Hagemeje , Jan; Ma uszczak, Łukasz
A icle
Single ma ke enla gemen and echnical ba ie s o ade:
Re isi ing he e idence
Cen al Eu opean Economic Jou nal (CEEJ)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Facul y o Economic Sciences, Uni e si y o Wa saw
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Hagemeje , Jan; Ma uszczak, Łukasz (2024) : Single ma ke enla gemen and
echnical ba ie s o ade: Re isi ing he e idence, Cen al Eu opean Economic Jou nal (CEEJ), ISSN
2543-6821, Sciendo, Wa saw, Vol. 11, Iss. 58, pp. 79-96,
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To ci e his a icle
Hagemeje , J., Ma uszczak, Ł. (2024). Single Ma ke Enla gemen and
Technical Ba ie s o T ade: Re isi ing he E idence. Cen al Eu opean
Economic Jou nal, 11(58), 79-96.
DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.2478/ceej-2024-0008
This a icle was edi ed by Associa e Edi o :
Joanna Mackiewicz-Łyziak
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Poland
as pa o he Special Call o ma k he 70 h Bi hday o P o . Jan Jakub Michałek
Single Ma ke Enla gemen and
Technical Ba ie s o T ade:
Re isi ing he E idence
Jan Hagemeje ,
Łukasz Ma uszczak
Open Access. © 2024 J. Hagemeje , Ł. Ma uszczak, published by Sciendo.
This wo k is licensed unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License.
Jan Hagemeje
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Facul y o Economic Sciences, Długa 44/50, 00-241 Wa saw, Poland;
CASE Cen e o Social and Economic Resea ch ul. Zamenho a 5/1b, 00-165 Wa saw, Poland
Łukasz Ma uszczak
Uni e si y o Wa saw, Facul y o Economic Sciences, Długa 44/50, 00-241 Wa saw, Poland
co esponding au ho : lma [email protected]
Single Ma ke Enla gemen and Technical Ba ie s o T ade:
Re isi ing he E idence
Abs ac
EU enla gemen s ha e gi en new EU membe s a es access o he Eu opean Single Ma ke . While a i libe alisa ion
was al eady comple ed a he ime o enla gemen , echnical egula ions we e subjec o di e en sec o al app oaches,
including ha monisa ion and mu ual ecogni ion. We employ a s uc u al g a i y model es ima ed using sec o al ade
da a om 1987 o 2020 o assess he ade e ec s o hese measu es. We ind ha ade expansion, pa icula ly expo s
o he NMS o he incumben EU membe s, has been s onge in he sec o s co e ed ei he by he Old App oach ( ull
ha monisa ion) o he New App oach (essen ial equi emen s) han in sec o s co e ed by mu ual ecogni ion. The
New App oach has been mo e e ec i e when coupled wi h mu ual ecogni ion a he sec o le el han wi h ei he
app oach alone. Ou esul s imply ha he TBT ha monisa ion has had a he e ogenous impac on di e en sec o s ( he
mos impo an o low- ech indus ies was he Old App oach, while o high- ech, i was he New App oach).
Keywo ds
Eu opean in eg a ion | EU enla gemen | g a i y model | echnical ba ie s o ade
JEL Codes
F13, F02, F52
1. In oduc ion
In his s udy, we examine he impac o he Eu opean
Union (EU) enla gemen on ade, speci ically in
ela ion o echnical ba ie s o ade (TBT). The
enla gemen ushe ed in a new e a o economic
in eg a ion, uni ing di e se membe s a es wi h unique
economic s uc u es and egula o y amewo ks in o
a uni ied, cohesi e ma ke . Fo he new membe
s a es o he EU (NMS), joining he Single Ma ke
coincided wi h hei economic ansi ion and p o ided
unp eceden ed oppo uni ies o economic g ow h and
p ospe i y (Hagemeje & Mućk, 2019). Al hough a i
ba ie s we e la gely elimina ed by he ime he NMS
acceded, he emo al o echnical ba ie s o ade
(TBT) h ough ull membe ship in he Single Ma ke
was an icipa ed o yield addi ional ade bene i s.
