Adesina, Olumide S. e al.
A icle
Unsupe ised lea ning analysis o Eu opean wo king
condi ion
Cogen Business & Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Adesina, Olumide S. e al. (2024) : Unsupe ised lea ning analysis o Eu opean
wo king condi ion, Cogen Business & Managemen , ISSN 2331-1975, Taylo & F ancis, Abingdon,
Vol. 11, Iss. 1, pp. 1-13,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2316644
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Unsupe ised lea ning analysis o Eu opean
wo king condi ion
Olumide S. Adesina, Adedayo F. Adedo un, Semiu A. Alayande, Emmanuel
O. E e-Imafidon, Tolulope F. Adesina, Hilla y I. Okagbue & Oluwakemi O.
Onayemi
To ci e his a icle: Olumide S. Adesina, Adedayo F. Adedo un, Semiu A. Alayande, Emmanuel
O. E e-Imafidon, Tolulope F. Adesina, Hilla y I. Okagbue & Oluwakemi O. Onayemi (2024)
Unsupe ised lea ning analysis o Eu opean wo king condi ion, Cogen Business &
Managemen , 11:1, 2316644, DOI: 10.1080/23311975.2024.2316644
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2316644
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ManageMen | ReseaRch aR icle
Cogen Business & ManageMen
2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2316644
Unsupe ised lea ning analysis o Eu opean wo king condi ion
Olumide s. adesinaa,b, adedayo F. adedo unc, semiu a. alayandea, emmanuel O.
e e-ima idond, olulope F. adesinae, hilla y i. Okagbuec and Oluwakemi O. Onayemid
aDepa men o Ma hema ics & s a is ics, Redeeme ’s uni e si y, ede, osun s a e, nige ia; bDa a science & Business analy ics,
uni e si y o London-Lse, London, uni ed Kingdom; cDepa men o Ma hema ics, Co enan uni e si y, o a, ogun s a e,
nige ia; dDepa men o Business Managemen , Co enan uni e si y, o a, ogun s a e, nige ia; eDepa men o Banking and
Finance, Co enan uni e si y, o a, ogun s a e, nige ia
ABSTRACT
Wo ke s equi e good wo king condi ions o enhance hei job pe o mance, in his
s udy, we conduc ed a su ey o eu opean wo king condi ions in 2022 and compa ed
he esul s wi h ha o 2016 using an unsupe ised lea ning app oach o explo a o y
da a analysis and de e mining he ela ionships. hence, he P incipal componen
analysis (Pca) was adop ed. he analyses we e in wo pa s o bo h he 2016 and
2022 su eys. Following he Pca, he i s pa shows ha eu opean wo ke s a e mos ly
cha ac e ized by chee ulness and good spi i s. he second pa e eals ha eu opean
wo ke s a e bes cha ac e ized by en husiasm in hei wo k. es s a is ics showed ha
he eu opean wo king condi ion o he wo pe iods does no di e signi ican ly. he
wo king condi ions in eu ope ha e no been al e ed in he space o six yea s. his
s udy ecommends ha he wo king condi ion in eu ope should be imp o ed so ha
employe s would con inue o gi e hei bes .
1. In oduc ion
Wo k is an impo an aspec o li e and i is ine i able. i is wo k ha p o ides oppo uni ies o unde -
de eloped, de eloping, and de eloped na ions o con inue in de elopmen . howe e , wo k and de el-
opmen s do no occu o hei own oli ion; a he , employees a e he cause o all o hese, which is
dependen on he ideal wo king condi ions. P o iding good wo king condi ions o employees is i al o
indi iduals’ p oduc i i y, enhancing o ganiza ions’ pe o mance and he na ion’s economy. i is he e o e
incumben on o ganiza ions o p o ide good wo king condi ions o hei employees o h i e.
