch o be e economic oppo uni ies
and may ha e had diffe en demog aphics compa ed o p e ious mig a ions (Simpson
2017) (Figu e 1).
Figu e 1. Mig a ion lows—I alian egions.
Mig a ion is a complex phenomenon ha is in luenced by a ange o ac o s, includ-
ing economic, social, cul u al, and poli ical (Ha is and Toda o 1970). P e ious s udies
ha e shown ha economic ac o s, such as income inequali y, a e impo an de e minan s
o mig a ion (E zo 2011; Pe coco 2018). In ac , in highly unequal egions, people may eel
discou aged by he lack o economic oppo uni ies and may be mo e likely o mig a e o
o he egions. Mo eo e , high le els o inequali y can lead o inc eased mis us and anx-
ie y abou social s a us, u he mo i a ing he desi e o mig a e.
This s udy aims o in es iga e he effec s o pas mig a ion lows and income inequal-
i y on in e egional mobili y in I aly. To achie e his goal, he s udy uses a g a i y model
wi h bidi ec ional dyads and h ee diffe en measu es o inequali y, he Gini Index, Rela-
i e Po e y, and Income Ra io, o he 2007–2018 pe iod. The use o mul iple measu es o
inequali y allows o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o he ela ionship be ween inequal-
i y and in e egional mobili y in I aly and p o ides mo e obus ness o he model. In ad-
di ion, an ins umen al a iables app oach is adop ed o con ol o he po en ial endoge-
nei y be ween mig a ion and se e al o he independen a iables used in he model ( his
aspec will be discussed mo e in de ail in he nex sec ions o he pape ).
The emainde o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows. The nex sec ion p o ides a e-
iew o he ele an li e a u e on in e egional mobili y and income inequali y in I aly.
The Sec ion 3 ou lines he da a and me hodology used in he analysis, including a de ailed
explana ion o he ins umen al a iables app oach and he g a i y model. The Sec ion 4
p esen s he esul s o he analysis, while he Sec ion 5 discusses policies implica ions. The
inal sec ion concludes he pape .
2. Li e a u e Re iew
I aly has his o ically been di ided be ween he mo e de eloped and weal hie no h,
and he less de eloped and poo e sou h (Musolino 2018). This di ide, which las ed o
mos o he 20 h cen u y, was exace ba ed by he 2008 economic c isis, leading o diffe en
Figu e 1. Mig a ion lows—I alian egions.
Mig a ion is a complex phenomenon ha is in luenced by a ange o ac o s, including
economic, social, cul u al, and poli ical (Ha is and Toda o 1970). P e ious s udies ha e
shown ha economic ac o s, such as income inequali y, a e impo an de e minan s o
mig a ion (E zo 2011;Pe coco 2018). In ac , in highly unequal egions, people may eel
discou aged by he lack o economic oppo uni ies and may be mo e likely o mig a e
o o he egions. Mo eo e , high le els o inequali y can lead o inc eased mis us and
anxie y abou social s a us, u he mo i a ing he desi e o mig a e.
This s udy aims o in es iga e he e ec s o pas mig a ion lows and income inequali y
on in e egional mobili y in I aly. To achie e his goal, he s udy uses a g a i y model wi h
bidi ec ional dyads and h ee di e en measu es o inequali y, he Gini Index, Rela i e
Po e y, and Income Ra io, o he 2007–2018 pe iod. The use o mul iple measu es o
inequali y allows o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o he ela ionship be ween inequali y
and in e egional mobili y in I aly and p o ides mo e obus ness o he model. In addi ion,
an ins umen al a iables app oach is adop ed o con ol o he po en ial endogenei y
be ween mig a ion and se e al o he independen a iables used in he model ( his aspec
will be discussed mo e in de ail in he nex sec ions o he pape ).
The emainde o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows. The nex sec ion p o ides a
e iew o he ele an li e a u e on in e egional mobili y and income inequali y in I aly.
The Sec ion 3ou lines he da a and me hodology used in he analysis, including a de ailed
explana ion o he ins umen al a iables app oach and he g a i y model. The Sec ion 4
p esen s he esul s o he analysis, while he Sec ion 5discusses policies implica ions. The
inal sec ion concludes he pape .
2. Li e a u e Re iew
I aly has his o ically been di ided be ween he mo e de eloped and weal hie no h,
and he less de eloped and poo e sou h (Musolino 2018). This di ide, which las ed o
mos o he 20 h cen u y, was exace ba ed by he 2008 economic c isis, leading o di e en
Economies 2024,12, 317 3 o 21
pa e ns o in e egional mig a ion (Benassi e al. 2019). In his li e a u e e iew, we explo e
he e ec s o pas mig a ion lows and income inequali y on in e egional mobili y in I aly,
ocusing on he yea s ollowing he 2008 c isis. We will ocus on he use o he g a i y
model wi h bidi ec ional dyads and discuss he li e a u e ha success ully employed
g a i y models o egional economics. Addi ionally, we analyze he consequences o he
economic c isis o 2008 as a igge o in e egional immig a ion.
2.1. His o ical Con ex
His o ically, I aly has expe ienced a signi ican no h–sou h di ide in e ms o eco-
nomic de elopmen . The no h has been cha ac e ized by high le els o indus ializa ion
and mode niza ion, while he sou h has lagged behind in e ms o economic g ow h, in as-
uc u e, and job oppo uni ies (Gaglia di and Pe coco 2011). This di ide, known as he
“Ques ione Me idionale” [Sou he n Ques ion], has been a subjec o s udy o many yea s,
and di e en heo ies ha e been ad anced o explain i . Felice, Daniele, and Malanima o e
con as ing posi ions in he ongoing deba e, p o iding di e en answe s o he ques ion
“Why did he sou h lag behind?” Felice, main aining an “ins i u ionalis ” app oach, a gued
ha he ex ac i e eli es in he sou h ha e delayed he mode niza ion p ocess o p i a e
gain, a condi ion ypical and unique o hose egions. Mo eo e , acco ding o him, sou he n
egions lacked social capi al, hey we e in an un a o able geog aphic loca ion, and hey had
a p onounced economic inequali y, all ac o s ha con ibu ed o i s unde de elopmen .
