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Su iciency as ela ions o enoughness
Sus ainable De elopmen
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De elopmen , ISSN 1099-1719, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Chiches e , UK, Vol. 32, Iss. 6, pp. 7201-7214,
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Su iciency as ela ions o enoughness
E ic Ha mann
Leuphana Uni e si y Lünebu g; Facul y o
Sus ainabili y, Ins i u e o Sus ainabili y
Go e nance, Lünebu g, Ge many
Co espondence
E ic Ha mann, Leuphana Uni e si y Lünebu g;
Facul y o Sus ainabili y, Ins i u e o
Sus ainabili y Go e nance; Uni e si ä sallee
1, 21335 Lünebu g, Ge many.
Email: e ic.ha [email protected]
Abs ac
An expanding body o li e a u e discusses he impo ance o su iciency o sus ain-
able de elopmen . Howe e , concep ual agueness s ands in he way o he p ac ical
applica ion o su iciency as a sus ainabili y s a egy. The main con ibu ion o his
pape is he in oduc ion o he concep o ela ions o enoughness, building on he
gene al no ion o ‘enough’, which is p e alen in su iciency li e a u e. Rela ions o
enoughness will be explained based on he widesp ead use o su iciency ad oca ing
o changes and educ ions o indi idual consump ion wi h he goal o educe en i-
onmen al impac s such as ca bon dioxide emissions. Di e se uses and unde s and-
ings o su iciency can be uni ed in a sha ed s uc u e o ‘enough/ oo much/ oo li le
o X ega ding Y’. Rela ions o enoughness can be connec ed o sus ainabili y by
expanding hem in o chains o enoughness, which se e as a concep ual ounda ion
o he sus ainable consump ion co ido app oach. Finally, he p emises o su i-
ciency and po en ial o u he esea ch a e discussed.
KEYWORDS
ecological limi s, enough, human needs, ela ion, su iciency, sus ainabili y s a egy, sus ainable
consump ion
1|INTRODUCTION
Sus ainable de elopmen has been an ongoing in e na ional mission
o mo e han 30 yea s. S a ing wi h he B und land Repo
(WCED, 1987) and he Ea h Summi in Rio de Janei o in 1992, social
and en i onmen al challenges o mode n imes such as po e y,
heal h, educa ion, clima e change and biodi e si y loss ha e been
combined in o a join pe spec i e, bo h in science and p ac ice. In
2015, his join pe spec i e inspi ed he o mula ion o he ambi ious
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) o he Uni ed Na ions
(UNGA, 2015), p o iding a p omising in e na ional amewo k o
ackling p essing sus ainabili y challenges. Howe e , 9 yea s la e , he
in e im conclusion is de as a ing. A ecen SDG epo (DESA, 2023)
s a es ha
I is ime o sound he ala m. […] An assessmen o he
a ound 140 a ge s o which end da a is a ailable
shows ha abou hal o hese a ge s a e mode a ely
o se e ely o ack; and o e 30 pe cen ha e ei he
seen no mo emen o eg essed below he 2015 base-
line. (DESA, 2023,p.4)
The Agenda 2030 as he cu en amewo k o sus ainable de elop-
men is h ea ening o ail. C i iques a gue ha he hegemonic pa a-
digm o g een g ow h is esponsible o insu icien achie emen s in
sus ainable de elopmen (Hickel & Kallis, 2020). G een g ow h pu -
sues o educe en i onmen al impac s such as g eenhouse gas emis-
sions while con inuing economic g ow h, he e o e main aining and
e en expanding p oduc ion and indi idual consump ion. This shall be
eached by absolu ely decoupling economic ac i i ies om en i on-
men al impac s h ough he use o inno a ion, echnology and eco-
e iciency. Howe e , empi ical e idence sugges s ha i is unlikely
ha absolu e decoupling will happen s ong and as enough o ackle
ecen sus ainabili y c ises adequa ely (ibid.; Vadén e al., 2020;
Recei ed: 22 Feb ua y 2024 Re ised: 3 June 2024 Accep ed: 4 June 2024
DOI: 10.1002/sd.3090
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Sus ainable De elopmen published by ERP En i onmen and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Sus ainable De elopmen . 2024;32:7201–7214. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/sd 7201
Habe l e al., 2020). As a esul , al e na i e pe spec i es on sus ain-
able de elopmen a e s eng hened, s essing he necessi y o limi
economic g ow h and indi idual consump ion in he global no h
(Schmelze & Ve e , 2021).
In his con ex , su iciency as a sus ainabili y s a egy beyond e i-
ciency and consis ency ecei es inc easing a en ion as a p omising
con ende o ackling sus ainabili y c ises mo e adequa ely (Jungell-
Michelsson & Heikku inen, 2022). While he e is an expanding body
o scien i ic li e a u e ocusing on su iciency, he e is a a ie y o di -
e en uses o he e m wi h s ongly di e ging con en (ibid.;
Spengle , 2016; Lage, 2022), which is due o a lack o concep ual wo k
on i s na u e. Spengle (2016) s a es ha su iciency as a concep o
sus ainabili y sciences is a he unde heo ized. The agueness and
lack o concep ual uni y a e summa ized well in a ecen sys ema ic
li e a u e e iew:
[Su iciency] is concep ualized as an idea, p og amme,
doc ine, ision, wo ld iew, pa adigm, way o li ing,
and s a egy—among o he s. (Jungell-Michelsson &
Heikku inen, 2022,p.3)
This s a emen demons a es ha he uses o su iciency di e d as i-
cally. The au ho s iden i y a widesp ead, gene al no ion o ‘enough’in
su iciency li e a u e and u he analyse sha ed p emises: (1) he
complemen a i y o na u al and manu ac u ed capi al, (2) he neces-
si y o slow down he social me abolism, and (3) he exis ence o al u-
is ic elemen s (Jungell-Michelsson & Heikku inen, 2022). While his
summa y is an impo an con ibu ion, i s ill doesn' p o ide a concise
concep o su iciency. Especially he sha ed no ion o ‘enough’iden-
i ied by he au ho s is no u he in es iga ed. Since su iciency
aspi es o accele a e he lack o p og ess in sus ainable de elopmen ,
he p esen concep ual agueness is no accep able. Adequa e p ac i-
cal applica ion on p essing sus ainabili y challenges is ha dly possible
wi hou concep ual cla i y (Schepelmann, 2023). How should su i-
ciency be e ec i ely implemen ed i i s meaning emains unclea ?