Technical ba ie s o ade (TBT) include a b oad
a ay o egula o y measu es ha aim o p o ec public
heal h, consume sa e y, and he en i onmen . These
measu es can mani es as ei he egula ions o s anda ds
(Disdie e al., 2018). De ju e echnical egula ions o de
ac o s anda ds may necessi a e p oduc modi ica ions
o a p oduce o gain ma ke access. Such egula ions
o s anda ds a e conside ed TBTs when hey po en ially
es ic ade (e.g., B en on & Manzohi, 2002; Fische
& Se a, 2000) and can se e as p o ec ionis measu es,
as e idenced by ecen esea ch (G undke & Mose ,
2019). The associa ed cos s can be a iable— luc ua ing
wi h p oduc ion olume and equi ing adjus men s o
each uni sold—o ixed, in ol ing sunk in es men s
o align p oduc ion p ocesses wi h he impo ing
coun y’s egula ions (Yang, 2020; Fische & Se a,
2000). While s anda ds a e in ended o mi iga e ma ke
ailu es and limi he consump ion o ha m ul goods o
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 81
in o ma ion asymme y abou p oduc cha ac e is ics
(Fe nandez, 2021), hey mus no c ea e unnecessa y
obs acles o ade. The Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion’s
(WTO) TBT Ag eemen s ipula es ha echnical
egula ions should no be excessi ely ade- es ic i e
and allows membe s o aise speci ic ade conce ns
(STCs) ela ed o TBTs. An inc ease in STCs sugges s
a end o eplacing declining a i s wi h TBTs
(O e ice, 2016).
The EU has implemen ed a ious app oaches
o manage TBT o comple e he in e nal ma ke
s a egy. These include he ull ha monisa ion o
echnical egula ions o he so-called Old App oach,
ha monisa ion o only he essen ial equi emen s
(New App oach), and Mu ual Recogni ion, whe e he
na ional egula ions o indi idual membe s a es a e
ecognised as equi alen o hose in o he membe
s a es. These app oaches can ha e a ying e ec s on
ade; o example, ull ha monisa ion is cumbe some
bu comple e, and i ully elimina es ba ie s om he
incompa ibili y o na ional egula ions. A he same
ime, i may be p e e en ial o in e nal union ade;
ha is, EU i ms complying wi h hose egula ions
ope a e in comple ely ha monised egula o y
en i onmen s. Howe e , hi d-coun y i ms may
need o adjus he p oduc s o be able o expo o he
Single Ma ke . In he case o Mu ual Recogni ion,
he e a e no cos s ela ed o ha monisa ion. Howe e ,
na ional egula ions may di e ; he e o e, some
in e nal ma ke ba ie s may emain. Mo eo e , while
mu ual ecogni ion can be ega ded as he p e e ed
app oach because o i s cos -e ec i eness (Felbe may
& Jung, 2011), he p ac ical implemen a ion o mu ual
ecogni ion in he EU is no as e ec i e as ini ially
pe cei ed (Ilzko i z e al., 2007).
Ha monisa ion, o in o he wo ds, egula ion
uni ica ion wi hin he EU, akes he o m o a
s anda disa ion union ha is p e e en ial in na u e;
ha is, he cos s o adjus men o he Single Ma ke
S anda ds a e lowe o he membe s o he Union.
Some heo e ical insigh s on his issue a e p o ided by
Gandal and Shy (1996), who show ha s anda disa ion
unions a e ade-c ea ing ela i e o he wo ld wi h
no mu ual ecogni ion o s anda ds; howe e , ull
global mu ual ecogni ion o s anda ds is p e e ed
om a wel a e s andpoin . Hence, we could expec
ha he EU, in gene al, and he 1992 Single Ma ke
P og amme should enhance he EU’s in e nal ade
while he ba ie s owa d hi d coun ies emain high.