Felice (2018) discusses how one o he c i ical causes o his di ide has been he une en
sp ead o indus y. The indus ializa ion o he no he n egions acili a ed economic
g ow h and de elopmen , while he sou he n egions emained p edominan ly ag icul u al.
This indus ial concen a ion in he no h led o a mo e obus economic in as uc u e,
highe p oduc i i y, and be e employmen oppo uni ies, u he widening he economic
gap. T anspo a ion cos s ha e also played a signi ican ole in pe pe ua ing he no h–
sou h di ide. The no he n egions bene i om be e anspo a ion in as uc u e, which
educes cos s and acili a es ade and mobili y. In con as , he sou he n egions ace highe
anspo a ion cos s due o less de eloped in as uc u e, hinde ing economic ac i i ies
and inc easing he cos o doing business. Ma ke in eg a ion has been ano he c ucial
ac o . The no he n egions a e mo e in eg a ed in o Eu opean ma ke s, bene i ing om
g ea e access o consume s and supplie s. This ma ke in eg a ion has allowed o quicke
economic g ow h and eco e y om economic down u ns. On he o he hand, he sou he n
egions, wi h lowe le els o ma ke in eg a ion, s uggle o a ac in es men s and expand
economic ac i i ies.
Con e sely, Daniele and Malanima’s main a gumen es s p ima ily on geog aphical
ac o s. Indeed, in pos -uni a y I aly, he no h bene i ed om mo e in es men due o i s
p oximi y o he o he Eu opean indus ial hubs, which a ac ed mo e in es o s, consoli-
da ing an “indus ial iangle” ideally connec ing Genoa, Tu in, and Milan. They a gue
ha economic o ces, ins ead o sp eading indus ializa ion ac oss he I alian peninsula,
c ea ed a h i ing economy in he no h o he de imen o he sou h (Cicca elli e al. 2021).
The geog aphical p oximi y o he no he n egions o majo Eu opean ma ke s p o ides a
compe i i e ad an age in e ms o expo oppo uni ies and o eign in es men s. This p ox-
imi y has made i easie o no he n egions o es ablish and main ain economic ies wi h
Eu opean pa ne s, con ibu ing o hei economic success. The sou he n egions, being
a he om hese ma ke s, ace disad an ages in a ac ing in es men s and expanding
economic ac i i ies.
The no h’s ad an ageous loca ion, wi h be e access o Eu opean ma ke s, has his o -
ically acili a ed ade and economic in eg a ion, con ibu ing o i s economic p ospe i y. In
con as , he sou h’s geog aphical challenges, including ugged e ain and less accessible
loca ions, ha e impeded simila le els o economic in eg a ion and de elopmen .
The ecen li e a u e also s esses he impo ance o inno a ion in p omo ing egional
economic de elopmen (Di Qui ico 2010). Manioudis and Angelakis (2023) emphasize ha
he c ea i e economy is igh ly associa ed wi h sus ainable de elopmen and Sus ainable
Economies 2024,12, 317 4 o 21
Economic Goals (SDGs). Thei s udy ocuses on he egion o A ica, illus a ing how sma
specializa ion s a egies and he En ep eneu ial Disco e y P ocess (EDP) me hodology
can os e sus ainable egional g ow h. The deploymen o a obus inno a ion ecosys em
equi es engaging and mobilizing egional ac o s, iden i ying hei needs and p io i ies, and
os e ing long- e m ins i u ional lea ning and policy co-design. These indings unde sco e
he c i ical ole o bo h educa ion and inno a ion in egional de elopmen and he need o
policies ha suppo c ea i e and knowledge-based indus ies o d i e economic g ow h
and sus ainabili y (Manioudis and Angelakis 2023).
The exis ing li e a u e e eals ha educa ion, inno a ion, and physical geog aphy
a e undamen al in unde s anding and add essing egional economic dispa i ies. Poli-
cies aimed a enhancing educa ional oppo uni ies, os e ing inno a ion, and add essing
geog aphical challenges a e essen ial o p omo ing balanced egional de elopmen and
ansi ioning o sus ainable economic g ow h. The in eg a ion o hese elemen s can help
c ea e a mo e cohesi e economic landscape ac oss egions, educing dispa i ies and p o-
mo ing o e all na ional p ospe i y. Howe e , i is also impo an o men ion he impac o
exogenous e en s on long- e m dispa i ies.
In ac , mo e ecen ly, he 2007–2009 economic c isis had a p o ound impac on I aly,
exace ba ing egional dispa i ies and in luencing in e egional mobili y pa e ns. The
c isis led o a sha p con ac ion in economic ac i i y, wi h signi ican declines in indus ial
p oduc ion, expo s, and employmen . The no he n egions, being mo e indus ialized and
in eg a ed in o he Eu opean ma ke , expe ienced se e e bu ela i ely sho e economic
con ac ions. In con as , he sou he n egions aced p olonged economic di icul ies due o
hei eliance on less dynamic sec o s, such as ag icul u e and public sec o employmen .
The e ec s o his egional economic dispa i y ha e been signi ican and long-las ing.
Fo ins ance, po e y a es in he sou h ha e consis en ly been highe han in he no h,
and he egion has expe ienced highe le els o emig a ion as a esul (Boschini e al.
2007). Addi ionally, he sou h has su e ed om high le els o unemploymen , pa icula ly
among young people, and a lack o in es men in key sec o s such as educa ion and
in as uc u e (Lisciand a e al. 2022). Figu es 2–4illus a e le els o inequali y, measu ed
by he Gini Index, Rela i e Po e y, and Income Ra io, ac oss 20 I alian egions du ing he
obse ed yea s.