The concep ual agueness o su iciency and he unde lying
no ion o ‘enough’mo i a es he esea ch ques ions o his pape :
How can he gene al no ion o ‘enough’p e alen in su iciency li e -
a u e be adequa ely concep ualized? How can di e en uses o su i-
ciency be sys ema ically s uc u ed and uni ed? To answe hese
ques ions, he pape s a s wi h a sho o e iew o he ele an su i-
ciency li e a u e (Sec ion 2). Recen li e a u e e iews and insigh ul
concep ual wo k will be used o dis inguish ou unde s andings o
su iciency. Based on his ecapi ula ion o he deba e, he concep o
ela ions o enoughness will be in oduced, which is he main con ibu-
ion o his pape (Sec ion 3). Rela ions o enoughness econcep ualize
he gene al ye ague no ion o ‘enough’p e alen in su iciency li e -
a u e, building on he wo k o P incen (2005) and Spengle (2016). As
an example, su iciency unde s ood as he educ ion and change o
indi idual consump ion wi h he goal o educe ca bon dioxide emis-
sions is econcep ualized as a ela ion o enoughness (Sec ion 3.1). A
cen al hesis o his pape is ha he a ie y o di e en uses o su i-
ciency can be sys ema ically s uc u ed and uni ed by he concep o
ela ions o enoughness (Sec ion 3.2). Fu he mo e, i shows how su -
iciency is connec ed o sus ainabili y, expanding single ela ions in o
chains o enoughness (Sec ion 3.3), building a concep ual ounda ion
o he sus ainable consump ion co ido app oach (Di Giulio &
Fuchs, 2014). Finally, he pape concludes wi h a discussion o con i-
bu ions, p emises o su iciency, limi a ions, and possibili ies o u -
he esea ch.
2|SUFFICIENCY IN CURRENT
LITERATURE
Recen ly, he e ha e been se e al li e a u e e iews (Jungell-
Michelsson & Heikku inen, 2022; Lage, 2022; Niessen & Bocken,
2021; Sandbe g, 2021; So ell e al., 2020) and some concep ual
deba es on su iciency (e.g. Di Giulio & Fuchs, 2014; P incen, 2005;
Spengle , 2016). As he impo an li e a u e is al eady summa ised
well, his a icle will no ca y ou ye ano he sys ema ic li e a u e
e iew. Ins ead, wo concep ual ques ions ega ding su iciency will
be discussed in dep h, which will be he ounda ion o he ollowing
concep ual wo k: (1) Is su iciency concep ually abou a ce ain le el
o ‘enough’o abou me e educ ions? (2) Wha en i ies a e
add essed in he con ex o su iciency? The discussed li e a u e was
ound h ough keywo d-based sea ch in es ablished da abases
(e.g. Scopus) and selec ed based on i s concep ual con ibu ions
ega ding su iciency. He eby, he al eady-men ioned li e a u e
e iews se ed as a gene al o e iew and s a ing poin .
2.1 |Is su iciency abou ‘enough’o abou
educ ions?
In hei li e a u e e iew on ene gy su iciency ebounds, So ell e al.
(2020) make an impo an dis inc ion:
Some au ho s in e p e ene gy su iciency as a goal o
an ou come de ined by a le el o ene gy se ice con-
sump ion ha is consis en wi h equi y, well-being and
en i onmen al limi s, while o he s in e p e i as a se
o ac ions o a s a egy de ined by in en ional educ-
ions in ene gy se ice consump ion. (So ell
e al., 2020,p.3)
In he i s in e p e a ion o su iciency iden i ied by he au ho s, su i-
ciency is unde s ood as a ma e o de ining and eaching a ce ain
le el, which is o en labelled as ‘enough’. As Jungell-Michelsson and
Heikku inen (2022) s a e, his idea o su iciency as ‘enough’is wide-
sp ead. An ea ly use o su iciency in his sense is ound in he wo k
o Daly (1992) on s eady-s a e economics. The idea o ‘enough’is also
p e alen in Lambe on's (2005) wo k on sus ainable su iciency as an
in e nally consis en e sion o sus ainabili y, as he emphasizes he
necessi y o limi le els o consump ion, economic g ow h and use o
na u al esou ces. In his seminal wo k ‘The Logic o Su iciency',
7202 HARTMANN
P incen (2005) cha ac e izes su iciency as ‘enough’be ween ‘ oo
much’and ‘ oo li le’, unde s anding i as a uni e sally applicable idea.