This s udy endea ou s o e isi he opic
o Eu opean in eg a ion by analysing he ade
implica ions associa ed wi h he New App oach, Old
App oach, and Mu ual Recogni ion wi hin he Single
Ma ke con ex (see Hagemeje & Michałek, 2007, o
an ea ly analysis ha his pape e isi s). We employ
a mode n s uc u al g a i y model and sec o al ade
da a om 1995 o 2020 o assess he ade e ec s o
EU expansion o e a long ho izon. We examine he
e ec i eness o he a o emen ioned EU policies in
expanding ade.
This s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e in wo
ways. Fi s , i p o ides new insigh s in o he p ocess
o EU in eg a ion in gene al and EU enla gemen in
pa icula . This is a gigan ic s and, wi h ea ly ex-an e
pape s elying on compu able simula ions, such as
Ha isson e al. (1996). Smi h and Venables (1988)
and newe ex-pos pape s using a mo e sophis ica ed
me hodology o inqui e abou he ade and wel a e
e ec s o in eg a ion (e.g., Felbe may e al., 2022
using he s uc u al g a i y amewo k and Campos
e al., 2016 using he syn he ic con ol me hod as well
as Spo nbe ge , 2021 using a s uc u al g a i y model).
The second s and is he li e a u e on measu ing
TBTs and hei e ec s on in e na ional ade nes ed
wi hin a b oade s and o quan i ying non- a i
measu es (e.g., Fe an ino, 2006; Kee e al., 2009). A
e iew o ea ly wo k in ha s and, oge he wi h a
me a-analysis, is p esen ed in Li and Beghin (2012),
including mainly he pape s ha employ he g a i y
li e a u e, while he amewo k o measu emen is
ou lined in Maskus e al. (2000). The empi ical models
ypically include some quan i a i e measu es o TBT
as explana o y a iables, such as he egula ion
s ingency, as in O suki e al. (2001), o a esul o an
ea lie equency analysis – a co e age a io o TBT in
ade o numbe o measu es applied (see, e.g., Disdie
e al., 2008), numbe o TBT no i ica ions (e.g., Bao
& Qiu, 2012), o he numbe o ade conce ns (e.g.,
Ghodsi, 2016; O e ice, 2016). In ou s udy, we a emp
o iden i y he di e ences in he e olu ion o ela i e
in e nal o ex e nal EU ade in sec o s subjec o
di e en EU app oaches o emo e TBT a ound
he pe iods o EU enla gemen . The pape p o ides
es ima es o he ade expansion o me chandise
ade in sec o s co e ed by a ious EU app oaches o
TBT, he e o e e alua ing he pe o mance o hose
app oaches in emo ing he echnical ba ie s o
ade.
The emainde o his pape is o ganised as ollows.
Sec ion wo desc ibes he da ase , empi ical model,
and iden i ica ion s a egy. Sec ion h ee p esen s ou
es ima ion esul s. Sec ion ou concludes.
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 82
2. Da a and me hods
The p ima y da a sou ce is UN Com ade. The da ase
con ains in o ma ion on bila e al me chandise ade
exp essed in housands o dolla s. The da ase co e s
sec o al bila e al ade be ween 198 coun ies o e he
pe iod o 1988-2020. This esul ed in 12,355,183 uni s
o obse a ions.
Ou a iables o in e es a e disc e e a iables
ha desc ibe EU app oaches o TBT emo al. The e
a e ou majo TBT ca ego ies: Ha moniza ion (HR),
Mu ual Recogni ion A angemen (MRA), Mu ual
Recogni ion P inciple (MRP), and New App oach
(NA). These da a a e a ailable in he h ee-digi
NACE (ac i i y) classi ica ion. In he case o some
sec o s, mo e han one TBT can be obse ed (e.g.,
HR+MRA, HR+MRP, NA+MRA, and NA+MRP).