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 22
ha he c ea i e economy is igh ly associa ed wi h sus ainable de elopmen and Sus ain-
able Economic Goals (SDGs). Thei s udy ocuses on he egion o A ica, illus a ing how
sma specializa ion s a egies and he En ep eneu ial Disco e y P ocess (EDP) me hod-
ology can os e sus ainable egional g ow h. The deploymen o a obus inno a ion eco-
sys em equi es engaging and mobilizing egional ac o s, iden i ying hei needs and p i-
o i ies, and os e ing long- e m ins i u ional lea ning and policy co-design. These indings
unde sco e he c i ical ole o bo h educa ion and inno a ion in egional de elopmen and
he need o policies ha suppo c ea i e and knowledge-based indus ies o d i e eco-
nomic g ow h and sus ainabili y (Manioudis and Angelakis 2023).
The exis ing li e a u e e eals ha educa ion, inno a ion, and physical geog aphy
a e undamen al in unde s anding and add essing egional economic dispa i ies. Policies
aimed a enhancing educa ional oppo uni ies, os e ing inno a ion, and add essing geo-
g aphical challenges a e essen ial o p omo ing balanced egional de elopmen and an-
si ioning o sus ainable economic g ow h. The in eg a ion o hese elemen s can help c e-
a e a mo e cohesi e economic landscape ac oss egions, educing dispa i ies and p omo -
ing o e all na ional p ospe i y. Howe e , i is also impo an o men ion he impac o
exogenous e en s on long- e m dispa i ies.
In ac , mo e ecen ly, he 2007–2009 economic c isis had a p o ound impac on I aly,
exace ba ing egional dispa i ies and in luencing in e egional mobili y pa e ns. The c i-
sis led o a sha p con ac ion in economic ac i i y, wi h signi ican declines in indus ial
p oduc ion, expo s, and employmen . The no he n egions, being mo e indus ialized
and in eg a ed in o he Eu opean ma ke , expe ienced se e e bu ela i ely sho e eco-
nomic con ac ions. In con as , he sou he n egions aced p olonged economic difficul-
ies due o hei eliance on less dynamic sec o s, such as ag icul u e and public sec o
employmen .
The effec s o his egional economic dispa i y ha e been signi ican and long-las ing.
Fo ins ance, po e y a es in he sou h ha e consis en ly been highe han in he no h,
and he egion has expe ienced highe le els o emig a ion as a esul (Boschini e al. 2007).
Addi ionally, he sou h has suffe ed om high le els o unemploymen , pa icula ly
among young people, and a lack o in es men in key sec o s such as educa ion and in a-
s uc u e (Lisciand a e al. 2022). Figu es 2–4 illus a e le els o inequali y, measu ed by
he Gini Index, Rela i e Po e y, and Income Ra io, ac oss 20 I alian egions du ing he
obse ed yea s.
Figu e 2. Inequali y (Gini Index)—I alian egions.
Figu e 2. Inequali y (Gini Index)—I alian egions.
Economies 2024,12, 317 5 o 21
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 22
Figu e 3. Inequali y (Rela i e Po e y)—I alian egions.
Figu e 4. Inequali y (Income Ra io)—I alian egions.
The economic c isis o 2007–2008 exace ba ed hese egional dispa i ies, pa icula ly
in e ms o employmen and income. Du ing his pe iod, he no h a ed be e han he
sou h in e ms o job c ea ion and economic g ow h, which led o a signi ican inc ease in
in e egional mig a ion om he sou h o he no h (Odoa di and Mu a o e 2019). This
c isis highligh ed he u gency o add essing he unde lying economic dispa i ies be ween
he wo egions, as he consequences o his inequali y con inue o impac he coun y’s
economic and social de elopmen .
2.2. G a i y Models in Regional Economics
As men ioned ea lie in he pape , his s udy is conduc ed a he egional le el. G a -
i y models ha e been widely used in egional economics o explain pa e ns o mig a ion
and ade lows among egions. In he con ex o mig a ion, g a i y models ha e been
used o unde s and he de e minan s o in e egional mig a ion lows. The basic in ui ion
behind g a i y models is ha he magni ude o lows be ween wo egions is p opo ional
o he size o hei espec i e popula ions and in e sely p opo ional o he dis ance be-
ween hem. This is simila o he law o g a i a ion, which posi s ha he o ce be ween
wo objec s is p opo ional o hei masses and in e sely p opo ional o he dis ance be-
ween hem (Ashby 2007).
Figu e 3. Inequali y (Rela i e Po e y)—I alian egions.
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 22
Figu e 3. Inequali y (Rela i e Po e y)—I alian egions.
Figu e 4. Inequali y (Income Ra io)—I alian egions.
The economic c isis o 2007–2008 exace ba ed hese egional dispa i ies, pa icula ly
in e ms o employmen and income. Du ing his pe iod, he no h a ed be e han he
sou h in e ms o job c ea ion and economic g ow h, which led o a signi ican inc ease in
in e egional mig a ion om he sou h o he no h (Odoa di and Mu a o e 2019). This
c isis highligh ed he u gency o add essing he unde lying economic dispa i ies be ween
he wo egions, as he consequences o his inequali y con inue o impac he coun y’s
economic and social de elopmen .
2.2. G a i y Models in Regional Economics
As men ioned ea lie in he pape , his s udy is conduc ed a he egional le el. G a -
i y models ha e been widely used in egional economics o explain pa e ns o mig a ion
and ade lows among egions. In he con ex o mig a ion, g a i y models ha e been
used o unde s and he de e minan s o in e egional mig a ion lows. The basic in ui ion
behind g a i y models is ha he magni ude o lows be ween wo egions is p opo ional
o he size o hei espec i e popula ions and in e sely p opo ional o he dis ance be-
ween hem. This is simila o he law o g a i a ion, which posi s ha he o ce be ween
wo objec s is p opo ional o hei masses and in e sely p opo ional o he dis ance be-
ween hem (Ashby 2007).