Howe e , P incen's idea o su iciency and i s applica ion o di e en
phenomena is no concep ually s anda dized. Simila ly, Spengle
(2016) a gues he e a e wo di e en scien i ic deba es using he e m
su iciency. On he one hand, he e is he deba e on su iciency as a
maximum, wi h he goal o limi en i onmen al impac s. On he o he
hand, Spengle summa izes he deba e in he ealm o mo al philoso-
phy and jus ice ollowing F ank u (1987), using su iciency o
desc ibe a ce ain social minimum ha is necessa y o people o li e
a decen li e. She ad oca es combining bo h deba es in o a join pe -
spec i e, unde s anding su iciency as a maximum and a minimum. An
applica ion o he no ion o ‘enough’ o he ealm o consump ion can
be ound in he ui ul sus ainable consump ion co ido s app oach
(Di Giulio & Fuchs, 2014; Fuchs e al., 2021; Lage, 2022).
In he second in e p e a ion by So ell e al. (2020), su iciency is
no abou ‘enough’, bu abou s a egies and ac ions o allow educ-
ion (e.g. o en i onmen al impac s). In he li e a u e e iew, Sandbe g
(2021) iden i ies ou ypes o consump ion changes and educ ions
which a e seen as elemen s o su iciency: absolu e educ ion, modal
shi s, p oduc longe i y and sha ing p ac ices. Sachs (1993) ocuses
on educ ion, oo, bu applies i o di e en dimensions, namely con-
sump ion, comme cializa ion, spa ial in e connec edness and empo al
accele a ion. Paech a gues, ha su iciency should be unde s ood
exclusi ely as he opposi e o consump ion, as non-consump ion
(Folke s & Paech, 2020). He dis inguishes h ee kinds o su iciency:
Fi s sel -limi a ion, which means he e usal o inc ease consump ion,
second educing consump ion, and hi d he gene al ejec ion o ce -
ain kinds o consump ion like ai a el. The e o e, he sepa a es su i-
ciency om so-called sus ainable consump ion (ibid.).
In conclusion, he e is no consensus on whe he su iciency
should be concep ualized based on he idea o ‘enough’o na owly
as ac ions and s a egies o educ ion.
2.2 |Wha en i ies a e add essed by su iciency?
In he li e a u e e iew, Sandbe g (2021) ocuses on su iciency as a
con ibu ion o sus ainable consump ion, handling consump ion as he
p ima y en i y add essed by su iciency. In his unde s anding, su i-
ciency s ongly con e ges wi h he scien i ic li e a u e on sus ainable
consump ion (Geige e al., 2017; Liu e al., 2017; Lo ek &
Spangenbe g, 2014) as discussed by Spangenbe g and Lo ek (2019)
and mani es ed in he sus ainable consump ion co ido s (Di Giulio &
Fuchs, 2014). Howe e , sus ainable consump ion is an es ablished
deba e and does no exclusi ely ocus on educ ions o consump ion
le els bu includes all kinds o consump ion wi h in en and/o impac
on sus ainabili y (Geige e al., 2017). In su iciency li e a u e, also
o he en i ies han consump ion a e add essed. Paech's unde s anding
o su iciency is s ongly ocused on absolu e educ ions o consump-
ion, bu he in es iga es he consequences in o he dimensions like
wo k, ime and men al heal h. He a gues ha inc eased consump ion
necessi a es inc eased employmen and may cause men al heal h
p oblems. In his con ex , Paech also ies o de elop an economic
heo y o ime use and consump ion (Folke s & Paech, 2020;
Paech, 2010,2012). Sachs (1993) akes consump ion as one dimen-
sion o su iciency bu also conside s comme cializa ion, spa ial in e -
connec edness and empo al accele a ion. Su iciency is also seen as a
ma e o p oduc ion (e.g. Jungell-Michelsson & Heikku inen, 2022;
Lage, 2022). He e, i is discussed how companies can and should con-
ibu e o su iciency, no only by suppo ing changes in consump ion
bu also by add essing p oduc ion di ec ly (e.g. Niessen &
Bocken, 2021; Schneidewind, 2012). Simila ly, Daly (1992) used he
e m su iciency in his s eady-s a e economics in he con ex o
he size o s ocks and he popula ion in addi ion o consump ion. P in-
cen (2005) ans e s he gene al idea o he su iciency as ‘enough’ o
many di e en en i ies such as complex sys ems like ecosys ems, indi-
idual and social o ganiza ion and managemen , ha es o na u al
esou ces, p oduc ion, labou and consump ion. By doing so, he
b oadens he meaning o su iciency subs an ially.
As his sho discussion shows, he e is a s ong ocus on con-
sump ion in pa s o he su iciency li e a u e. Howe e , many au ho s
add ess o he en i ies using he e m su iciency, oo.