Pa icula ly in he indus ialized wo ld, such as eu opean coun ies, immig a ion by people om all o e
he wo ld in o eu ope has inc eased due o hei need o ha e be e wo king condi ions and imp o ed
job sa is ac ion. When employees possess wha i akes o achie e high pe o mance, hey a e easily wel-
come in o eu ope, o example, he highly skilled Mig an p og am and ela ed o a ac p o essionals and
skilled wo ke s. lisbona e al. (2018) s a ed ha o any employee o unc ion in a mode n socie y, a high
le el o adap abili y, p ope implemen a ion, and he in en ion o new ideas and p oduc s a e equi ed.
his s udy ocuses on eWcs ‘wo k o ce’, and eWcs e e s o employees and sel -employed wo ke s,
minus unemployed wo ke s (eu o ound, 2016). in eu ope, be ween 2016 and 2022, i was eco ded ha
© 2024 he au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK Limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis g oup
CONTACT adedayo F. adedo un adedayo.adedo un@co enan uni e si y.edu.ng Depa men o indus ial Ma hema ics, College o
science and echnology, Co enan uni e si y, o a 11001, ogun s a e, nige ia
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2316644
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 30 Decembe
2022
Re ised 10 May 2023
accep ed 2 Feb ua y
2024
REVIEWING EDITOR
hui en (helen) cai,
Middlesex Uni e si y
Business school, Uni ed
Kingdom
KEYWORDS
eu ope; wo king
condi ion; job sa is ac ion;
machine lea ning;
p incipal componen
analysis
SUBJECTS
s a is ics & compu ing;
Psychological Me hods &
s a is ics; Pe sonnel
selec ion, assessmen ,
and human Resou ce
Managemen ; human
Resou ce De elopmen
2 O. s. aDesina e al.
he e has been an inc eased wo k o ce due o immig a ion om indi iduals seeking be e wo king con-
di ions and hese wo ke s a e accep ed because o hei capaci y o unc ion. acco ding o Ba alo a
(2022), he o al numbe o in e na ional des ina ions in eu ope and no he n ame ica in 2000 was
145,414,863 (52%).
al hough his esul , showed he numbe o immig an s seeking o ind he nex bes wo king condi-
ion o imp o ed sa is ac ion, pe haps e ealing he possible s eng h o eu opean coun ies o abso b
hese immig an wo ke s. On he o he hand, he s udy has an o e sigh conce ning how he in lux o
immig an wo ke s a ec s he sa is ac ion and pe o mance o eu opean ci izens ha a e wo ke s.
s udies a e ye o e eal he consequences o ha ing a con inuous in lux o immig an wo ke s in o
eu opean coun ies and how his ac i i y a ec s he a i ude and pe cep ion o he non-immig an s
eu opean wo k o ce. his unde s anding is necessa y conside ing ha non-eu opean wo ke s seem o be
o e - ep esen ed in some speci ic sec o s (cons uc ion, manu ac u ing, anspo , ag icul u e, o es y,
and ishe y) han eu opean ci izens (eu opean commission, 2022). hence, his could c ea e cause con-
ce n. conside ing he in lux o immig an s in o eu ope expe ience in ecen yea s, he e is a need o
de e mine i he e is an imp o emen in a ou o wo ke s o o he wise in he space o six yea s be ween
using he eWcs 2016, and he new su ey o 2022. he e o e, his s udy aims o iden i y i he e is a
di e ence in he eu opean wo king condi ion be ween 2016 and 2022. he analyses we e based on
desc ip i e s a is ics and explo a o y da a analyses using P incipal componen analyses (cPa). he
emaining pa o he s udy is sec ionalized as ollows; sec ion 2 is he ma e ial and me hods. sec ion 3
is he esul s. and sec ion 4 is he summa y and conclusion.
2. Li e a u e e iew
2.1. Wo king condi ion
‘Wo king condi ions e e s o he wo king en i onmen and aspec s o an employee’s e ms and condi-
ions’ (eu owo k, 2011). good wo king condi ion, amongs o he s, is embedded in he eigh h Uni ed
na ions sus ainable De elopmen g ow h mo emen agged ‘Decen Wo k and economic g ow h’. i aims
o sus ain and ha e inclusi e economic g ow h, c ea e decen jobs and imp o e li ing s anda ds (Uni ed
na ions, 2022). i he wo king condi ion is a o able o employees, i will posi i ely impac hei pe o -
mances, and i o he wise, i will a ec hem nega i ely. he p esence o a o able wo king ci cums ances
wi hin o ganiza ions is one o he key elemen s in luencing pe o mance (hsiao e al., 2018).
