Nicklich, Manuel; Blank, Ma co; P ei e , Sabine
A icle
Realizing decen wo k in a "sandwich" posi ion: Assessing
VET aine s' wo king condi ions in imes o mul iple
ans o ma ions
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Eu opean Resea ch Ne wo k in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET), Eu opean Educa ional
Resea ch Associa ion
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Nicklich, Manuel; Blank, Ma co; P ei e , Sabine (2025) : Realizing decen
wo k in a "sandwich" posi ion: Assessing VET aine s' wo king condi ions in imes o mul iple
ans o ma ions, In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET),
ISSN 2197-8646, Eu opean Resea ch Ne wo k in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET),
Eu opean Educa ional Resea ch Associa ion, B emen, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp. 101-126,
h ps://doi.o g/10.13152/IJRVET.12.1.5
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ISSN: 2197-8646
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Realizing Decen Wo k in a "Sandwich" Posi ion:
Assessing VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions
in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
Manuel Nicklich*, Ma co Blank, Sabine P ei e
FAU E langen – Nü nbe g, Nu embe g Campus o Technology, Chai o Sociology
(Technology – Labo – Socie y), Fü he S aße 246c, 90429 Nü nbe g, Ge many
Recei ed: 30 No embe 2023, Accep ed: 10 June 2024
Abs ac
Con ex : The Ge man oca ional aining and educa ion (VET) sys em is designed o cope
wi h change. Wi hin his sys em, o ganiza ional VET aine s (OVETT) a e he main pe -
sons o e e ence o app en ices in he o ganiza ion, in mos cases o he whole h ee-yea
aining pe iod. Whe he aining can help o ealize o main ain decen wo k also depends
on whe he he aine s hemsel es ha e decen wo king condi ions.
App oach: The empi ical ounda ion o ou analysis o he si ua ion o OVETTs and he
challenges hey ace in ans o ma i e imes is a ecen ly conduc ed s udy. Using a mixed-
me hods esea ch design, consis ing o 28 quali a i e in e iews and an online su ey com-
ple ed by 1,004 o ganiza ional VET aine s, his s udy analyzes he wo king condi ions o
Ge man VET aine s and assesses possible e ec s on decen wo k.
Findings: We show ha al hough he e is a willingness on he pa o OVETTs o handle
change and ans o ma ion, hey a e no su icien ly in ol ed in hei companies' s a egic
decisions. Ou da a shows ha some OVETTs pe cei e hemsel es as being in a po en ially
in luen ial posi ion. Many, howe e , epo ha hey a e only he objec o change ins ead o
pa icipa ing and con ibu ing hei compe encies and opinions. The da a shows he ex en
o which he wo k o oca ional aine s is a ec ed by s ess, con lic ing demands and a lack
o suppo . This is pa icula ly ue o pa - ime aine s who, in addi ion o hei no mal
*Co esponding au ho : manuel[email p o ec ed]
102 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
wo k, a e also esponsible o he success o he app en ices and he en i e VET sys em.
Howe e , he high in insic mo i a ion o aine s enables hem o ul il hei asks and mee
he high expec a ions placed on hem.
Conclusions: A special aspec o his is he "sandwich" posi ion o OVETTs, who ace ans-
o ma i e, socie al demands, and challenges om bo h below (i.e., om he app en ices) and
abo e (i.e., om managemen ). A he same ime, he e is a lack o s uc u al and ope a io-
nal esou ces. O ganiza ional changes expose hem mo e di ec ly o ce ain challenges, bu
do no gi e hem a chance o help shape hei own condi ions. Al hough he VET aine s
a e accus omed o mas e ing di e en equi emen s and in e es s, in ans o ma i e imes
new challenges a ise and in ensi y he al eady hea y bu den on VET pe sonnel. I hese a e
no add essed and VET wo k is no o ganized as decen , his will also jeopa dize he quali y
o he oca ional aining sys em in he medium e m.
Keywo ds: VET, Voca ional Educa ion and T aining, T aine s, Decen Wo k, T ans o ma i-
on, Ge many
1 In oduc ion:O ganiza ionalVETT aine s,T ans o ma ion,
andDecen Wo k
The Ge man oca ional aining and educa ion (VET) sys em is in e na ionally ecognized as a
success ul sys em, no leas because o i s con ibu ion o he ealiza ion o decen wo k. Fo de-
cades, oca ional aining has ensu ed decen wo k o employees (Do e al., 2023; S eeck, 1997):
VET enables long- e m in eg a ion in o he labo ma ke , lays a solid ounda ion o li elong lea -
ning and pe sonal de elopmen , and p o ides secu e and well-paid wo k e en o employees wi-
hou uni e si y deg ees (Bosch, 2018; P ei e , 2016). Al hough he VET sys em is o en seen as a
elic o he "old" economy and he indus ial e a, ime and again i has p o ed o be ans o ma i e
and inno a i e, inco po a ing new subjec s and helping o mode nize wo king li e (Thelen, 2014).