These pa icula cases appea ed in 9.9% o he sample
( he numbe o obse a ions in mixed TBT cases
inc eased wi h ime and eached a maximum o 9.86%
in 2017). Fo sec o s in which no TBT was in oduced,
we c ea ed he bila e al a iable “None”. O e all, his
accoun ed o 24.6% o he global obse a ions. These
dummy a iables a e ixed o e ime, coming om
he Eu opean Commission’s (1998) publica ion, and
a e based on a de ailed sec o al su ey a he 3-digi
NACE e . 1 classi ica ion le el.
Me ging ade da a wi h NACE-based indica o s
p esen s a challenge. Ini ially, bulk-ex ac ed p oduc s
in he UN Com ade we e g ouped acco ding o
HS 1988/1992 (H0). We pu posely main ain a ixed
p oduc conco dance o elimina e p oblems ela ed
o HS classi ica ions changing o e ime. We use he
p oduc conco dance ob ained om Wo ldbank’s
WITS da abase o con e he ade lows om he H0
classi ica ion o he SITC3 classi ica ion. Finally, we
ans o med he obse a ions om SITC3 o NACE
e . 1. Fo some obse a ions, we could no link H0 and
NACE e . 1, which seems o be a s anda d challenge
when a emp ing o ma ch p oduc classi ica ions o
ac i i y classi ica ions. The e o e, hese obse a ions
we e elimina ed (such elimina ions we e concen a ed
in only a ew p oduc ca ego ies and had no signi ican
impac on he co e age o sec o s o ade alue). In
ou empi ical model, he le el o bila e al ade alue
is he dependen a iable in all es ima ions. The uni
o obse a ion is a coun y-pai , a 3-digi NACE sec o
obse ed in a single pe iod o ime.
We ollow Baie and Be gs and (2007) and use
panel da a o es ima e h ee-way g a i y models,
including o igin- ime-indus y, des ina ion- ime-
indus y, and pai -indus y ixed e ec s. Ou model
is es ima ed wi h bo h ime- a ying expo e -sec o
and impo e -sec o ixed e ec s as well as expo e -
impo e -sec o -pai ixed e ec s, and he e o e,
i can iden i y only he a iables ha a e bila e al
in na u e and a iable o e ime. This means ha
ixed e ec s a e abso bed by he e ec s o all ime-
a ying coun y-speci ic a iables and ime-in a ian
“g a i y” a iables. The e o e, he only g a i y
a iable included in he es ima ions is he egional
ade ag eemen (RTA) membe ship dummy, which
we bo ow om he CEPII g a i y da abase (Con e,
2022). While we a e unable o con ol o he le el
o MFN a i s ( hey a e abso bed by ime- a ying
ixed e ec s), he RTA- ela ed dummies con ol o
p e e en ial a i libe alisa ion. We dis inguish a ew
ca ego ies o RTA (RTA among CEE coun ies, RTA
be ween CEE and EU MS, and o he RTA’s).
Ou main a iables o in e es e lec ing he EU
app oaches o TBT, which a e ini ially ime-in a ian ,
in e ac ed wi h he EU dummy o accoun o he ime
a ia ion. The e o e, he es ima es on hose a iables
a e going o e lec he wi hin- a ia ion o ade
wi hin he TBT ca ego ies pos -EU accession. This
makes ou empi ical app oach simila o a di e ence-
in-di e ences amewo k whe e we addi ionally
con ol o all he sec o -speci ic, expo e and
impo e ime- a ying de elopmen s as well as pai -
speci ic e ec s.
We a e in e es ed no only in he impac o TBT on
o e all EU bila e al ade alue bu also in assessing he
impac o ade libe alisa ion among coun y g oups,
speci ically EU-15 (“old” EU membe s a es) and NMS
(“new” membe s a es o which we classi ied: CYP,
LVA, LTU, HUN, MLT, POL, SVK, SVN, EST om
2004, BGR, ROU om 2007 and HRV om 2013). Fo
his pu pose, ins ead o a common EU dummy o each
o he TBT ypes, we ha e h ee di e en a ian s o
he a iables: 1) when bo h pa ies a e membe s o he
NMS, 2) when he expo e is NMS, and he impo e
is pa o he EU-15, and 3) when he impo e is NMS
and expo e is pa o he EU-15.