2.2. Job sa is ac ion
Job sa is ac ion is an impo an goal o any o ganiza ion ha desi es o ac ualize i s pu pose. Fo his
s udy, job sa is ac ion encompasses indica o s such as chee ulness, calm elaxed, ac i e, igo ous,
esh- es ed, and ul illed days ha employees expe ience on he job. People’s le el o job sa is ac ion
e lec s how much hey enjoy hei wo k. Job sa is ac ion cen e s on all indi iduals’ hough s and eelings
abou hei wo k (lu e al., 2019). he s eng h o a co po a ion is a sa is ied wo k o ce (Yalama hi,
2020). Fu he mo e, Yalama hi (2020) added ha he e m sa is ac ion is desc ip i e and means di e en
hings o di e en indi iduals. acco ding o hsiao e al. (2018), job sa is ac ion e e s o he a i udes and
emo ions o employees owa d he wo kplace. i also in ol es how employees iew hei jobs and e al-
ua e and a e hei wo k. Job sa is ac ion in ol es employees’ assessmen s and pe cep ions o a job, and
he pe cep ion encompasses eelings on many di e en le els (hu e al., 2022). a posi i e emo ional
iew o wo k is a de ini ion o job sa is ac ion, which con ibu es o imp o ing bo h wo ke pe o mance
and company esul s (Ma in-ga cia e al., 2011).
2.3. Theo e ical unde pinning
2.3.1. Theo y o mo i a ion
his s udy applied a heo y o mo i a ion ha is aced o he wo k o Maslow (1943) o unde s and
employees’ pe cep ions and a i udes owa d hei job. he heo y helps o iden i y human needs as i
cOgen BUsiness & ManageMen 3
ela es o hei jobs. i includes ‘physiological needs, sa e y needs, lo e, and belonging needs, es eem
needs, and sel -ac ualiza ion needs’. a wo ke needs o eel sa e and lo ed, ha e a sense o belonging,
and ha e a good wo king en i onmen o pe o m well on he job (Beynon, 1973). his implies ha
when a wo ke eels his o he job is unsa e i would nega i ely a ec his o he le el o mo i a ion o
wo k and ul ima ely he o e all le el o job sa is ac ion.
2.3.2 Wo king condi ions and job sa is ac ion
Va ious s udies ha e been conduc ed on he ela ionship be ween wo king condi ions and job sa is ac ion,
p oduc i i y le el, and o he a iables. Raziqa and Maulabakhsha (2015) s udy shows a posi i e ela ionship
be ween wo king en i onmen (wo king condi ions) and employee sa is ac ion. O he au ho s whose s ud-
ies showed a posi i e ela ionship be ween wo king condi ions and job sa is ac ion include cas illo and
cano (2004), gazioglu and ansel (2006), Baah and amoako (2011), chand aseka (2011), Bako ic and Babic
(2013) and es he Olu-Owolabi e al. (2020). aleksynska e al. (2019, pp. 4) s a ed ha ‘wo ke s ha e he
igh o a high le el o p o ec ion o hei heal h and sa e y a wo k’; while mee ing hei p o essional
needs o p olong hei days in he labo ma ke . ga ens ein (2018) emphasized wo good wo king condi-
ions o wo ke s, which include ‘heal h and sa e y’ and ‘F eedom om Disc imina ion’. salau e al. (2018)
conduc ed a s udy o de e mine he ela ionship be ween wo k en i onmen s and he p oduc i i y o aca-
demic s a o uni e si ies in selec ed Uni e si ies in nige ia. he s udy showed ha p oduc i i y would be
maximized i he wo k en i onmen is a o able and he e a e g ow h oppo uni ies. also, so ensen e al.