This is also ue in pe iods o mul iple ans o ma ions, as oca ionally ained employees ha e
p o ed o be a esou ce o companies' inno a ion and economic success (Backes-Gellne & Leh-
ne , 2021). On he one hand, his seems o be he case wi hin he digi al ans o ma ion, e.g., in
coping wi h and enabling Indus y 4.0 (P ei e , 2018), o e en in deploying a i icial in elligence
in main enance o people/business analy ics (He mann & P ei e , 2022; P ei e , 2021). On he
o he hand, VET plays an impo an ole wi hin he ecological ans o ma ion (Becke e al., 2022)
and is hus seen as an in eg al pa o Agenda 2030 and i s Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs;
McG a h e al., 2018).
T ans o ma i e dynamics, howe e , unlike "no mal" social change, do also ha e he po-
en ial o endange he ins i u ional condi ions ha enabled hem in he i s place (Polanyi,
103
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
2002; Reißig, 2009) – his is all he mo e ue o an economic sys em ha conside s li ing
labo a cos a he han a esou ce (P ei e , 2021). So, i is by no means sel -e iden ha he
VET sys em, as an enable o ans o ma ion as well as a p oduce o decen wo k, will s ill
be a li ing and unc ioning ins i u ional sys em a he end o hese mul iple ans o ma ions.
Ins i u ional sys ems, howe e , come o li e whe e people b ing hem o li e: No by means o
o mal s uc u es, bu in e e yday ac i i ies on he company le el.
Unlike o he sys ems, Ge man dual educa ion akes place in wo lea ning enues: Schools and
companies. In his con ex , a pa icula ly cen al bu o en unde es ima ed ac o and gua an o
o he VET sys em, and one ha has ecei ed li le a en ion in esea ch, is he aine in he com-
pany (Bahl & Schneide , 2022; Nicklich e al., 2022; o o he coun ies see Ho mann e al., 2014;
Ma e o-Rod íguez & S enda di, 2023).
VET pe sonnel (in Ge man: be iebliches Ausbildungspe sonal) include in-company aine s
bo h wi hin companies and a in e -company aining cen e s. Al hough bo h a e esponsible o
ca ying ou p ac ical aining ac i i ies, we ocus he e on wha we call o ganiza ional VET aine s
(OVETTs), as hey a e he ones who inco po a e he skills needed o cope wi h ans o ma ions
in o he oca ional aining sys em and gi e hem conc e e o m. They a e hus a key de e minan
o whe he he VET sys em can be p ese ed beyond he cu en p ocesses o ans o ma ion and
can con inue o p o ide he condi ions o good and decen wo k in he u u e. The co e subjec o
his a icle is he e o e how ans o ma ion is cu en ly expe ienced and managed by OVETTs in
he Ge man VET sys em. The empi ical indings ha will be p esen ed, howe e , o e mo e han
jus an empi ical look a hese ac o s in he wo kplace. They also open up an empi ical pe spec i e
on he ques ion o how and whe he decen wo k can be p ese ed ac oss ans o ma i e imes.
Figu e 1: Posi ion o O ganiza ional VET T aine s (own sou ce)
104 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
To unde s and he impo ance o OVETTs, a b ie o e iew o he s uc u e o he Ge man
VET sys em is help ul ( igu e 1; he e we ocus only on he main, adi ional o ms o VET;
he e a e also VET p og ams ha a e p ima ily school-based, as well as in e -company ai-
ning cen e s). The Ge man VET sys em consis s o wo, in e wined lea ning enues: a) Vo-
ca ional schools, which impa heo e ical knowledge, and b) companies, whe e app en ices
gain p ac ical and expe ien ial knowledge. Fo mos o he occupa ions in which VET is
o e ed, hese a e h ee-yea p og ams, whose p o iles and cu icula a e subjec o cons an
change. The en i e ins i u ional sys em o oca ional educa ion and aining is egula ed by
law and o ganized in a social pa ne ship. In con as o simila educa ion sys ems in o he
coun ies, school akes up only oughly one hi d o he app en ices' ime, wi h he es o he
ime spen wi hin he companies. Fo he OVETTs, supe ising app en ices is o en only one
aspec o hei job, and hey spend mos o hei ime going abou hei own wo k.
The empi ical ounda ion o ou analysis o he si ua ion o OVETTs and he challenges
hey ace in ans o ma i e imes is a ecen ly conduc ed s udy, in which we ocused on he
si ua ion o OVETTs in he me al and elec ical indus y. The s udy consis s o a mixed-
me hods app oach, comp ising mo e han a housand o ganiza ional VET aine s su eyed
online and 28 quali a i e in e iews.
We will show ha al hough he e is a willingness on he pa o o ganiza ional VET ai-
ne s o handle change and ans o ma ion, hey a e no su icien ly in ol ed in hei com-
panies' s a egic decisions. Ou da a shows ha some o ganiza ional VET aine s pe cei e
hemsel es as being in a po en ially in luen ial posi ion. Many, howe e , epo ha hey a e
only he objec o change ins ead o pa icipa ing and con ibu ing hei compe encies and
opinions. P ac ical knowledge, cul i a ed h ough expe ience wi hin he o ganiza ion, is no
only a coping mechanism o change (Böhle e al., 2004) and a ca ie o ins i u ional legacy
and hus s abili y (Ca ey e al., 2019), bu also an impo an esou ce o gene a ing ans o -
ma ions (P ei e , 2018). As he dual VET sys em elies on he on -line in ol emen o he
OVETTs, his is was ed po en ial in hose o ganiza ions. As oca ional educa ion and ai-
ning plays a c ucial pa in he c ea ion o decen jobs (Do e al., 2023), his has conside able
e ec s on he decen wo k o OVETTs hemsel es, he eby unde mining hei pi o al ole in
gua an eeing decen wo k o o he s.