Figu e 4. Inequali y (Income Ra io)—I alian egions.
The economic c isis o 2007–2008 exace ba ed hese egional dispa i ies, pa icula ly
in e ms o employmen and income. Du ing his pe iod, he no h a ed be e han he
sou h in e ms o job c ea ion and economic g ow h, which led o a signi ican inc ease in
in e egional mig a ion om he sou h o he no h (Odoa di and Mu a o e 2019). This
c isis highligh ed he u gency o add essing he unde lying economic dispa i ies be ween
he wo egions, as he consequences o his inequali y con inue o impac he coun y’s
economic and social de elopmen .
2.2. G a i y Models in Regional Economics
As men ioned ea lie in he pape , his s udy is conduc ed a he egional le el. G a i y
models ha e been widely used in egional economics o explain pa e ns o mig a ion and
ade lows among egions. In he con ex o mig a ion, g a i y models ha e been used o
unde s and he de e minan s o in e egional mig a ion lows. The basic in ui ion behind
g a i y models is ha he magni ude o lows be ween wo egions is p opo ional o he
size o hei espec i e popula ions and in e sely p opo ional o he dis ance be ween
hem. This is simila o he law o g a i a ion, which posi s ha he o ce be ween wo
objec s is p opo ional o hei masses and in e sely p opo ional o he dis ance be ween
hem (Ashby 2007).
Economies 2024,12, 317 6 o 21
G a i y models ha e been applied in a wide ange o con ex s, om in e na ional mig a ion
o in e egional mig a ion wi hin coun ies. In he con ex o I aly, g a i y models ha e been
used o s udy in e egional mig a ion lows. Fo example, Boni azi e al. (2017) used a g a i y
model o analyze in e egional mig a ion lows in I aly du ing he pe iod o 2000–2005. They
ound ha economic ac o s such as pe capi a GDP and unemploymen a es, as well as
demog aphic ac o s such as popula ion size and he age s uc u e, we e signi ican de e minan s
o in e egional mig a ion lows. In ecen yea s, esea che s ha e also used g a i y models o
s udy he impac o inequali y on mig a ion lows. In he con ex o I aly, o ins ance, Pi as (2020)
used a g a i y model o s udy he impac o income inequali y on in e egional mig a ion lows.
He ound ha highe le els o income inequali y co ela ed wi h highe le els o ou -mig a ion
om he mo e unequal egions o he mo e equal ones. The choice o a iables and he dyadic
model used in his s udy is in o med by he p e ious li e a u e on in e egional mig a ion
lows in I aly. The use o bila e al g oss mig a ion lows as he dependen a iable cap u es
he in e dependence be ween egions in e ms o mig a ion lows. Mo eo e , he use o h ee
di e en measu es o inequali y, namely he Gini Index, Rela i e Po e y, and Income Ra io,
allows o a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o he impac o inequali y on mig a ion lows.
The speci ic measu e o income inequali y, “Rela i e Po e y”, dese es pa icula a en ion o
explain wha i desc ibes and why i is ele an in ou pape .
In ou s udy, Rela i e Po e y is de ined as he condi ion in which indi iduals o g oups
wi hin a socie y expe ience a s anda d o li ing ha is signi ican ly lowe han he a e age
o median s anda d o li ing in ha socie y. This measu e cap u es he ex en o which
indi iduals a e dep i ed o he esou ces and oppo uni ies ha a e a ailable o he majo i y
o he popula ion. Rela i e Po e y is ypically assessed by compa ing household incomes o
a speci ic h eshold, usually se a a ce ain pe cen age o he median income. Fo ins ance, a
common h eshold is 50% o 60% o he median household income. Households wi h incomes
below his h eshold a e conside ed o be in Rela i e Po e y, as hey ha e signi ican ly
ewe inancial esou ces compa ed o he a e age household. This measu e is c ucial in
unde s anding economic inequali y and social exclusion, as i highligh s he dispa i ies in
li ing s anda ds and he ex en o which ce ain popula ions a e ma ginalized wi hin a socie y.
Unlike absolu e po e y, which is conce ned wi h he minimum le el o esou ces necessa y
o physical su i al, Rela i e Po e y emphasizes social pa icipa ion and he abili y o
main ain a decen s anda d o li ing ela i e o he b oade communi y.
By inco po a ing he measu e o Rela i e Po e y, ou s udy aims o p o ide a nuanced
unde s anding o economic dispa i ies and hei impac on in e egional mobili y in I aly.
As men ioned abo e, his measu e complemen s he Gini Index and Income Ra io, o e ing
a comp ehensi e iew o how income inequali y in luences mig a ion pa e ns and egional
de elopmen (Table 1).
Table 1. Lis o inequali y measu es.
Va iable Desc ip ion
Gini Index S a is ical measu e o income dis ibu ion. The
coe icien anges om 0 (o 0%) o 1 (o 100%),
wi h 0 ep esen ing pe ec equali y and 1
ep esen ing pe ec inequali y.
Rela i e Po e y Index S a is ical measu e desc ibing economic s uggle o
use goods and se ices in speci ic geog aphic a eas,
in ela ion o he a e age economic le el o he same
geog aphic a eas.
Top 20% Income/Bo om 20% Income Index desc ibing he amoun o people in he op
20% o he income le el scale in a speci ic
geog aphic a ea, compa ed o he amoun o people
in he bo om 20% o he income le el scale, in he
same geog aphic a ea.