(2016) highligh ed he se en b oad a eas o he ‘concep ual model o in eg a ed app oaches o he p o-
ec ion and p omo ion o wo ke heal h and sa e y’, one o which is ‘condi ions o wo k’ includes (i) he
Physical en i onmen , (ii) o ganiza ion o wo k, (iii) psychosocial ac o s, (i ) job ask & demand.
2.4. Unsupe ised lea ning
Machine lea ning is classi ied as supe ised, unsupe ised, and ein o cemen lea ning. in supe ised lea n-
ing, he e a e dependen and independen a iables, while o unsupe ised lea ning, all a iables a e
impo an , and hey can be used o make p edic ions (iyiola e al., 2023; Okagbue e al., 2020). On he o he
hand, ein o ced lea ning combines he wo me hods. Rein o cemen lea ning is some imes called
semi-supe ised lea ning. he p incipal componen analysis is mos ly used o dimension educ ion, as much
as i is used o de e mine ela ionships among a iables. ano he ype o unsupe ised lea ning is he clus e
analysis; he hie a chical, k-means, k-median, and k-mode. he mos popula ly used is k-means clus e ing.
he Pca is used o educing he dimensionali y o la ge da ase s, ye minimizing in o ma ion loss.
i educes he numbe o a iables, hence dec easing he complexi y in he da a. his would help o
a oid he model depending on he ained da a, hence a oiding o e i ing (Roge s & gi olami, 2012,
p. 242). i is o en used o explo a i e analysis and also de e mines he ela ionship among a iables.
howley e al. (2006) showed ha he Pca helps in achie ing p edic i e accu acy; candès e al. (2011)
p esen s a obus app oach o Pca, in a simila ashion, Zhao e al. (2014) p o ided me hods o ob ain-
ing p incipal componen s amid complex whi e noise, Jolli e and cadima (2016) p o ided some a ian s
in Pca and i s applica ions. an applica ion o Pca can be ound in he s udy o soul idis and
a hanasiadis (2022).
3. Ma e ial and me hods
3.1. P incipal componen analysis
P incipal componen analysis belongs o he class o unsupe ised s a is ical lea ning echniques. Using
Pca he e a e no dependen a iables; all a iables a e aken as independen a iables ela i e o he
eg ession echnique, he e o e i does no in ol e a iable
Y,
bu only
XX X
p
12
, ,,
…
. Pca only compu es
he p incipal componen . in a case whe e we ha e a la ge da ase wi h co ela ed a iables, such a da a-
se can be summa ized. he summa y would explain he a iabili y in he main da ase s (James e al.,
2013). he p ocedu e o implemen ing he P incipal componen analysis is p o ided in (James e al.,
2013, pp. 379–380).
4 O. s. aDesina e al.
3.2. Gene al equa ion o PCA
‘ he i s p incipal componen o a se o ea u es
XX X
p
12
, ,,
…
is he no malized linea combina ion o
he ea u es’:
ZX X X
pp
1 11 1 21 2 1
= + +…
φφ φ
(1)
F om (1) he no malized, j
p
j
=
∑
=
11
21
φ
,
and he elemen s o
φφ
11 1
,,
…
p a e called he ‘loading’ o he i s
p incipal. he loadings make up he p incipal componen loading ec o .
φ φφ φ
1 11 12 1
= …
()
p
T
.
he loading is cons ain s in such a way ha hei sum o squa es is equal
o one j
p
j
=
∑=
()
11
21
φ
.