By examining hese issues, we help o shed ligh on he "sandwich" posi ion o o ganiza-
ional VET aine s and " he in e play be ween o ganiza ional con ex and he ac ions and
in e ac ions among indi iduals" (Vogus & Re up, 2018, p. 228). Using he example o o ga-
niza ional VET aine s, we explo e how he aine s in hese posi ions "engage wi h pe o -
mance p essu es o may eel caugh be ween s ong o ces and wi hou agency" (Gje de &
Al esson, 2020, p. 147). Pa wo i s looks a he ela ionship be ween oca ional aining
and decen wo k, and a he ole o o ganiza ional VET aine s in his con ex . Pa h ee o -
e s a concep ual discussion o he ole o aine s in main aining he company's social o de
105
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
and o hei signi icance o decen wo k in he con ex o ans o ma ion. Pa ou in odu-
ces he me hods and da a o ou mixed-me hods s udy. Pa i e p o ides a b oad a ie y o
da a and esul s o illus a e he s ains and challenges OVETTs expe ience in enabling and
coping wi h he p ocess o ans o ma ion, and he consequences o hei own decen wo k
o hose whose VET aining hey suppo . Finally, pa six discusses he empi ical indings
on aine s, decen wo k, and ans o ma ion in compa ison wi h he concep ual conside a-
ions in he in oduc ion.
2 Voca ionalT ainingandDecen Wo k
The In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO) uses he e m "decen wo k" o encompass
issues o paymen , heal h and sa e y, and social secu i y, bu also aspec s such as co-de e mi-
na ion, pa icipa ion, and laying a ounda ion o decen wo k h ough aining, quali ica ion
and educa ion. Fo he ILO:
Decen wo k sums up he aspi a ions o people in hei wo king li es. I in ol es oppo uni ies o
wo k ha is p oduc i e and deli e s a ai income, secu i y in he wo kplace and social p o ec ion
o all, be e p ospec s o pe sonal de elopmen and social in eg a ion, eedom o people o
exp ess hei conce ns, o ganize and pa icipa e in he decisions ha a ec hei li es and equali y
o oppo uni y and ea men o all women and men. (ILO, 2024, pa a. 1)
The ole o wo k in socie y means ha hese aspec s ha e p o ound implica ions o he li es
o indi iduals, o ganiza ions and socie y (Blus ein e al., 2023). Decen wo k is closely ela ed
o o ganiza ional clima e and also o men al heal h (Ruzungunde e al., 2023). Fundamen al
p inciples and alues a wo k, as well as app op ia e wo king hou s and wo kload, a e es-
sen ial dimensions o decen wo k and ha e a signi ican nega i e co ela ion wi h bu nou
(Dinis e al., 2024). A ecen me a-analysis o 48 s udies on decen wo k iden i ies job and
li e sa is ac ion as especially impo an o decen wo k (Nou a kan & Tano a, 2023). Bu
al hough he e a e some s udies on he dimensions o decen wo k o app en ices (e.g., Zam-
belli e al., 2024), he wo king condi ions o OVETTs ha e a ely been he ocus o empi ical
s udies o da e.
Al hough he policy le el – i.e., he poli ical egula ion o wo k – is c ucial o he ques i-
on o decen wo k, di e en le els need o be aken in o accoun , as "o ganiza ions a e spaces
and places o wo k" (Delb idge & Sallaz, 2015, p. 1449). This means ha he company le el is
cen al o looking a aspec s o decen wo k – hough he in e dependence o he di e en
le els should no be o e looked. Voca ional aining and app en iceships a e embedded in a
sys em o socioeconomic ins i u ions (Busemeye & T ampusch, 2012). Fo example, he e
is a close connec ion o collec i e ag eemen s. These ins i u ions suppo and ein o ce each
o he h ough mu ual e e encing (Busemeye & I e sen, 2012; S eeck, 1991). Al hough i
106 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
seems o be a limi a ion o companies due o he ins i u ional se ing, he aining sys em
leads o economic success; he in e na ional success o Ge man companies is based no leas
on he quali ica ions o skilled wo ke s (S eeck, 1991, 1997). Acco dingly, companies a e
willing o pay highe wages and o in es in he quali ica ions o hei employees. This hen
ul ima ely pays o in economic bene i s, in acco dance wi h he concep o "bene icial cons-
ain s". Con e sely, his also goes hand in hand wi h a ela i ely highe le el o decen wo k
o employees. In his con ex , oca ional educa ion is conside ed a p e equisi e o decen
wo k (ILO, 2017), bu wha is he p e equisi e o good oca ional educa ion?