2.3 |Fou unde s andings o su iciency
As demons a ed, he e is a a ie y o di e en uses o
su iciency wi hou a consensus on i s meaning. Based on he wo
guiding ques ions discussed abo e, one can iden i y a na ow and a
b oad posi ion ega ding how each ques ion is answe ed. Rega ding
he i s ques ion, he na ow posi ion s a es ha su iciency is a ma -
e o educ ion, while he b oad posi ion s a es ha su iciency is
based on he idea o ‘enough’. Rega ding he second ques ion, he
na ow posi ion is ha su iciency is me ely a ma e o consump ion,
while he b oad posi ion a gues ha su iciency as a gene al idea can
be applied o di e se en i ies. The esul ing wo-dimensional ma ix
(Figu e 1) con ains a na ow unde s anding o su iciency as educ-
ions and changes in indi idual consump ion wi h he goal o educing
en i onmen al impac s, as well as a b oad unde s anding o su i-
ciency as he gene al idea o ‘enough’ ha can be applied o di e se
en i ies. Addi ionally, he e a e wo mixed unde s andings, combining
one na ow and one b oad posi ion. Gene ally speaking, he na ow
unde s anding de ines su iciency in a qui e exclusi e way, ejec ing
many phenomena ha a e discussed using he e m su iciency. The
b oad unde s anding on he o he hand includes he o he unde -
s andings: I su iciency can be applied o di e se en i ies, i can also
be applied o consump ion (e.g. P incen, 2005); Addi ionally, he ocus
on educ ions (e.g. Sachs, 1993) can be seen as a consequence o
humankind ha ing le he a ea o ‘enough’which necessi a es ac ions
and s a egies o educ ions o consump ion and en i onmen al p es-
su es. Exempla ily, he a icula ion o he necessi y o change and
educe indi idual consump ion ollows om he insigh ha cu en
le els o consump ion, a leas in he global no h, h ea en he global
ca ying capaci ies (e.g. Sandbe g, 2021; Spangenbe g & Lo ek, 2019).
The p o ided o e iew (Figu e 1) is he i s con ibu ion o his pape
HARTMANN 7203
as i sys ema ically s uc u es di e en uses o su iciency. The ollow-
ing concep ual wo k builds on he b oad unde s anding, which
includes he o he unde s andings. Th ough he concep o ela ions
o enoughness, i will be possible o uni e di e se uses o su iciency
in a sha ed, gene al s uc u e.
3|RELATIONS OF ENOUGHNESS
3.1 |Su iciency as ela ions o enoughness
The main co ne s one o his pape is ha all uses and unde s andings
o su iciency concep ually a e ounded on a sha ed no ion o
‘enough’which is p e alen in su iciency li e a u e (Jungell-
Michelsson & Heikku inen, 2022). This no ion o ‘enough’is mani-
es ed in he b oad unde s anding o su iciency (Sec ion 2), and is he
ounda ion o he wo k o P incen (2005) and Spengle (2016).
The goal o his sec ion is o explica e his no ion o ‘enough’in a
s anda dized way h ough he concep o ela ions o enoughness.
Spengle a gues ha he no ion o ‘enough’leads o wo ques-
ions: ‘Enough o wha ?’and ‘enough o wha ?’(Spengle , 2016,
p. 921). The e o e, ‘enough’implies wo en i ies ha a e connec ed in
a speci ic way. Going beyond Spengle 's a gumen , his connec ion,
namely a ela ion o enoughness, can be exp essed gene ally in he
o m ‘enough o X ega ding Y'. The i s en i y (X) is e e ed o as
he objec o he ela ion, and he second en i y (Y) is he poin o e -
e ence, as i ep esen s he benchma k de ining how much o X is
enough o no enough. He eby, ‘en i y' is a collec i e e m o bo h
objec s and poin s o e e ence, including all di e se hings ha can
be ossed in o ela ions o enoughness. Speaking wi h Spengle
(2016), he objec is he answe o he ques ion ‘enough o wha ’
while he poin o e e ence is he answe o he ques ion ‘enough
o wha ’.
Le us in es iga e clima e change and he necessi y o modi y
indi idual consump ion as a conc e e example. I is well-es ablished
ha he emissions o g eenhouse gases such as ca bon dioxide mus
be d as ically educed o ackle clima e change. The impo ance o cli-
ma e change is emphasized in many di e en SDGs o he 2030
Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen , mos p ominen ly in SDG
13 ‘clima e ac ion’(UNGA, 2015). On a e age, global yea ly pe capi a
li es yle ca bon oo p in a ge s o 2.5 CO
2
e ( ons o ca bon dioxide
equi alen ) by 2030 and 0.7 CO
2
e by 2050 mus be eached o
adequa ely ace and limi clima e change (IGES e al., 2019). Es ima-
ions o coun ies in he global no h epo a e age yea ly pe capi a
li es yle ca bon oo p in s o 17.6 CO
2
e in he USA (UNEP, 2021),
7.9 CO
2
e in he Eu opean Union and he Uni ed Kingdom oge he
(UNEP, 2021), and 11.2 CO
2
e in Ge many (Paa &
Tsou soulopoulos, 2022). Thus, a e age li es yle ca bon oo p in s in
he global no h a e way abo e he a ge o 2.5 CO
2
e by 2030. On
he o he hand, he a e age pe capi a ca bon oo p in in India is only
1.7 CO
2
e (UNEP, 2021). Coun ies in he global sou h o en ha e low
oo p in s, bu would bene i om u he economic de elopmen
while being s ongly exposed and ulne able o he consequences o
clima e change (UNDP, 2019). Beyond a e ages, ca bon oo p in s,
consump ion oppo uni ies and he sa is ac ion o human needs a e
dis ibu ed unequally wi hin coun ies (UNDP, 2019; UNEP, 2021).
While ‘[ ]he op 10 pe cen o emi e s li e on all con inen s’
(UNDP, 2019, p. 179) oday, e en in weal hy coun ies such as
Ge many some pe sons s ill s uggle wi h po e y (DESTATIS, 2023;
Geißle , 2014).