since a iance is o in e es , o compu e he i s p incipal componen o a
np×
da a se
X
we assume
ha each a iable in
X
has been cen e ed o ha e mean ze o 10
1
nx
i
n
ij
=
∑=
, we hen ob ain he linea
combina ion o he sample ea u e alues o he o m
ZX X X
i i i p ip
1 11 1 21 2 1
= + +…
φφ φ
(2)
he la ges sample a iance is subjec o j
p
j
=
∑
=
11
2
1
φ
‘ he i s p incipal componen loading ec o sol es he op imiza ion p oblem’:
max
φφ
φ
11 1
1
11
2
1
,,…= =
∑∑
pnx subjec o
j
p
j ij j
p
φφ
j1
2
1
= (3)
Op imiza ion p oblem in (3) can be sol ed by eigen decomposi ion. F om (2) he objec i e unc ion
in (3) can be w i en as
1
1
1
2
n
z
i
n
i
=
∑
he a e age o
zz
n
11 1
,,
…
(sco es o p incipal componen ) will equally be ze o.
a e ob aining he i s p incipal componen
Z1
o he da ase , he second p incipal componen Z
2
which is linea combina ion
XX X
p
12
, ,,…
can be ob ained. i has maximal a iance ou o all linea com-
bina ions ha a e unco ela ed wi h
Z1
.
he second p incipal componen wi h sco es
zz
n
12 2
,,
…
is o he o m
ZXX X
i i i p ip
2 12 1 22 2 2
= + +…+
φφ φ
(4)
3.3. Da a desc ip ion
he e a e wo da ase s, he eu opean Wo king condi ions 2016 and eu opean Wo king condi ions 2022.
each da a a e di ided in o wo pa s. he de ailed epo o he eu opean Wo king condi ions 2016 is
p esen ed in eu o ound (2016).
a he ime o he su ey, 15% o he eu opean wo k o ce was sel -employed, 12% we e con ac s a
( empo a y employees) and he emaining (73%) we e in pe manen con ac o ano he o m o employ-
men . he majo i y o he eWcs wo k o ce is made up o p o essionals (19%), while he emaining 89%
a e sha ed ac oss se ice and sales wo ke s, echnicians, c a wo ke s, cle ks, elemen a y occupa ions,
Plan and machine ope a o s, Manage s, and ag icul u al wo ke s, in ha o de . Figu e 1 con ains weekly
wo king hou s, by coun y and sex.
he da ase includes ques ions 87a–e had 6 scales and p o ided in able 1 and ques ions 90a– had
5 scales, p o ided in able 4, hey we e analyzed sepa a ely o d aw alid in e ences om he su ey. a
o al numbe o 3,976 males (50.9%) and 3,837 emales (49.1%) we e in ol ed in he s udy o 2016, and
cOgen BUsiness & ManageMen 5
a o al o 7813. he oldes was 87 and he younges 15 yea s old, and he a e age age o pa icipan s
was app oxima ely 43 yea s old.
he au ho s conduc ed a su ey online om 29 h May 2022 o 22nd July 2022. Pu pose ul sampling
was used, and a mix o snowballing whe e new pa icipan s ec ui s o he pa icipan s o pa icipa e in
he su ey. he 2022 su ey comp ised 178 emales (44.9%) and 218 (55.1%) males, o aling 396. he
esponden s we e p edominan ly om he Uni ed Kingdom, wi h a o al o 240 pa icipan s (60.6%),
while he emaining 154 (39.4%) esponden s we e om o he coun ies, such as i eland and ge many.
so, no all eu opean coun ies we e co e ed in he 2022 su ey ela i e o he 2016 eWcs.
3.5. Me hod o analysis
so wa e by R co e eam (2022) was used o ca y ou he Pca based on he model in equa ions (1)–(4).
he ‘Package de ools’ in R by Wickham e al. (2020) was used, also ‘Package ggbiplo ’ by Vu (2011)-a
ggplo 2 based biplo was used o he isual plo s.
4. Resul s
4.1. Analysis o esponse o 2016 su ey
able 1 shows he esponse equencies and he co esponding pe cen ages o ques ions 87a-87e in he
su ey. se en housand eigh hund ed and hi een wo ke s (7813) we e sampled and coded acco dingly.
Figu e 1. usual weekly wo king hou s, by coun y and sex. Sou ce: (eu o ound, 2016).