A cen al building block o his is ce ainly he OVETTs (Nicklich e al., 2022). The
OVETTs pe o m a cen al social ask by p epa ing young people o u u e wo king li e and
he possibili y o decen wo k (Bae hge e al., 1980). Due o he dual na u e o he sys em,
he aim is o build skills ha can be used by employees beyond he conc e e lea ning en i-
onmen . Hence he OVETTs' ask is also o build up a ce ain au onomy and independence
among employees. This is he ounda ion needed o secu e access o decen wo k. While
i migh seem a i s glance ha he in e es s o he company and OVETTs a e aligned, i
canno necessa ily be assumed ha his is he case (Bae hge e al., 1980). Howe e , OVETTs
a e indispensable in he implemen a ion o in-company aining, and he complexi y o he
cons ella ion o in e es s mus be aken in o accoun when i comes o examining he impac
on decen wo k (Gahan & Peka ek, 2013). This can be a ibu ed o he ac ha – in con as
o pu ely school-based aining – economic de elopmen and he company's ma ke posi ion
and wo k o ganiza ion play a ole in he design o he aining (Bae hge e al., 1980). Voca io-
nal aining is also a special esou ce o inno a ion as he basis o decen wo k and o so-
cial pa icipa ion. The Ge man sys em o dual oca ional educa ion and aining has p o en
i s wo h in secu ing his o companies and employees in he long e m – p ecisely because
o i s ins i u ionalized p ocesses o nego ia ing he necessa y con en . To da e, OVETTs ha e
played a cen al ole in b inging dual aining wi hin companies o li e and hus made an
impo an con ibu ion o ensu ing decen wo k (Do e al., 2023). Ye his ied and es ed
app oach aces new challenges in ans o ma i e imes.
3 T ans o ma ionsand heO ganiza ionalPosi iono OVETTs
Di e se changes may unde mine hese cons ella ions and powe ela ionships and he eby
a ec he condi ions o decen wo k. Baumga ne , o example, emphasizes ha new wo k
and o ganiza ional concep s in he la e 1980s signi ican ly changed he equi emen s o in-
company lea ning. This has led o discussions and assump ions abou new, changed oles
o OVETTs. Thus, he si ua ion as a whole has become mo e complex, and employees ha e
o cope wi h no el and unp edic able p oblems independen ly, as well as shaping lea ning
107
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
condi ions (Baumga ne , 2015). Agains he backd op o mul iple uphea als and ans o -
ma ions, he cons ella ion seems inc easingly complex (see also pa 5).
Howe e , hese ans o ma ional changes a e usually media ed by he condi ions in he
o ganiza ions. Ins i u ional sys ems come o li e whe e people b ing hem o li e – no by
means o o mal s uc u es, bu in e e yday ac i i ies on he company le el. This includes
ans o ma ions ha a ec he company's social ela ions. This means ha he ex en o
which decen wo k is ealized – o and h ough he ac i i ies o OVETTs – depends no
leas on he cons ella ion o ela ionships and he posi ion o he aine s. To concep ualize
his, we d aw on he no ion o a company's social o de (be iebliche Sozialo dnung), which
ocuses on he company as a social space (Ko ho , 2023, 2005). The app oach add esses he
undamen als o social in eg a ion in o he company, which goes beyond he o mal bond o
he employmen con ac . He e he concep has links o ecogni ion heo y and emphasizes
ha , in addi ion o emune a ion, app ecia ion a wo k also plays a cen al ole. The idea is
ha e en in s ic wo k con ex s, a ce ain deg ee o olun a iness on he pa o he subjec s
is necessa y o he wo k o be pe o med. In his con ex , conside a ion is gi en o in e ac-
ions, no ms, and comp omises ha enable o hinde social in eg a ion. I is a ques ion o he
ela ionship wi hin which powe is exe cised (Ko ho , 2005).
The concep o he company's social o de is conce ned wi h he encoun e s o subjec s
in sea ch o mu ual ecogni ion. This is no abou an indi idual exchange, bu a he abou
collec i e pa e ns o in e p e a ion and no ms o ecip oci y ha a ec he en i e company
– e en i hey a e only ela ed o subg oups wi hin i . In addi ion o he pe o mance egime,
managemen p ac ice, and ins i u ionalized ep esen a ion o in e es s, he company's social
o de encompasses issues o employmen and HR policy, including ques ions o oca ional
aining. The concep wo ks on he assump ion ha he company is a social en i y in which
a bi a y subjec s a e in eg a ed, and ha ce ain oles go hand in hand wi h pa icula iden-
i ies. I is abou mu ual ecogni ion, and he es ablishmen o coope a ion, consensus bu
also con lic , and oppo unism (Ko ho , 2005). Di e en s udies ha e he e o e c ea ed y-
pologies o speci ic company social o de s.
The posi ion o OVETTs in his company social o de is usually no explici ly add essed
in his con ex . When we do begin o explo e hese ques ions, we ind s uc u al pa allels o
middle managemen . Like middle managemen , OVETTs a e si ua ed in he "sandwiched
middle". O en s udies do no ake in o accoun his speci ic posi ion:
Only a ew s udies (…) ake an in-dep h case app oach o his middle-le elness and ouch upon he
Janus- aced aspec s o his expe ience. Jus like he ancien Roman god Janus, who had wo aces,
allowing him o ace wo opposi e ways a once, middle manage s ha e o ace wo di ec ions and
deal wi h bo h supe io s and subo dina es. (Gje de & Al esson, 2020, p. 129)
108 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
Bu i is p ecisely his "sandwiched" posi ion ha we need o ake in o accoun when exami-
ning he posi ion o OVETTs in ela ion o app en ices and highe -le el managemen .