Economies 2024,12, 317 7 o 21
2.3. E ec s o Income Inequali y on In e egional Mobili y
The ela ionship be ween income inequali y and in e egional mobili y has been a
opic o in e es o many schola s in ecen yea s. A numbe o s udies ha e ound ha high
le els o income inequali y can lead o lowe le els o in e egional mobili y, as indi iduals
may be mo e hesi an o lea e hei cu en egion i hey eel hey ha e ewe oppo uni ies
o succeed in a new loca ion (Ja gowsky 2015;Bailey e al. 2017). In addi ion, egions wi h
high le els o inequali y may also expe ience highe le els o social ension, complica ing
indi iduals’ adjus men o a new en i onmen (Glaese e al. 2009).
On he o he hand, some esea ch sugges s ha high le els o inequali y may ac ually
inc ease in e egional mobili y, as indi iduals may be mo e mo i a ed o lea e hei cu en
egion in sea ch o be e oppo uni ies elsewhe e (Bo jas 1995). Mon as (2018) in es iga es
how economic shocks, such as changes in local labo ma ke condi ions, in luence in e nal
mig a ion wi hin he Uni ed S a es. The pape inds ha egions expe iencing nega i e
economic shocks see ou -mig a ion, while egions wi h posi i e economic shocks a ac
mig an s. Acco ding o he au ho , his mig a ion helps o equilib a e egional economic
dispa i ies. Simila ly, Molloy e al. (2017), examine he decline in long-dis ance mig a ion
in he U.S. and i s ela ionship o job changes. While he ocus is on he o e all decline, he
au ho s also discuss how egional economic di e ences con inue o d i e mig a ion. They
a gue ha economic inequali y ac oss egions emains a signi ican ac o in indi iduals’
decisions o eloca e o be e job oppo uni ies. Wi h a ocus on Eu ope, Coul e and
Sco (2015) analyze sel - epo ed easons o esiden ial mobili y in he UK, inding ha
economic easons, such as seeking be e employmen oppo uni ies, a e among he p ima y
d i e s. This suppo s he idea ha economic dispa i ies be ween egions mo i a e people
o mo e. Howe e , we would like o poin ou ha hese indings a e no consis en ac oss
all s udies and may depend on he speci ic con ex and measu es used o cap u e inequali y
(Bailey e al. 2017).
One way in which income inequali y can a ec in e egional mobili y is h ough i s
impac on educa ional oppo uni ies. Fo example, egions wi h high le els o inequali y
may ha e ewe esou ces a ailable o public educa ion, leading o lowe educa ional
a ainmen among he popula ion (Rea don and Bischo 2011). This, in u n, can limi
he job p ospec s a ailable o indi iduals in ha egion, making i mo e di icul o hem
o mo e o a new a ea wi h be e economic oppo uni ies (Bailey e al. 2017). On he
o he hand, limi ed educa ional oppo uni ies a o igin can s imula e ou -mig a ion o he
lowe -skilled segmen s in he socie y, whe e mig a ion o coun ies o egions wi h highe
uneduca ed wages is o en conside ed as a subs i u e o educa ion (Aza ne 2012).
Fu he mo e, high le els o inequali y may also educe social capi al, hinde ing an
indi idual’s abili y o make social connec ions and ind job oppo uni ies in new egions
(Pu nam 2000). This lack o social capi al can be pa icula ly p oblema ic o indi iduals
who a e al eady acing social and economic ba ie s, such as hose li ing in po e y o
belonging o ma ginalized g oups (Bailey e al. 2017).
In summa y, he ela ionship be ween income inequali y and in e egional mobili y
is complex and mul i ace ed, and is in luenced by a a ie y o economic, social, and
cul u al ac o s. While some s udies ha e ound a nega i e ela ionship be ween he wo
a iables, o he s sugges ha he ela ionship may be mo e nuanced and con ex -dependen .
Rega dless, i is clea ha add essing issues o income inequali y is c ucial o p omo ing
g ea e in e egional mobili y and educing economic dispa i ies ac oss egions.
2.4. The Economic C isis o 2008 as a T igge o In e egional Immig a ion
The economic c isis o 2008 had a p o ound impac on he I alian economy and socie y,
signi ican ly in luencing in e egional mig a ion pa e ns. The c isis igge ed a sha p
inc ease in unemploymen a es and a dec ease in GDP, which in u n led o a educ ion in
he s anda d o li ing o many households. As a esul , he c isis had a p o ound e ec on
he mig a ion beha io o indi iduals and amilies ac oss I aly.
Economies 2024,12, 317 8 o 21
Resea ch shows ha he economic c isis had dispa a e impac s on di e en egions o
I aly, wi h he sou h o he coun y su e ing mo e se e ely han he no h. Fo example, a
s udy by Acce u o e al. (2014) ound ha he c isis led o a decline in employmen a es
in he sou h ha was wice as se e e as ha expe ienced in he no h. This dispa i y in
economic ou comes be ween egions may ha e con ibu ed o he pa e ns o in e egional
mig a ion ha eme ged in he a e ma h o he c isis.
In pa icula , esea ch sugges s ha he c isis led o an inc ease in mig a ion om
he sou h o he no h o I aly. Fo example, Gaglia di and Pe coco (2011) ound ha he
G ea Recession led o a signi ican inc ease in mig a ion lows om sou he n egions o
he no he n egions o he coun y. Simila ly, a s udy by Boni azi e al. (2017) ound ha
he c isis led o an inc ease in mig a ion om he sou h o he no h, as indi iduals sough
o ind wo k in egions wi h be e employmen p ospec s.
The economic c isis may ha e also led o changes in he cha ac e is ics o mig an s,
wi h a g ea e p opo ion o highly skilled indi iduals mig a ing in sea ch o be e job
oppo uni ies (Canna i e al. 2000). A s udy by Ce iani and Ve me (2012) ound ha du ing
he c isis pe iod, he p obabili y o highly educa ed indi iduals mig a ing om he sou h
o he no h o I aly inc eased signi ican ly.