The ade alues a e aken om he in e al
[0,+∞). The lowe bound alue, ze o, is in e p e ed
as a lack o expo s in a gi en pe iod o expo e i
o a good om sec o k and canno be emo ed om
he da ase . S anda d linea panel da a es ima o s
a e inapplicable because he dependen a iable is
limi ed o he in e al [0,+∞). Sil a and Ten ey o
(2006) showed ha he es ima o o choice is
pseudo-maximum likelihood es ima ion (PPML).
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 83
Al hough he dependen a iable, he ade alue, is
a quasi-con inuous a iable, he applica ion o coun
da a eg ession enables consis en es ima es. The
signi ican ad an age o he es ima o is ha i is s ill
consis en unde he e oscedas ici y.
I is a known ac ha in he case o PPML,
he es ima o does no su e om he inciden al
pa ame e p oblem ( his conce ns he ac ha he e
is no possibili y o inding consis en es ima es when
he numbe o pa ame e s depends on he sample size,
o example, (Lancas e , 2000) o o models wi h
single ixed e ec (Woold idge, 1999). In he case o
h ee-way g a i y models, Weidne and Zylkin (2021)
showed ha PPML is he only membe o a amily o
pseudo-maximum likelihood es ima o s ha is obus
o inciden al pa ame e p oblems.
The baseline model used in he analysis is as ollows:
(1)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡=α+𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
′𝜷𝜷𝜷𝜷+𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
′𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾+ 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+π𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,
(1)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡=α+𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
′𝜷𝜷𝜷𝜷+𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
′𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾+ 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+π𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,
(1)
whe e: T adeijk, is he alue o bila e al ade in goods o
sec o k a ime ; RTA‘ijk, s and o a ec o o di e en
ypes o ela i e ade ag eemen RTA dummies; TBTijk,
is a ec o o TBT o in e es in e ac ed wi h EU15 o
NMS pa icipa ion;
θ
ijk, ;
δ
i,k, ; πj,k, a e ixed e ec s; and
ε
ijk, is an e o e m. The o e iew o all he a iables
included in he eg ession is gi en in Table 1.
3. Resul s
Table 2 p esen s he i s se o empi ical esul s. Ou
analysis co e s se e al sepa a e models o assess he
e ec o ade libe alisa ion on EU membe s a es. In he
i s column, we es ima e ade libe alisa ion among all
EU membe s a es wi h he dis inc ion o all a ailable
TBT. The second speci ica ion assesses he impac o
ade libe alisa ion in he con ex o TBT among he
a o emen ioned g oups o coun ies. In columns h ee
o six, we p o ide esul s o a speci ic echnological
b eakdown (high- echnology, medium-high-
echnology, medium-low- echnology, low- echnology).
The bigges popula ion in a es ed sample ep esen s
low- ech indus ies. The las column con ains he
esul s o addi ional V4 coun ies b eakdown (Poland,
Czech Republic, Slo akia, Hunga y).
As epo ed by column (1), being in common
RTA is s a is ically signi ican o ou sample and
augmen s he alue o bila e al ade. The posi i e
impac is es ima ed o be app oxima ely 2% o he
bila e al sec o al ade alue. Su p isingly, he
impac o RTA be ween CEE and EU MS is nega i e
and app oxima ed 8%, sugges ing ha he sizeable
expansion o ade o he CEE in he p e-accession
pe iod was uni e sal and no necessa ily EU- ocused
(and in ou eg ession cap u ed by coun y-speci ic
ime- a ying ixed-e ec s). This esul was ound
in models epo ed in Columns (1) and (2), while he
only isible ade expansion due o FTA be ween EU
and CEE was ound in he case o low- ech goods. The
posi i e e ec o he CEE EU RTA also eme ges when
we con ol o he he e ogenei y o he e ec s o he
EU accession (column 7).