In he exempla y case o Ge many (11.2 CO
2
e), a e age pe
capi a ca bon oo p in s a e way abo e he global a ge s (2.5 CO
2
e
by 2030). The e o e, a way mus be ound o educe he ca bon oo -
p in s o an imagined a e age Ge man pe son d as ically and as . Lim-
i ing ca bon dioxide is a pa icula challenge as ou mode n ways o
li e and modes o p oduc ion a e based on ossil uels. Daily ac i i ies
such as d i ing o wo k, lying o a holiday loca ion, o hea ing he la
wi h a gas boile all p oduce g eenhouse gas emissions. These ac ions
a e pa o he way o li e o many pe sons in Ge many and a e
shaped by he mode o p oduc ion, exis ing in as uc u e and con-
sume cul u e. One way o educe g eenhouse gas emissions
connec ed o indi idual consump ion would be o inc ease eco-
e iciency. This is he p ima y app oach o he g een g ow h pa adigm,
s a ing ha en i onmen al impac s such as g eenhouse gas emissions
can be decoupled om economic ac i i ies h ough inno a ion and
echnology. Howe e , ecen s udies sugges ha he absolu e decou-
pling o g eenhouse gas emissions om economic g ow h is unlikely
o happen s ong and as enough (Habe l e al., 2020; Hickel &
Kallis, 2020; Vadén e al., 2020). As inc eases in eco-e iciency a e
p obably no su icien o adequa ely educe ca bon oo p in s, educ-
ions in he le el o indi idual consump ion seem necessa y. Su i-
ciency as a sus ainabili y s a egy is o en concep ualized in such a
way, as educ ions and changes in indi idual consump ion wi h he
goal o educe en i onmen al impac s (Sandbe g, 2021). Exempla ily,
FIGURE 1 Fou
unde s andings o su iciency.
7204 HARTMANN
Sandbe g discusses he educ ion o ai a el as an example o su i-
ciency in ha sense (ibid.).
One can econcep ualize changes and educ ions o consump ion
(such as educ ions o ai a el) o educe ca bon dioxide emissions
as a ela ion o enoughness. Righ now, o many people in Ge many,
he e is oo much consump ion ega ding ca bon dioxide emissions in
he o m o an indi idual ca bon budge . Consump ion he e se es as
he objec , he ‘enough o wha ’. The ca bon dioxide emissions on he
o he side se e as he poin o e e ence, he ‘enough o wha ’,
he ame ha de ines how much consump ion is accep able and how
much consump ion is oo much. I and only i he consump ion o a
pe son p oduces equal o less ca bon dioxide emissions han he ca -
bon oo p in a ge (2.5 ons CO
2
e by 2030; IGES e al., 2019), one
can speak o ‘enough’consump ion. I and only i he consump ion o
a pe son p oduces mo e ca bon dioxide emissions han he indi idual
ca bon budge , one can speak o ‘ oo much’consump ion. Exis ing li -
e a u e al eady discusses di e se kinds o educ ions in di e en a eas
o consump ion such as housing, nu i ion and mobili y ha may be
possible and e ec i e o again each ‘enough’consump ion depend-
ing on speci ic con ex s (Sandbe g, 2021). No e ha he logical s a e-
men s abo e only conce n ca bon dioxide emissions as a poin o
e e ence. Fu he implica ions o consump ion on human needs a e
discussed la e on (Sec ions 3.2 and 3.3).
This connec ion be ween consump ion as he objec and ca bon
dioxide emissions as he poin o e e ence cons i u es a ela ion o
enoughness. The ela ion o enoughness be ween consump ion
(objec ) and indi idual ca bon dioxide emissions (poin o e e ence)
has wo di e en occu ences, as he e a e wo ele an combina ions
o he objec and he poin o e e ence. In he i s occu ence
(Figu e 2), oo much consump ion causes oo many ca bon dioxide
emissions, which is undesi able. This is he case o many well-
es ablished consump ion pa e ns leading o a e age ca bon oo -
p in s o 11.2 CO
2
e in Ge many oday. Howe e , by changing and
educing he consump ion o he indi idual, exempla ily by educing
o e en ejec ing ai a el ( ollowing Sandbe g, 2021), ca bon dioxide
emissions migh be educed and ano he , mo e desi able occu ence
o his ela ion o enoughness be eached, in which enough (bu no
oo much) consump ion leads o enough (bu no oo many) ca bon
dioxide emissions (Figu e 3). The e o e, we can unde s and su iciency
li e a u e in es iga ing measu es and ac ions o change and educe
indi idual consump ion wi h ecological in en as con ibu ions o
lea e he i s , undesi able occu ence o he examined ela ion o
enoughness and o each he second, desi able occu ence.
In summa y, he use o su iciency ollowing Sandbe g (2021) can
be econcep ualized as a ela ion o enoughness be ween indi idual
consump ion (objec ) and he ela ed indi idual ca bon dioxide emis-
sions (poin o e e ence). The ocus on li es yle ca bon oo p in s in
Ge many was chosen o demons a ion pu poses. No e ha his does
by no means imply ha g eenhouse gas emissions and hei educ ion
a e he sole esponsibili y o he indi idual. Indi idual consump ion
and esul ing ca bon oo p in s a e s ongly shaped by he mode o
p oduc ion, in as uc u es and consume cul u e which a e beyond
indi idual choice. No jus indi iduals, bu also companies and poli ical
decision-make s can and mus con ibu e o change and educe indi-
idual consump ion (e.g. Lage, 2022; Niessen & Bocken, 2021;
Sandbe g, 2021; Schneidewind & Zah n , 2014). Fo ins ance, sus ain-
able change equi es educ ions in economic ac i i ies, including bo h
dec eased p oduc ion o companies and educed consump ion o con-
sume s, which should be p omo ed by businesses (Heikku inen
e al., 2019). Addi ionally, no e ha measu es o educe and change
consump ion can igge ebound e ec s. The e o e, he e ec i eness
o su iciency as educ ions and changes in consump ion can be lim-
i ed and i s e alua ion mus be pe o med empi ically (So ell
e al., 2020).