O e all, he 2008 economic c isis signi ican ly in luenced pa e ns o in e egional
mig a ion in I aly, wi h a ma ked inc ease in mig a ion om he sou h o he no h o he
coun y. These changes in mig a ion beha io may ha e been in luenced by he di e en ial
impac o he c isis on di e en egions and he changing demog aphic o mig an s.
3. Me hodology
To in es iga e he e ec s o pas mig a ion lows and income inequali y on in e e-
gional mobili y in I aly, we applied a g a i y model wi h bidi ec ional dyads and h ee
di e en measu es o inequali y: Gini Index, Rela i e Po e y, and Income Ra io. The
g a i y model is a widely used me hod o s udying bila e al mig a ion lows be ween
egions o coun ies. I is based on he analogy o g a i a ional a ac ion be ween wo
objec s, wi h he a ac i eness o one egion o mig an s being p opo ional o i s size and
in e sely p opo ional o he dis ance om he o igin (G eenwood 1975;Bo jas 1989;Ashby
2007). The basic equa ion o he g a i y model is
Mij =GPβ1
iPβ2
j
Dα
ij
(1)
In he equa ion, M
ij
desc ibes g oss mig a ion om S a e i o S a e j. G is a cons an ,
while P
i
and P
j
ep esen popula ions in S a e iand S a e j. D
ij
ep esen s he dis ance
be ween wo s a es. β1,β2, and αa e co esponding coe icien s.
By aking logs on bo h sides o he equa ion, a educed- o m model is c ea ed o
analyze mig a o y beha io empi ically:
mij =α0+α1pi+α2pj+α3yi+α4yj+α5dij +z(·)+εij (2)
The lowe -case a iables in Equa ion (2) ep esen he log o m o he coinciding
uppe -case a iables in Equa ion (1); y
i
and y
j
ep esen income o bo h s a es; and d
ij
deno es he a el cos s be ween s a es. Since his is di icul o measu e, we use he dis ance
be ween egions’ capi als as a p oxy a iable (Bo jas 1987). The a iable z(
·
) includes he
a ibu es o he o igin and des ina ion s a es, and e
ij
se es as he con en ional e o e m.
Some o hese a ibu es may include economic condi ions (Bo jas 1989) o measu emen s
o poli ical and/o ci il eedoms (Gas il 1990).
To sa is y he pu pose o he s udy, he g a i y model used in his pape is an ex ended
o m o he one epo ed abo e. Speci ically, o inco po a e measu es o inequali y in o
he g a i y model, we es ima e h ee di e en eg ession models, one o each measu e o
Economies 2024,12, 317 15 o 21
Table 5. E ec o inequali y on in e egional mobili y (2SLS model).
Independen Va iables Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows
Lagged Mig a ion Flows 0.967 ***
(254.69)
0.967 ***
(257.09)
0.968 ***
(257.80)
Lagged Gini O igin 10,805.9 ***
(2.94)
Lagged Gini Des ina ion 166.5
(0.17)
Lagged Rela i e Po e y O igin 19.93 ***
(3.48)
Lagged Rela i e Po e y Des ina ion −5.501
(−1.45)
Lagged Income Ra io O igin −190.9 ***
(−4.50)
Lagged Income Ra io Des ina ion 107.6 ***
(4.08)
Dis ance −1.995 *** −2.099 *** −2.132 ***
(−12.41) (−13.60) (−13.59)
Dis ance20.001 *** 0.001 *** 0.001 ***
(12.29) (13.74) (13.77)
Lagged Unemployed O igin −8.538 0.105 −12.76
(−0.74) (0.01) (−1.68)
Lagged Unemployed Des ina ion −26.98 *** −21.46 *** −8.056
(−5.15) (−3.52) (−1.33)
Lagged Popula ion O igin 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 ***
(15.08) (29.76) (29.08)
Lagged Popula ion Des ina ion 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 ***
(34.31) (35.40) (33.53)
Lagged Educa ion Le el O igin 21,016.1 28,922.1 ** −1478.939
(1.84) (2.48) (−0.14)
Lagged Educa ion Le el Des ina ion 61,253.3 *** 56,741.5 *** 70,417.2 ***
(5.44) (5.05) (6.29)
Lagged C ime O igin 14.47 *** 19.92 *** 20.30 ***
(4.25) (5.99) (6.48)
Lagged C ime Des ina ion −4.000 −5.005 −5.656 *
(−1.24) (−1.62) (−1.82)
Cons an −3181.9 *** −571.0 *** −277.4 *
(−3.73) (−5.13) (−1.92)
Region Fixed E ec s Yes Yes Yes
Pe iod Fixed E ec s Yes Yes Yes
R-squa ed 0.709 0.726 0.722
Obse a ions 3038 3038 3038
Unde iden i ica ion Tes 140.258 1284.983 1097.769
KP-F S a is ics 18.500 17.353 14.228
Weak Iden i ica ion Tes 72.850 1108.580 808.171
Sa gan S a is ics 0.517 0.817 0.162
Chi-sq(1) p- alue 0.419 0.366 0.687
Numbe o Regions 20 20 20
s a is ics in pa en heses; * p< 0.1, ** p< 0.05, *** p< 0.01.
5. Conclusions
This s udy analyzes he e ec o egional inequali y, oge he wi h economic, social,
and demog aphic ac o s, on mobili y a he egional le el in I aly. The p ima y hypo hesis
is ha high le els o inequali y inc ease bila e al mig a ion lows wi hin he coun y. This
analysis cons i u es a i s and explo a i e a emp o conside inequali y as a signi ican
d i e o in e egional mobili y in I aly. Below, we ocus on discussing in dep h heo e ical
and policy implica ions.