Like OVETTs, middle managemen has a special posi ion wi hin he company hie a chy
be ween he ope a ing co e on he on line/shop loo and he op managemen (Gje de &
Al esson, 2020; Ha ding e al., 2014). In his con ex , he ole can be seen as a media ing o
b idging one in ela ion o senio managemen and junio s a (Ha ding e al., 2014). Mills
al eady e e ed o hese ea u es in his wo k on whi e colla wo ke s in he 1950s (Mills,
1956). In pa icula , his commen s on o emen allow compa ison wi h OVETTs. Because
o hei posi ion – as e y close o he ope a ional business – hey a e a ec ed in a speci ic
way by echnical and o ganiza ional changes. As a esul , ecogni ion and asks change qui e
subs an ially (Mills, 1956, p. 88). As in he case o mo e gene al discussions on middle ma-
nagemen , which ocus on di e en o ms o knowledge associa ed wi h he middle posi ion
(Delmes i & Walgenbach, 2005), Mills emphasizes he expe iences o o emen, who come
unde p essu e du ing o ganiza ional o echnical changes: "The old unc ions o he o emen
a e no longe embodied in any one man's expe ience bu in a eam and in a ule book" (Mills
1956, p. 88). So e en in he 1950s, he ans e o knowledge and ins i u ional g ounding was
a cen al issue o his posi ion.
Exis ing s udies ha add ess he ole o middle manage s in ela ion o employee in-
ol emen also deal wi h impo an aspec s ha a ec he company's social o de (Fen on-
O'C ee y, 1998; Floyd & Woold idge, 1992). These s udies emphasize ha bo h he ex en
o employee in ol emen and he ole o middle manage s depend on he coo dina ion o
di e en o ganiza ional p ocesses. S udies ha e clea ly shown ha a lack o clea commu-
nica ion and anspa ency abou he consequences o change, o he ailu e o make neces-
sa y changes in o ganiza ional p ocesses, esul in esis ance a middle managemen le el
(Fen on-O'C ee y, 1998). S udies also ocus on he in ol emen o middle manage s in s a-
egic p ocesses, in pa icula on he in e ela ionship be ween op and middle managemen
in s a egy o mula ion and in ac ual implemen a ion (Floyd & Woold idge, 1992). In bo h
cases, o ganiza ional cons ella ions a e emphasized, hus indi ec ly e e ing o he co po a e
social o de . Howe e , i emains o be seen o wha ex en his posi ion b ings oppo uni ies
o ac ion o makes agency possible. This di e s signi ican ly acco ding o he o ganiza ional
cons ella ion:
We ind he middle manage as supe io , who iden i ies upwa ds and wi h being a leade , who
wan s o imp o e pe o mance and uphold p essu e, and who expe iences he agency o do so. Bu
we also ind a head who simply eels s/he is one o he middle people in he hie a chy, caugh in
he chain o command, unable o do much p o ec ion, and o ced o inclined o ollow he p essu e
om abo e and om wi hin he p o ession. And hi d, we ind heads who see hemsel es as um-
b ella p o ec o s, aking he side o subo dina es, in pa icula junio people, and who iden i y as
'middle down-up' people wi h agency o in luence and engage in p o ec ion. (Gje de & Al esson,
2020, p. 140)
115
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
Figu e 5: Impo ance o VET T aine s due o
Technical Changes in Educa ion (own sou ce, n=760)
Ul ima ely, hey a e con iden abou hei posi ion in he company and see hei own ole
as ha ing a clea u u e. None heless, 18 pe cen belie e ha hei wo k as a aine will
become less impo an in he u u e. This igu e ises o 25 pe cen (ag ee and somewha
ag ee) in mo e digi alized companies and alls o nine pe cen in less digi alized compa-
nies. Whe e mo e change is expe ienced and he po en ial o echnology is mo e isible,
his po en ial seems o be assessed di e en ly. In some cases, aine s ha e al eady become
awa e ha o he s in he company conside aining o be less ele an du ing change. These
igu es a leas sugges ha whe e mo e change has aken place in ecen yea s, he e is mo e
unce ain y o e all wi h ega d o he ole and impo ance o OVETTs. The ep esen a i e o
a business associa ion (Un e nehmens e band) sha es an obse a ion:
I also belie e ha in educa ion, one can see a shi , in which he aining s a ake on mo e o a
mode a ing and coaching ole, no jus he ins uc i e and explana o y one, hough su e, elemen s
o ha will s ill pe sis . Bu he e is oom o a change in oles. As I men ioned ea lie , young people
a e e y open-minded, e en owa ds hese new opics, hese new echnologies. So, he e's po en ial
o ole shi s, wi h app en ices eaching each o he while he aine (Meis e ) p ima ily mode-
a es, [as well as po en ial] o new o ms o educa ion, new eaching me hods, and a di e en
se ing. (UV_5_76_13)
Howe e , despi e hei willingness o ac as "umb ella p o ec o s" (Gje de & Al esson, 2020)
and he gene al openness on issues o mo i a ion, he OVETTs a e s ill dependen employees
and a e in eg a ed in o o ganiza ional con ex s – wi h hei company's social o de and ela-
ed esou ces.