Le us dis il he new concep ual insigh s p o ided by he gi en
example and, by doing so, gene ally cha ac e ize he concep o ela-
ions o enoughness. The main idea o his pape is ha all di e en
uses and unde s andings p e alen in su iciency li e a u e can be
econcep ualized as ela ions o enoughness (Sec ion 3.2). Each ela-
ion o enoughness connec s an objec , answe ing he ques ion
FIGURE 2 The i s ,
undesi able occu ence o he
ela ion o enoughness be ween
consump ion (objec ) and he
indi idual ca bon dioxide
emissions (poin o e e ence).
HARTMANN 7205
‘enough o wha ’, and a poin o e e ence, answe ing he ques ion
‘enough o wha ’, based on a de ined scope. Gene ally, objec s and
poin s o e e ence a e connec ed in a pa icula way. The objec
causally in luences he poin o e e ence: One can say ha consump-
ion causes ca bon dioxide emissions, he e o e oo many emissions
a e a esul o oo much consump ion. A he same ime, he poin o
e e ence de e mines, how much o he objec is ‘enough’: The mean
pe son in Ge many is consuming ‘ oo much’wi h e e ence o he
consume 's ca bon dioxide emissions. Bo h objec and poin o e e -
ence ha e a enoughness s a us, which gene ally can be in he s a es
‘enough’,‘ oo much’and ‘ oo li le’(inspi ed by P incen, 2005). How-
e e , i depends on he conc e e ela ions examined which o hese
s a es appea . ‘Too li le consump ion’migh appea in o he ela ions
o enoughness (e.g. i one asks how much consump ion a pe son
needs o sa is y human needs; Sec ion 3.2). Bu i is no impo an o
he ela ion be ween consump ion (objec ) and ca bon dioxide emis-
sions (poin o e e ence). Each ela ion o enoughness has di e en
occu ences. Usually, a leas one such occu ence is undesi able, and
exac ly one occu ence is desi able. In he desi able occu ence, bo h
objec and poin o e e ence a e in he s a e ‘enough’. One can call
his desi able occu ence he enoughness co ido , as i esembles a
desi able co ido in which all en i ies a e in he s a e ‘enough’. The
di e en occu ences can be ep esen ed in a s anda dized s uc u e
(Figu e 4) ha is sha ed by all ela ions o enoughness. This
s uc u e will be used la e on (Sec ion 3.2) o econcep ualize di e se
uses o su iciency om he li e a u e. Fo mally, one can de ine a
ela ion o enoughness as he se o all i s occu ences. As long as only
wo en i ies a e obse ed, he ollowing logical p oposi ion applies:
The su iciency s a us o he objec is ‘enough’(no ‘enough’) i and
only i he su iciency s a us o he poin o e e ence is ‘enough’(no
‘enough’). This embodies bo h, causali y as well as de e mina ion.
C i ics could a gue ha he s a es ‘enough’,‘ oo li le’and ‘ oo
much’migh be he esul o subjec i e judgmen and a bi a y a i-
bu ion, being inapp op ia e as he ounda ion o scien i ic analysis.
Howe e , his objec ion can be aced as he e a e a leas h ee
dimensions o be conside ed o de ine he h esholds be ween hese
s a es: Fi s he ac ual, second he analy ical, and hi d he poli ical
dimension. The ac ual dimension e e s o he way ou wo ld unc-
ions. Sandbe g (2021) a gues in such a way, explica ing he impac o
consump ion on en i onmen al deg ada ion. The ac ual limi s can
usually only be de e mined wi h ce ain y in o a e he momen o
hei ansg ession which should be p e en ed o good eason.
Hence, he analy ical dimension becomes impo an . Scien is s a e
s udying di e se en i onmen al and social phenomena and ying o
unde s and hei in e nal mechanisms. They y o unde s and wha
limi s exis and which ansg essions would lead o undamen al p ob-
lems. The plane a y bounda ies amewo k is a cen al con ibu ion o
his endea ou as i de ines limi s in nine dimensions ha should no
be c ossed o ensu e he unc ioning o he plane a y sys em and o
emain inside a sa e ope a ing space o humankind (Richa dson
e al., 2023; Rocks öm e al., 2009). Addi ionally, he wo k om phi-
losophy and de elopmen economics on de ining jus ins i u ions,
human needs, human igh s, and cen al capabili ies can be seen as an
a emp o de ine social limi s om a scien i ic pe spec i e
(Nussbaum, 2011; Rawls, 1971; Rawo h, 2018; Sen, 1988;
S ewa , 2019). Sys ems hinking con ibu es o he iden i ica ion o
a eas o ‘enough’and cen al limi s by unde s anding hem as esul s
o peculia sys em dynamics (Mona & Gannon, 2015; P incen, 2005).
Thi d, he e is he poli ical dimension, which consis s o poli ical and
socie al ag eemen s on wha h esholds a e seen as impo an
and shall no be c ossed. The Pa is Ag eemen on he limi a ion o
FIGURE 3 The second,
desi able occu ence o he
ela ion o enoughness be ween
consump ion (objec ) and he
indi idual ca bon dioxide
emissions (poin o e e ence).
FIGURE 4 The gene al s uc u e o pa icula occu ences o
ela ions o enoughness.