Economies 2024,12, 317 16 o 21
5.1. Theo e ical Implica ions
Ou indings e eal ha income inequali y a he o igin signi ican ly in luences in e e-
gional mobili y. The posi i e e ec o income inequali y sugges s ha he pe cep ion o he
exis ing gap be ween he ich and poo d i es mobili y a he egional le el. This indica es
ha weal h edis ibu ion policies can shape he social and economic landscape o di e en
egions, po en ially exace ba ing o educing exis ing le els o inequali y (Zhang e al.
2019). Fu u e esea ch could bene i om analyzing inequali y om a di e en pe spec i e,
such as examining he income le els o he i s and nin h deciles o he popula ion o
unde s and hei impac on egional mig a ion pa e ns.
Unemploymen le els also p o ide aluable insigh s in o mig a ion ends. High
unemploymen a he o igin co ela es wi h educed mig a ion, aligning wi h he li e a u e
ha emphasizes he ole o condi ional cash ans e s (Angelucci 2012), social ne wo ks
(Eps ein and Gang 2006), and emi ances (Ga cía 2018) in mobili y decisions. Addi ionally,
dis ance plays a c ucial ole in mig a ion decisions, wi h indi iduals p e e ing o mig a e
o nea by egions, in luenced by pe sonal, clima ic, and en i onmen al ac o s (E zo 2011;
Biagi e al. 2011).
The p esence o pe sonal ne wo ks is ano he signi ican ac o in luencing mig a ion,
as hey assis mig an s in adjus ing o new en i onmen s and p o ide essen ial in o ma ion
on jobs and housing (Pi as 2020). This pape ocuses on he pe iod ollowing he 2007–
2009 inancial c isis, a unique con ex ha may ha e in luenced ou esul s. To isola e he
c isis’s e ec s, we included ime and egion- o- egion ixed e ec s in ou model. We ha e
used s anda d e o s clus e ed a he egional le el o accoun o po en ial in a egional
co ela ion and o p o ide obus in e ence. Fu u e esea ch could compa e da a om
be o e and a e he c isis o be e unde s and i s impac on in e egional mig a ion ends.
5.2. Policy Implica ions
The s udy highligh s impo an social and poli ical implica ions o mig a ion om
poo e o weal hie egions. The esul s sugges he need o signi ican in es men s in
egions wi h high inequali y and ou -mig a ion o enhance weal h edis ibu ion, educe
he gap be ween he ich and he poo , and imp o e li ing condi ions in a eas s ill a ec ed
by he G ea Recession. Reducing e ical inequali y wi hin egions could indi ec ly educe
ho izon al inequali y among egions by os e ing b ain e en ion, hus p omo ing mo e
uni o m de elopmen ac oss he coun y.
Based on ou indings, we ecommend he ollowing policy measu es:
1. Economic De elopmen P og ams
Implemen economic de elopmen ini ia i es ocused on sou he n egions o c ea e
job oppo uni ies and s imula e local economies. This includes suppo ing local businesses,
p omo ing en ep eneu ship, and a ac ing in es men o unde de eloped a eas.
2. In es men in Educa ion and In as uc u e
Inc ease in es men in educa ion and in as uc u e in less de eloped egions o
imp o e human capi al and connec i i y. Enhancing educa ional acili ies and access, pa -
icula ly in he sou h, can educe egional dispa i ies and os e inclusi e g ow h. Imp o ed
in as uc u e can acili a e be e in eg a ion wi h na ional and Eu opean ma ke s.
3. Social Cohesion P og ams
De elop p og ams ha os e social cohesion and educe mis us and anxie y caused
by high inequali y. Social cohesion ini ia i es can include communi y-building ac i i ies,
suppo o local cul u al p ojec s, and policies aimed a educing social exclusion.
4. Incen i es o High-Skilled Wo ke s
P o ide incen i es o high-skilled wo ke s o emain in o mo e o sou he n egions,
he eby educing he skill d ain o he no h. This can be achie ed h ough ax incen i es,
g an s, and suppo o inno a ion and esea ch ac i i ies in he sou h.
Economies 2024,12, 317 17 o 21
5. Comba ing O ganized C ime
S eng hen legal and ins i u ional amewo ks o comba o ganized c ime in he
sou h. A s able and secu e en i onmen is essen ial o a ac ing in es men and os e ing
economic de elopmen .
6. Suppo ing Inno a ion and C ea i e Economies
Encou age inno a ion and suppo c ea i e indus ies o d i e sus ainable egional
de elopmen . Implemen ing sma specializa ion s a egies and he En ep eneu ial Dis-
co e y P ocess can help egions iden i y and le e age hei unique s eng hs, p omo ing
long- e m g ow h and esilience (Manioudis and Angelakis 2023).
7. Uni e sal Basic Income (UBI)
In oduce a Uni e sal Basic Income (UBI) o p o ide inancial s abili y o all ci izens,
pa icula ly bene i ing he medium and lowe classes gi en hei highe p opo ional
p opensi y o consume. This policy would help e ain alen in disad an aged egions
by ensu ing a basic le el o economic secu i y, educing bo h e ical and ho izon al
inequali ies. UBI can s imula e local economies h ough inc eased consume spending
and educe he economic dispa i ies ha d i e mig a ion. E idence sugges s ha UBI can
imp o e social cohesion, educe po e y, and os e a mo e inclusi e economy (Wide quis
2018;S anding 2017).
By add essing hese a eas, policymake s can mi iga e he dispa i ies ha d i e in-
e egional mig a ion and p omo e balanced economic de elopmen ac oss I aly. To ou
knowledge, his pape ep esen s a pionee ing e o o analyze he impac o inequali y
on mobili y a he subna ional le el in I aly, using bo h g a i y and ins umen al a iable
app oaches.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, G.D.P.; me hodology, G.D.P.; so wa e, G.D.P.; alida ion,
G.D.P. and E.P.; o mal analysis, G.D.P.; in es iga ion, G.D.P.; esou ces, E.P.; da a cu a ion, E.P.;
w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, G.D.P.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, G.D.P. and E.P.; isualiza-
ion, G.D.P.; supe ision, G.D.P.; p ojec adminis a ion, G.D.P. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o
he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be made
a ailable by he au ho s on eques .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
Table A1. E ec o Inequali y on In e nal Mobili y (2SLS Model, wi h wo ime-lags).