116 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
5.3 Con adic o yDemandsandDecen Wo k o O ganiza ionalVET
T aine s
Despi e hei gene al con idence in hei ole, an examina ion o he OVETTs' wo king con-
di ions shows ha con adic o y demands caused by di e en oles and he esul ing "sand-
wich" posi ion in he company b ing di e en bu dens. An ob ious exp ession o his posi ion
is he con lic ing eques s made o OVETTs. Wi h ega d o wo king condi ions, i is clea
ha con adic o y equi emen s as a consequence o di e en oles in he company esul in
s ess. This is he case, o example, when o he asks ha e o be pe o med in addi ion o he
ac ual aining ac i i ies.
Figu e 6: Con adic o y Requi emen s (own sou ce, n=949)
This ul ima ely leads o o e ime, emo ional s ain, and a highe in ensi y o wo k. Fo in-
s ance, 58 pe cen o esponden s ag ee ha con lic ing demands lead o o e ime o ex a
wo k. This becomes e en clea e wi h ega d o emo ional s ess and a highe in ensi y o
wo k, which a e expe ienced by 70 pe cen and 86 pe cen espec i ely. Gi en hese con-
adic o y demands, one o ganiza ional VET aine s a es: "I hink i 's mo e he case ha
he equi emen s in p oduc ion a e mo e in he o eg ound when he going eally ge s ough"
(HA_5_49_23). A such imes oca ional aining ac i i ies a e subo dina ed o o he equi-
emen s o mula ed by he o ganiza ion/o he o ganiza ional equi emen s.
These con lic ing demands no only a ec indi idual wo king condi ions, bu also ha e
a di ec impac on he design o aining, since a balanced ela ionship be ween aining
and o he ac i i ies ul ima ely also se es o main ain quali y in aining. In line wi h his,
45 pe cen o esponden s e y o en o o en ha e o comp omise on he quali y o edu-
ca ion in o de o econcile con lic ing equi emen s ( igu e 7). This is a p oblem no only
117
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
om he pe spec i e o he OVETTs, bu also om ha o he company and – e en mo e
so – om ha o he young people unde going oca ional aining. I s ess equen ly leads
o an impai ed quali y o aining, he OVETTs' ole as gua an o s o decen wo k has o be
ques ioned. A he e y leas , hei own decen wo k is clea ly endange ed. As a wo ks council
membe pu s i :
Because he pe o mance p essu e on people, o – no only pe o mance p essu e bu p essu e on
people has inc eased in gene al. And i 's a ela i ely simple calcula ion: I ha e a ce ain amoun
o wo king ime a ailable, and I ha e my asks in on o me; i I add asks bu he wo king ime
emains he same, some hing will su e as a esul . (BR_8_38_2)
Figu e 7: Quali y o T aining (own sou ce, n=999)
And a look a he co ela ions also shows he ollowing: I he e a e con adic o y de-
mands, his esul s in highe wo k in ensi y, emo ional s ess, and ex a wo k/o e ime.
In addi ion, i shows ha when con lic is p esen , he pe cei ed alue o he aining
ac i i y is also nega i ely a ec ed.
Howe e , i is no only he ac ual wo k si ua ion o he OVETTs ha needs o be
aken in o accoun . Because o hei po en ially cen al posi ion in he ans o ma i e
p ocesses, ques ions abou hei in ol emen in decision-making – and hus hei ela i-
onship o highe -le el managemen – mus also be asked. Al hough di ec pa icipa ion
and in luence on wo king condi ions is o mula ed as a cen al pilla o decen wo k, we
see ha in ol emen in decisions ele an o oca ional aining is p oblema ic om he
OVETTs' poin o iew. The same goes o he in o ma ion p o ided o aine s by hei
companies. Fo example, a ound 50 pe cen o esponden s a e nei he in o med in ime
abou decisions, changes, o plans conce ning ans o ma i e p ocesses, no a e hey
in ol ed in hem. This is a ibu ed o he ac ha he ques ion o educa ion is subjec ed
118 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
o economic logic, and ha aine s a e no a signi ican ac o in his equa ion. An AFK
explains:
E e y company has o wa ch i s budge , bu i you wan o de elop educa ion e ec i ely and s ay
u u e-o ien ed, i 's impossible wi hou in es men . Tha 's wha I' e missed all hese yea s he e.