The New App oach (NA) and Ha moniza ion (HR)
we e posi i ely and s a is ically signi ican ly ela ed o
sec o al bila e al ade (column 1). In he case o NA, he
impac was es ima ed o be a 1.4% inc ease in bila e al
goods ade be ween EU membe s a es. Compa ed o
ha monisa ion, he inno a ion o he New App oach
lies in ha monising na ional egula ions, which a e
limi ed o a p oduc ’s mos c i ical equi emen s
o be eleased o ee ade in a Single Ma ke . An
essen ial aspec o he New App oach is ha using
ha monised s anda ds is olun a y, as hey a e
no echnical egula ions. P oduc s manu ac u ed
ollowing ha monised s anda ds a e assumed o mee
he mos c i ical equi emen s and a e au oma ically
allowed o ade in he common ma ke . Howe e , i
manu ac u e s can demons a e ha hei p oduc s
mee he essen ial equi emen s o he di ec i es,
hey do no ha e o demons a e compliance wi h he
ha monised s anda d.
Ha monising na ional egula ions wi h s anda ds
suppo ed by he Eu opean Commission is one o
he mos e ec i e ways o libe alise non- a i ade
ba ie s. This s ems om he ac ha i coun ies
ha e uni o m egula ions and he p oduc gains access
o one ma ke , access is g an ed au oma ically o all
o he ma ke s. Ou esul s sugges ha he impac
o accession in sec o s co e ed by HR is s a is ically
signi ican and he highes among he ob ained
es ima es. Full implemen a ion o ha monised
ela ionships among EU membe s a es leads o a 1.4%
inc ease in sec o al goods ade.
I has o be said ha sec o s whe e none o he
EU app oaches applied expe ienced an almos 1.5%
inc ease in goods ade alue among he EU membe
s a es. This may mean ha , in hose sec o s, he le els
o echnical ba ie s o ade we e ini ially low, and
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 84
EU accession has au oma ically ensu ed ma ke access
o expo e s in he single ma ke .
As men ioned be o e, due o he numbe o ixed
e ec s, pa icula ly he ime- a ying coun y-sec o -
speci ic ixed e ec s, hese should no be unde s ood
as absolu e inc eases in ade bu a he as an inc ease
in ade ela i e o o he (non-EU) ade lows. While
we canno say o ce ain ha he le el o TBT in
ex a-EU ade is he highes in he HR-co e ed
sec o s, he EU accession boos s ela i e in a- o
ex a- ade he mos in hese sec o s, which shows
ha ei he he le el o TBT ou side he EU is e y high
o ha accession educes he TBTs mos e ec i ely o
he acceding coun ies.
Table 1. Va iables used in he empi ical analysis
Va iable Desc ip ion
T ade alue The dependen a iable. The alue o bila e al ade in goods. The alue is exp essed in housands o USD.
RTA The ec o o disc e e a iables akes he alue o 1 when bo h ade pa ne s a e in he same RTA and 0
o he wise (e.g. RTA among CEE coun ies; RTA be ween CEE and EU; o he RTA combina ions).
NA-EU Disc e e a iables ake he alue o 1 when a New App oach in sec o koccu s in adebe ween
coun yjand coun yiin ime .Bo h pa ne coun ies should be EU membe s a es. O he wise, he
a iable akes he alue o 0.
MR-EU Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e is a Mu ual Recogni ion in sec o koccu ing in
adebe ween coun yjand coun yiin ime .Bo h pa ne coun ies should be EU membe s a es.
O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
HR-EU Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e a e Ha moniza ion Regula ions in sec o k occu ing in
adebe ween coun yjand coun yiin ime .Bo h pa ne coun ies should be EU membe s a es.