Independen Va iables Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows
Two Lags Mig a ion Flows 0.967 ***
(254.7)
0.967 ***
(257.1)
0.968 ***
(257.8)
Two Lags Gini O igin 6108.8 **
(2.16)
Two Lags Gini Des ina ion 819.1
(0.86)
Two Lags Rela i e Po e y O igin 16.29 ***
(3.12)
Two Lags Rela i e Po e y Des ina ion −8.123 **
(−2.18)
Economies 2024,12, 317 18 o 21
Table A1. Con .
Independen Va iables Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows
Two Lags Income Ra io O igin −160.2 ***
(−4.09)
Two Lags Income Ra io Des ina ion 116.0 ***
(4.54)
Dis ance −2.048 *** −2.112 *** −2.114 ***
(−13.16) (−13.73) (−13.53)
Dis ance20.001 *** 0.001 *** 0.001 ***
(12.97) (13.73) (13.63)
Two Lags Unemployed O igin 7.941 2.809 −8.021
(0.87) (0.37) (−0.99)
Two Lags Unemployed Des ina ion −31.28 *** −18.63 *** −6.100
(−6.01) (−3.01) (−0.97)
Two Lags Popula ion O igin 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 ***
(19.85) (28.71) (28.30)
Two Lags Popula ion Des ina ion 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 ***
(35.26) (35.15) (33.81)
Two Lags Educa ion Le el O igin 12,982.7 19,825.5 * −121.9
(1.24) (2.48) (−0.02)
Two Lags Educa ion Le el Des ina ion 52,869.4 *** 46,846.7 *** 62,232.9 ***
(5.05) (4.43) (5.86)
Two Lags C ime O igin 16.71 *** 19.41 *** 19.71 ***
(5.05) (6.40) (6.46)
Two Lags C ime Des ina ion −5.948 * −6.703 ** −6.952 **
(−1.87) (−1.62) (−1.82)
Cons an −2137.4 *** −471.0 *** −308.7 **
(−3.26) (−4.43) (−2.14)
Region Fixed E ec s Yes Yes Yes
Pe iod Fixed E ec s Yes Yes Yes
R-squa ed 0.721 0.727 0.724
Obse a ions 3038 3038 3038
Unde iden i ica ion es 230.552 1450.932 1201.297
Chi-sq(2) p- alue 0.000 0.000 0.000
Weak iden i ica ion es 124.183 1385.212 990.623
Sa gan s a is ics 0.014 0.821 0.063
Chi-sq(1) p- alue 0.907 0.365 0.805
Numbe o egions 20 20 20
s a is ics in pa en heses; * p< 0.1, ** p< 0.05, *** p< 0.01.
Table A2. E ec o Inequali y on In e nal Mobili y (2SLS Model, wi h i e ime-lags).
Independen Va iables Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows
Fi e Lags Mig a ion Flows 0.967 ***
(254.7)
0.967 ***
(257.1)
0.968 ***
(257.8)
Fi e Lags Gini O igin 20,469.2 **
(2.13)
Fi e Lags Gini Des ina ion 2103.4
(1.37)
Fi e Lags Rela i e Po e y O igin 18.85 **
(2.30)
Fi e Lags Rela i e Po e y Des ina ion −1.850
(−0.39)
Fi e Lags Income Ra io O igin −234.2 ***
(−2.64)
Fi e Lags Income Ra io Des ina ion 87.80 **
(2.56)
Economies 2024,12, 317 19 o 21
Table A2. Con .
Independen Va iables Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows Mig a ion Flows
Dis ance −1.872 *** −2.134 *** −2.168 ***
(−7.72) (−10.73) (−10.76)
Dis ance20.001 *** 0.001 *** 0.001 ***
(7.71) (10.81) (10.87)
Fi e Lags Unemployed O igin −61.35 −6.199 −38.01
(−1.52) (−0.44) (−1.61)
Fi e Lags Unemployed Des ina ion −52.57 *** −39.13 *** −17.71 *
(−6.08) (−4.16) (−1.66)
Fi e Lags Popula ion O igin 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 ***
(7.99) (19.33) (18.97)
Fi e Lags Popula ion Des ina ion 0.000 *** 0.000 *** 0.000 ***
(25.12) (26.03) (26.31)
Fi e Lags Educa ion Le el O igin 18,517.8 24,914.3 * −3868.6
(1.39) (1.92) (−0.25)
Fi e Lags Educa ion Le el Des ina ion 47,312.3 *** 44,995.7 *** 56,598.1 ***
(3.57) (3.56) (4.36)
Fi e Lags C ime O igin 16.13 *** 22.38 *** 26.77 ***
(2.83) (5.69) (6.76)
Fi e Lags C ime Des ina ion 1.437 1.336 −0.471
(0.34) (0.34) (−0.12)
Cons an 5790.1 ** −481.7 *** 65.72
(−2.43) (−3.71) (0.19)
Region Fixed E ec s Yes Yes Yes
Pe iod Fixed E ec s Yes Yes Yes
R-squa ed 0.692 0.729 0.723
Obse a ions 3038 3038 3038
Unde iden i ica ion es 35.332 649.978 292.874
Chi-sq(2) p- alue 0.000 0.000 0.000
Weak iden i ica ion es 17.868 491.133 171.958
Sa gan s a is ics 0.001 0.450 0.383
Chi-sq(1) p- alue 0.976 0.502 0.536
Numbe o egions 20 20 20
s a is ics in pa en heses; * p< 0.1, ** p< 0.05, *** p< 0.01.
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