The e is ac ually a end owa ds change now because I pe sonally ha e s ongly ad oca ed o
i . And ha 's indi ec ly ela ed o app ecia ion. When employees who ha e been doing hei job
o so long aise conce ns and eques ac ion, and no hing happens o yea s, i 's a clea sign: The
compe ence and a i ude o hese employees a e no being alued. (AFK_10_53_25)
Figu e 8: In ol emen o O ganiza ional VET T aine s (own sou ce, n=755)
Howe e , pe cep ions o he weigh ca ied by aine s' opinions di e acco ding o he ac-
o s. While 86 pe cen o he ins uc o s s ill say ha hey eel ha hei opinion has weigh
wi hin hei own eam, his ag eemen d ops wi h ega d o o he ac o s. Only hal (50 pe -
cen ) o he aine s hink ha hei opinion is ele an o managemen , and less han hal
o he su ey pa icipan s belie e ha hei opinion ma e s o indus y associa ions (45 pe -
cen ), ade unions (40 pe cen ), and ex e nal aining p o ide s (27 pe cen ). The e is a
di e ence no only in he amoun o app ecia ion shown, bu also in he ways app ecia ion
migh be exp essed:
He e, he e a e wo pe spec i es o conside . F om he s andpoin o he colleagues, o en he
ole o he aine holds a highly ega ded posi ion wi hin he company. F om he managemen 's
iewpoin , i 's o en seen as i he willingness o in es in aining is equi alen o, o implies being
equi alen o, he le el o app ecia ion om he company's leade ship o managemen . (…) In his
case, he lack o in es men o ejec ed eques s o aining is essen ially equa ed wi h he le el
o app ecia ion. Howe e , among colleagues, I mus say, and his is mani es ed du ing con e sa-
ions, aine s a e highly ega ded. Some e en say: 'Look, I lea ned om him, he ained me.' Tha
c ea es, I would say, a genuinely posi i e ela ionship among some colleagues. (BE_8_61_1)
119
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
Figu e 9: Opinion Ca ies Weigh (own sou ce, n=764)
The ques ion o e icacy is also closely linked o he eeling o being app ecia ed. This ap-
p ecia ion is exp essed no leas in inancial e ms. Howe e , while mo e han 85 pe cen o
esponden s belie e ha hei aining ac i i ies should be addi ionally emune a ed, only a
small p opo ion o esponden s ecei e such emune a ion. In addi ion o compensa ion,
o he ac o s play a ole in app ecia ion, as con i med by he s a emen o a aine : "The
g ea es app ecia ion is no in he hank-you, bu in he measu es o u he imp o emen . Yes?
When you ge oge he and a e hea d, hen you eel alued" (AFK_5_193_1). I is he e o e
clea ha one way o make OVETTs eel alued is o in ol e hem in decisions abou aining.
This means ha oppo uni ies o co-de e mina ion can be unde s ood as an exp ession o
app ecia ion.
The ques ion abou app ecia ion once again con i ms he close ela ionship be ween
OVETTs and app en ices desc ibed abo e: 95 pe cen o he aine s eel ha hei wo k is
app ecia ed by he app en ices. 70 pe cen eel app ecia ed by he company in gene al, bu i
is s iking ha his is 25 pe cen age poin s lowe han in he case o he app en ices.
120 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
Figu e 10: App ecia ion o T aining Ac i i y Wi hin he O ganiza ion (own sou ce, n=755)
A skilled wo ke who p o ides aining exp esses his as ollows:
O hose you ain, o le 's say when you do a aining cou se, also design enginee s, many say
hank you, o , i was good, o some hing like ha so you ge ha so o eedback. You ge less
eedback om app en ices han om designe s o d a smen who a e al eady in he p o ession.
And om ... well, om he supe iso o om he aining supe iso , no. You don' eally ge any
eedback o any o icial app ecia ion o hanks o doing his. (AFK_13_95_1)
This lack o eedback in he o ganiza ion is hen also exp essed in he ac ha abou one
hi d o he aine s do no eel ha hey a e aken se iously when hey make sugges ions.
The use o acquisi ion o expe ience and esou ces on he pa o he OVETTs is seen by
a ious ac o s as cen al o dealing wi h mul iple ans o ma ions and main aining decen
wo k. Bu while we ha e al eady add essed he consequences o he quali y o aining, we
ha e no ye conside ed he consequences o aine s and hei commi men o he aining
sys em. The da a show ha he inc easing demands placed on aine s cons i u e a unda-
men al challenge o hei commi men o aining. This means ha commi men i sel ap-
pea s o be a u u e challenge. I seems ha mo i a ion can be a agile esou ce, and ha
companies should no ely on he ac ha he e a e always enough people commi ed o
aining o idealis ic easons. Howe e , mo i a ion is a ec ed no only by app ecia ion a
company le el, bu also by socie y's pe cep ions o aining and aine s – and o cou se
mone a y incen i es. A p esen , howe e , he OVETTs seem o be seen as a g oup a ec ed
by changes a he han as an en i y capable o shaping he eme ging ans o ma ions. This is
mo e han jus was ed po en ial – i also leads o a di ec loss o u u e po en ial (Böhle e al.,
2004) and e en es ic s he accumula ion o u u e expe ience due o a lack o pa icipa ion
by VET aine s and app en ices alike. As a wo ks council membe sums i up:
121
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
I belie e he e a e many c ea i e ways in which aining could be imp o ed in ligh o digi ali-
za ion, bu he e's o en a lack o esou ces, in e ms o ei he ime o inances. (…) When I look
a o he aine s, hey wan o imp o e bu can' because hey don' ecei e he commi men o
suppo hey need. (BR_7_20_10)
6 DiscussionandOu look
Despi e a quan i a i e decline and some se ious challenges (Thelen, 2007), VET is s ill consi-
de ed a special model o ealizing decen wo k and an impo an ac o o social mobili y,
in eg a ion, and inno a ion. A key pilla is he company as a lea ning enue and he g oup
esponsible o p o iding aining, he OVETTs. This is one o he easons why i is impo an
o ake a look a his g oup, since hey play a cen al ole in ensu ing decen wo k. Despi e
i s impo ance, his g oup is a blind spo in exis ing esea ch, whe e s udies on hose es-
ponsible o he day- o-day implemen a ion and ope a ional o ganiza ion o dual aining in
he wo kplace is in equen and agmen a y (Bahl & Schneide , 2022; Baumga ne , 2015).