7206 HARTMANN
clima e change is such an ag eemen , explici ly de ining ce ain em-
pe a u e limi s and implying ca bon budge s (UNFCCC, 2015). The
Decla a ion o Human Righ s (UNGA, 1948), he Millennium De elop-
men Goals (UN, 2015) and he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
(UNGA, 2015) by he Uni ed Na ions se e as in e na ional poli ical
ag eemen s including social aspec s. In some a eas, he e migh be no
o mal ag eemen s o such kind. In hese cases, he e migh be some
kind o socie al common sense, o he e is s ill ongoing socie al and
poli ical nego ia ion o dispu e on wha is conside ed ‘enough’. While
he ac ual and analy ical dimension leans owa ds a limi s model o
su iciency, he poli ical dimension leans mo e owa ds indi idual p e -
e ences and socie al p ocesses (Leh onen & Heikku inen, 2022).
The e o e, wha is conside ed ‘enough’s ongly depends on he
na u e o he sus ainabili y opic in ques ion, he socie al ci cum-
s ances as well as he pe spec i es o in ol ed ac o s.
Finally, i is insigh ul o conside u he li e a u e using he e m
ela ion. Recen ly, ela ions ha e become mo e impo an in di e en
disciplines such as sociology and he humani ies (Dépel eau, 2018).
Wes e al. (2020) as well as Walsh e al. (2021) es i y an eme ging
in e es and un apped po en ial o ela ional hinking in sus ainabili y
science, ounded in sys ems hinking and inspi ed by he ela ional
u n in he humani ies. As Mona and Gannon (2015) a gue, ela ions
be ween en i ies a e an essen ial pa o sys ems hinking. As will be
shown (Sec ion 3.2), sys ems hinking and he concep o ela ions o
enoughness can be connec ed h ough he seminal wo k o P incen
(2005). In philosophy (MacB ide, 2020), ela ions a e dis inguished
om p ope ies: One can say ha a ca is black, desc ibing a p ope y
o he ca . One can also say ha he ca is on op o he ma , desc ib-
ing a speci ic ela ion be ween he ca and he ma . In ac , ela ions
o enoughness a e ela ions in his philosophical sense (ibid.), which
allows us o cha ac e ize ela ions o enoughness as bina y, asymme -
ic and in e nal ela ions. Rela ions o enoughness in his a icle a e
ea ed as bina y ela ions, connec ing always wo en i ies. No e ha
ela ions o enoughness migh be applied o mo e han wo en i ies
(e.g. in a case whe e wo objec s bo h causally in luence one poin o
e e ence). Howe e , his is no co e ed in his pape . In gene al, all
ela ions o enoughness a e asymme ic and ha e a di ec ion, meaning
ha objec and poin o e e ence canno swi ch places. This is due o
he al eady in oduced, di ec ional p ope ies o causali y and de e -
mina ion (see abo e). Addi ionally, ela ions o enoughness a e in e -
nal ela ions as hey necessa ily exis due o he (combined) na u e o
hei en i ies.
3.2 |Applica ion o u he su iciency li e a u e
The gene al hesis o his pape is ha di e se uses o su iciency can
be econcep ualized by ela ions o enoughness, as shown in Table 1.
No e ha all in es iga ed uses a e in line wi h he h ee p emises o
su iciency li e a u e iden i ied by Jungell-Michelsson and Heikku i-
nen (2022). This connec ion be ween he concep o ela ions o
enoughness and he sha ed p emises o su iciency will be u he dis-
cussed la e (Sec ion 4). Fo demons a ion pu poses, wo u he
cases will be examined in de ail. They a e selec ed o p o e he abili y
o ela ions o enoughness o deal wi h uses o su iciency wi h
en i ely di e en con en .
P incen (2005) connec s su iciency o he unc ioning o complex
adap i e sys ems. Following Kay and Schneide (1995), P incen a gues
ha hese sys ems ha e o main ain a ce ain amoun o ene gy
ega ding sel -o ganiza ion and in e nal s uc u e. As Kay and Schnei-
de a gue, sel -o ganizing sys ems
exis in a si ua ion whe e hey ge enough ene gy, bu
no oo much. I hey do no ge su icien ene gy o
TABLE 1 Examples o uses o su iciency in he li e a u e, eph ased as occu ences o ela ions o enoughness.
Enoughness
s a us Objec Poin o e e ence Example
Too much Ene gy (hea ) Rega ding he unc ioning o complex adap i e sys ems
(like he clima e sys em).
P incen (2005); Kay and
Schneide (1995)
Too much Ha es o na u al esou ces (wood) Rega ding he s abili y o local ecosys ems ( o es ). P incen (2005)
Too much Consump ion Rega ding limi ed indi idual ime and men al heal h. Paech (2010,2012); Folke s
and Paech (2020)
Too much Consump ion Rega ding he s abili y and desi abili y o he na u al
en i onmen .
Sandbe g (2021); Spengle
(2016); Di Giulio & Fuchs
(2014)
Too li le Consump ion Rega ding he ul ilmen o basic human needs. F ank u (1987); Spengle
(2016); Di Giulio & Fuchs
(2014)
Too much P oduc ion Rega ding he s abili y and desi abili y o he na u al
en i onmen .
Jungell-Michelsson and
Heikku inen (2022)
Too much Consump ion, commodi ica ion,
accele a ion and in e connec edness
Rega ding he goal o build a na u e- iendly socie y. Sachs (1993)
Too much Wo k Rega ding he ‘na u al’ hy hm o wo k and ega ding he
s abili y and desi abili y o he na u al en i onmen .