Table 1. summa y o esponse (Q87a–87e).
scale Chee ul.gs Calm. elaxed ac i e.Vigo us F esh. es ed Ful illed days
‘all o he ime’ 1459 (18.7%) 1327 (17.0%) 1570
(20.1%)
1176 (15.1%) 1785 (22.8%)
‘Mos o he ime’ 3202 (41.0%) 2845 (36.4%) 3184
(40.8%)
2781
(35.6%)
2933
(37.5%)
‘Mo e han hal o he
ime’
1998
(25.6%)
2050 (26.2%) 1856
(23.8%)
2030
(20.6%)
1806
(23.1%)
‘Less han hal o he
ime’
607
(7.8%)
822
(10.3%)
623
(8.0%)
857
(11.0%)
633
(8.1%)
‘some o he ime’ 429
(5.5%)
560
(7.2%)
433
(5.5%)
692
(8.9%)
499
(6.4%)
‘a no ime’ 89
(1.1%)
184
(2.4%)
119
(1.5%)
251
(3.2%)
111
(1.4%)
o al esponse 7784 7788 7785 7787 7767
o al esponse excluded 29 25 28 26 46
o al esponse expec ed 7813 7813 7813 7813 7813
Sou ce: au ho s.
6 O. s. aDesina e al.
in able 1 (chee ul.gs), he second column s ands o Q87a esponses o ‘i ha e el chee ul and in
good spi i s’. he hi d column in able 1 (calm. elaxed) s ands o esponses o Q87b ‘i ha e el calm
and elaxed’. he ou h column in able 1 (ac i e.Vigo us) s ands o answe s o Q87c ‘i ha e el ac i e
and igo ous’. he i h column in able 1 (F esh. es ed) s ands o esponses o Q87d ‘i woke up eeling
esh and es ed’, and las ly, he six h column in able 1 (Ful illed days) s ands o answe s o Q87e, ‘My
daily li e has been illed wi h hings ha in e es me’. he p incipal componen analysis o his pa is
based on able 1 and shown in ables 2 and 3, Figu es 2 and 3, espec i ely.
in able 2, s.D. is he s anda d de ia ion, P op. o Va iance is he p opo ion o Va iance, and cum.
P op is he cumula i e p opo ion. able 3 shows ha i e p incipal componen s we e ob ained, namely
Pc1-Pc5. each p incipal componen explains he o al a ia ions in he eu opean Wo king condi ions
su ey 2016 da ase o 90a– . he P incipal componen 1 (Pc1) explains 96% o he o al Va iance,
almos 100%. P incipal componen 2 (Pc2) explains 3.1% o he Va iance. i is obse ed ha p opo ion
o a iance o Pc1 is 96.04%, Pc1 and Pc2 gi e a cumula i e P opo ion o (99.2%). i means ha Pc1
and Pc2 explain almos all o he a ia ion in he eu opean Wo king condi ions ela ed o ques ions 90 a– .
he plo shows ha he Pc1 and Pc2 a e su icien o explain he a ia ion in he da a. he e was a
sha p de ia ion om he second componen .
F om able 3, all he a iables ha e a nega i e ela ionship. in Pc1, he a iable ha mainly desc ibed
he wo king o eu opeans is chee ul.gs (−0.44986). all he a iables ha e a nega i e ela ionship. a
wo ke who is no chee ul would no be calm/ elaxed a wo k. such a pe son will no be ac i e and
igo ous. also, a pe son canno wake up eeling esh and es ed due o a bad and un illed day. in Pc2,
‘Ful iled.days’ mainly desc ibed he wo king condi ion. i has a nega i e ela ionship wi h ‘ esh. es ed’,
and ‘calm. elaxed’. i can be in e p e ed ha a wo ke who had a ul illed day does no necessa ily mean
ha hey will be calm and elaxed o wake up eeling e eshed and es ed he ollowing day. Figu e 3
shows he ela ionship among he a iables.