The quan i a i e and quali a i e su ey we conduc ed e ealed a conside able inc ease in he
demands imposed on aine s in he cou se o ans o ma ion. A special aspec o his is he
"sandwich" posi ion o OVETTs, who ace ans o ma i e, socie al demands, and challenges
om bo h below (i.e., om he app en ices) and abo e (i.e., om managemen ). A he same
ime, he e is a lack o s uc u al and ope a ional esou ces. O ganiza ional changes expose
hem mo e di ec ly o ce ain challenges, bu do no gi e hem a chance o help shape hei
own condi ions.
Ou s udy shows wha happens when he oles iden i ied in he middle posi ion con lic
(Ha ding e al., 2014), i.e., when he equi emen s o a "pe o mance d i e " con lic wi h
hose o he "umb ella p o ec o " (Gje de & Al esson, 2020). This ques ion o he subjec po-
si ion canno be sepa a ed om he ques ion o he company's social o de (Ko ho , 2005)
and he posi ion ha he o ganiza ional VET aine s occupy he e. In his con ex , he con-
di ions o hei own wo k and he associa ed scope o ac ion a e cen al. Consequen ly, ou
s udy can poin ou some aspec s in which he ac i i ies o OVETTs a e a ec ed by s ess,
con adic o y demands, and a lack o suppo . While some o he aspec s canno be ac i ely
in luenced by he OVETTs, hey con inue o ul il hei asks due o high in insic mo i a ion,
he high expec a ions he app en ices ha e o hem, and he suppo o he colleagues in hei
eam, who compensa e o some o he ensions and help o minimize any educ ion in he
quali y o aining. Ne e heless, he aining sys em a he company le el is main ained o
a la ge ex en by he commi men o he aining s a . In ac , his commi men has been
shown o ca y o wa d an ins i u ional legacy (Ca ey e al., 2019), leading o ins i u ional
s abili y o an ins i u ion unde ans o ma ional p essu e. The p esen s udy hus aligns
wi h p e ious li e a u e emphasizing he ole o speci ic g oups and hei posi ion in he
122 VET T aine s' Wo king Condi ions in Times o Mul iple T ans o ma ions
main enance o change o ins i u ions (Muzio e al., 2013; Nicklich & Fo wengel, 2017).
Abo e all, i shows ha he ole o OVETTs goes beyond he middle-manage "dissemina o "
posi ion iden i ied by Min zbe g (1973). Ul ima ely, decen wo k o OVETTs is inc easingly
jeopa dized. Unde hese ci cums ances, he ques ion ha a ises is whe he spaces o 'decen
wo k' can be main ained and ex ended by OVETTs as gua an o s o decen wo k o o he s.
Ou pape he e o e con ibu es o he deba es on he condi ions o decen wo k in se e-
al espec s. On he one hand – speci ic o he ins i u ional con ex – we examine he pi o al
posi ion o OVETTs ega ding he es ablishmen o decen wo k. On he o he hand, we
show how he ambi alen ole o a social g oup in an o ganiza ion can in luence he design o
decen wo k. In pa icula , his ies in wi h he idea ha "ope a ional ac i i y on he on line
is s a egic" (Vogus & Re up, 2018, p. 227). Thus, om an empi ical basis, he pape p o ides
concep ual answe s o he ques ion o whe he and how decen wo k can be sus ained in and
beyond ans o ma i e dynamics.
The s udy's na ow ocus on he me al and elec ical indus y can be seen as a limi a ion.
Fu u e esea ch mus also examine he p esen indings in di e en con ex s. Howe e , he
ac ha he s udy was ca ied ou du ing o sho ly a e he COVID pandemic mus also
be e lec ed upon and aken in o accoun wi h a iew o u u e ans o ma ions. P ecisely
because such changes a e beyond he con ol o OVETTs, he way hey a e handled mus
con inue o be discussed and examined. Ancho ing new equi emen s in he mode nized
cu icula o he en y equi emen s o wo k as an OVETT is one way o pa ially mi iga e
he p essu e o ans o m. App op ia e esou ces mus also be p o ided a he o ganiza io-
nal le el o ensu e he de elopmen and implemen a ion o new eaching me hods and he
c ea ion o app op ia e eaching and aining ma e ials. This howe e mus be kep in mind.
Howe e , we ha e made i clea ha in o de o ealize decen wo k unde hese condi ions,
he posi ion o OVETTs mus be aken se iously.
Acknowledgemen
We hank ou esponden s o aking he ime o pa icipa e in his s udy. Fu he mo e, we
wish o hank Susanne Pe e s o he edi o ial guidance and he wo anonymous e iew-
e s o hei help ul commen s. We also wan o hank con eno s and discussan s ST65 a
EGOS 2023, which ha e p o ided help ul eedback on an ea lie e sion o he manusc ip .
This wo k was suppo ed by he Deu sche Fo schungsgemeinscha (DFG, Ge man Resea ch
Founda ion) – p ojec numbe 442171541 and he IG Me all. Mo eo e , we would like o
hank Lilian Za ga alebi and Alice Ka as well as ex wo ks o hei suppo du ing he
p epa a ion o he manusc ip .
123
Nicklich, Blank, P ei e
E hicsS a emen
We con i m ha his manusc ip has no been p e iously published. We ha e app o ed he
con en o his pape and ha e ag eed o he IJRVET submission policies. To he bes o ou
knowledge, he au ho s ha e no con lic o in e es , inancial o o he wise.
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