P incen (2005)
HARTMANN 7207
high enough quali y (beyond a minimum h eshold
le el), o ganized s uc u es canno be suppo ed and
sel -o ganiza ion does no occu . I oo much ene gy is
supplied, chaos ensues in he sys em, as he ene gy
o e whelms he dissipa i e abili y o he o ganized
s uc u es and hey all apa . So sel -o ganizing sys-
ems exis in a middle-g ound o enough, bu no oo
much. (Kay & Schneide , 1995, p. 52).
The unc ioning o complex adap i e sys ems can be unde s ood as a
ela ion o enoughness be ween ene gy (objec ) and sel -o ganiza ion
o complex adap i e sys ems (poin o e e ence). A ce ain le el o
‘enough’ene gy is necessa y o allow sel -o ganiza ion, while ‘ oo
much’and ‘ oo li le’ene gy will h ea en i s exis ence. This ela ion
o enoughness can be isualized in Figu e 5. As Kay and Schneide
(1995) as well as P incen (2005) conclude, complex adap i e sys ems
ha e in e nal mechanisms o s ay wi hin he a ea o ‘enough’and o
main ain hei unc ioning. Howe e , i a ce ain h eshold is c ossed,
he sys em migh mo e o a new ye unp edic able s a e. Manage-
men o human in e ac ions wi h hese sys ems mus he e o e be
s uc u ed by he logic o ‘enough’,‘ oo li le’and ‘ oo much’.By
including his pe spec i e in his wo k, P incen (2005) builds a much
mo e ambi ious ounda ion o su iciency, connec ing i o ecology
and sys ems hinking (Kay & Schneide , 1995; Mona &
Gannon, 2015).
Ano he applica ion o su iciency can be ound in deba es o
mo al philosophy on ques ions o jus ice based on he wo k o F ank-
u (1987), as elabo a ed by Spengle (2016). F om his pe spec i e, a
decen amoun o access o esou ces and goods is necessa y o allow
he sa is ac ion o basic human needs. This use o su iciency can be
econcep ualized as a ela ion o enoughness be ween consump ion
(objec ) and he ul ilmen o basic human needs (poin o e e ence).
Spengle p o ides insigh s on wha he enoughness co ido migh
look like and how a lack o money and consump ion leads o a lack o
sa is ac ion wi h basic human needs. Thus, she makes a s ong case
o su iciency as a social minimum (ibid.). Howe e , o he au ho s
such as Paech (2012) a gue ha he e can be oo much consump ion
in a social sense, which may lead o a lack o basic human needs such
as men al heal h. As oo much consump ion can lead o ‘consump ion
blockage’[own ansla ion; ‘Konsum e s op ung’] (Folke s &
Paech, 2020, p. 170), educing indi idual consump ion may be seen as
libe a ion (Paech, 2012). Conside ing bo h Spengle 's and Paech's
a gumen s, he esul ing ela ion o enoughness has h ee occu -
ences, which a e isualized in Figu e 5.
As a esul , Figu e 5can adequa ely ep esen wo ela ions o
enoughness wi h en i ely di e en con en bu he same s uc u e:
i s he ela ion be ween ene gy and he sel -o ganiza ion o complex
adap i e sys ems ollowing Kay and Schneide (1995) and P incen
(2005), and second he ela ion be ween consump ion and he ul il-
men o human needs ollowing Spengle (2016) and Paech (2012).
This s esses he powe o he concep o ela ions o enoughness o
sys ema ically s uc u e and uni e di e en uses o su iciency wi h
en i ely di e en con en s.
3.3 |Su iciency, enoughness and sus ainabili y
Abo e, ela ions o enoughness we e in oduced and u ilized o
econcep ualize di e se uses o su iciency. As a sus ainabili y s a -
egy, su iciency mus possess a s ong connec ion o sus ainabili y.
Howe e , his connec ion has no ye been discussed and will be
in es iga ed now.
As di e en au ho s ha e a gued (e.g. G unwald &
Kop mülle , 2022; O & Dö ing, 2008), sus ainabili y as a concep is
abou in e gene a ional and in agene a ional jus ice. O and Dö ing
(2008) emphasize his connec ion o jus ice as hey base hei heo y
o s ong sus ainabili y on a discussion o John Rawls' ‘A Theo y o
Jus ice’(1971). Rawls unde s ands he concep o jus ice as he
necessi y o ha e a ‘se o p inciples o assigning basic igh s and
du ies and o de e mining wha […] o be he p ope dis ibu ion o
he bene i s and bu dens o social coope a ion’(Rawls, 1971, p. 5).
Jus socie al ins i u ions a e based on p inciples ha do no a bi a ily
dis inguish be ween pe sons and allow a ‘p ope balance’(ibid.) o di -
e en in e es s. Howe e , di e en pe sons can ha e di e en con-
cep ions o jus ice, which a e di e en ideas on wha se o such
p inciples should be chosen. Based on his pe spec i e, one can
unde s and he concep o sus ainabili y as he expansion o he con-
cep o jus ice in o he u u e, including bo h in e and in agene a-
ional claims. Di e en app oaches o sus ainabili y a icula ed in he
scien i ic and public deba e (Hopwood e al., 2005) ep esen di e en
concep ions o sus ainabili y.
The concep o ela ions o enoughness has a s ong connec ion
o he concep o sus ainabili y. Spengle (2016) al eady a gued ha
he deba es on su iciency as an en i onmen al maximum and a social
FIGURE 5 The sha ed
s uc u e o wo ela ions o
enoughness wi h en i ely
di e en con en .
7208 HARTMANN