4.1.1. Analysis o esponse o (Q90a–Q90 )
he ques ions Q90a–Q90 helps o de e mine how much ene gy hey pu in o hei wo k, how en husi-
as ic he pa icipan s a e abou hei daily job schedules, how much he wo k gi es hem ime o do
Table 2. P incipal componen analysis o eu opean Wo king Condi ions su ey conduc ed o Q87 a–e
PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5
s.D 2.1913 0.39564 0.19504 0.05829 0.01721
P op. o a iance 0.9604 0.03131 0.00761 0.00068 0.00006
Cum. P op. 0.9604 0.99165 0.99926 0.99994 1.00000
Sou ce: au ho s.
Table 3. P incipal componen analysis o Q 87 a–e.
PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 PC5
Chee ul.gs −0.44986 0.03456 0.42597 −0.21544 0.75403
Calm. elaxed −0.44833 −0.33785 −0.42610 −0.67907 −0.20529
ac i e.Vigo us −0.44858 0.29284 0.57795 −0.02624 −0.61505
F esh. es ed −0.44487 −0.62653 −0.03543 0.63805 −0.03436
Ful iled.days −0.44438 0.63746 −0.54927 0.290942 0.09907
Sou ce: au ho s.
Table 4. Response o (Q90a–Q90c, Q90 ).
scale ene gy en husias ic ime Compe ence
always 1734 (22.2%) 2130 (27.3%) 2116 (27.1) 4256 (54.5%)
Mos o he ime 3815 (48.8%) 3008 (38.5%) 2960 (37.9%) 3001 (38.4%)
some imes 1823 (23.3%) 1830 (23.4%) 2060 (26.4%) 381 (4.9%)
Ra ely 302 (3.9%) 590 (7.6%) 481 (6.2%) 64 (0.8%)
ne e 107 (1.4%) 223 (2.9%) 170 (2.2%) 37 (0.5%)
o al 7684 7781 7787 7739
o al esponse excluded 129 32 26 74
o al esponse expec ed 7813 7813 7813 7813
Sou ce: au ho s.
cOgen BUsiness & ManageMen 7
o he hings hey would no mally wan o do aside wo k, and las ly, how compe en do hey pe cei e
hemsel es o be.
able 4 shows he eu opean Wo king condi ions su ey 2016, ques ions 90a–90c and 90 . se en housand
eigh hund ed and hi een wo ke s (7813) we e included in he su ey as men ioned ea lie . he equencies
and pe cen ages a e p o ided in able 4. he second column in able 4 (ene gy) s ands o Q90a esponses
o he ques ion, ‘− a my wo k, i eel ull o ene gy’. he hi d column in able 4 (en husias ic) s ands o
esponses o Q90b ‘i am en husias ic abou my job’. he ou h column in able 4 ( ime) s ands o answe s
o Q90c ‘ ime lies when i am wo king’. he i h column in able 4 (compe ence) s ands o Q90 esponses
o’– in my opinion, i am good a my job’. he p incipal componen analysis o his sec ion was based on
able 4 and eco ded in ables 5 and 6, Figu es 4 and 5, espec i ely.
in able 5, s.D. is he s anda d de ia ion, P op. o Va iance is he p opo ion o Va iance, and cum.
P op is he cumula i e p opo ion. F om able 5, ou p incipal componen s we e ob ained, namely
Pc1–Pc4. P incipal componen 1 (Pc1) explains 88.8% o he o al a ia ion. P incipal componen 2
(Pc2) explains 10.5% o he Va iance. i is obse ed ha p opo ion o a iance o Pc1 is 88.6%; Pc1
and Pc2 gi e a cumula i e P opo ion o (99.1%). i means ha Pc1 and Pc2 explained almos all o
he a ia ions in he eu opean Wo king condi ions and p o ided o Q90 a– . he sc ee plo is gi en in
Figu e 4.
Figu e 4 u he shows desc ibed wha is ep esen ed in able 6. Pc1 and Pc2 explain he a ia ion in
he da a se .
Figu e 2. sc ee plo s o PCa analysis o Q 87 a–e.
Figu e 3. PCa o eu opean wo king condi ions su ey o Q87a–e. Sou ce: au ho .