O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
None-EU Disc e e a iables ake he alue o 1 when no TBT is imposed in sec o kin adebe ween coun yjand
coun yiin ime .Bo h pa ne coun ies should be EU membe s a es. O he wise, he a iable akes he
alue o 0.
NA-EU15-NMS Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e is a New App oach in sec o koccu ing in adebe ween
coun yjand coun yiin ime .The good o igina ed om EU15, and he ading pa ne is a new EU
membe s a e. O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
NA-NMS-EU15 Disc e e a iables ake he alue o 1 when a New App oach in sec o koccu s in adebe ween
coun yjand coun yiin ime .The good o igina es om a New membe s a e, and he ading pa ne is
an EU15 membe s a e. O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
NA-NMS-NMS Disc e e a iables ake he alue o 1 when a New App oach in sec o koccu s in adebe ween
coun yjand coun yiin ime .O he wise, he a iable is aking he alue o 0.
MR-EU15-NMS Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e is a Mu ual Recogni ion in sec o koccu ing in
adebe ween coun yjand coun yiin ime .The good o igina ed om EU15, and he ading pa ne is
a new EU membe s a e. O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
MR-NMS-EU15 Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e is a Mu ual Recogni ion in sec o k occu ing in ade
be ween coun y j and coun y i in ime . The good o igina es om a New membe s a e, and he ading
pa ne is an EU15 membe s a e. O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
MR-NMS-NMS Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e is a Mu ual Recogni ion in sec o koccu ing in
adebe ween coun yjand coun yiin ime .Bo h ade pa ne s a e New EU membe s a es.
O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
HR-EU15-NMS Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e a e Ha moniza ion Regula ions in sec o koccu ing in
adebe ween coun yjand coun yiin ime .The good o igina ed om EU15, and he ading pa ne is
a new EU membe s a e. O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
HR-NMS-EU15 Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e a e Ha moniza ion Regula ions in sec o k occu ing in
ade be ween coun y j and coun y i in ime . The good o igina es om a New membe s a e, and he
ading pa ne is an EU15 membe s a e. O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
HR-NMS-NMS Disc e e a iables ake a alue o 1 when he e a e Ha moniza ion Regula ions in sec o koccu ing
in adebe ween coun yjand coun yiin ime .Bo h ade pa ne s a e New EU membe s a es.
O he wise, he a iable akes he alue o 0.
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 85
Column (2) o Table 2 shows ha he abo e esul s
mus be cau iously conside ed. The e is a g ea deal
o he e ogenei y in he e ec s o EU accession when
he di ec ion o ade is conside ed among di e en
coun y g oups (NMS e sus he EU-15 and expo s
e sus impo s). The highes e ec s o EU accession
a e p esen in sec o s co e ed by ha monisa ion. The
mos signi ican bene icia ies o HR we e expo e s
Table 2. Es ima es o ade libe alisa ion in TBT among EU Membe S a es
VARIABLES All sec o s All sec o s High- ech Medium-high
ech
Medium-
low ech
Low ech All sec o s
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
RTA 0.0188*** 0.0189*** -.012465 .0329128*** .0017943 .0252775*** 0.0188***
(0.00472) (0.00472) .0083309 .0107669 .0056227 .0084095 (0.00472)
RTA CEE -0.0223 0.0783*** .0649999* .1408041*** .0972213*** -.0167929 -0.0379*
(0.0146) (0.0199) .0342033 .0292653 .0358558 .0409532 (0.0195)
RTA CEE UE -0.0735*** -0.0409*** -.1129603*** .0039924 -.117901*** .0503106*** -0.0386***
(0.00830) (0.0100) .0149379 .0157854 .0179346 .0187081 (0.00960)
NA_EU 0.0136***
(0.00460)
MR_EU -0.00768
(0.00816)
HR_EU 0.0140***
(0.00543)
none_EU 0.0148***
(0.00525)
NA-EU15-NMS -0.0534*** .0526952 -.0269492 .0155141 -.1057659** 0.0831***
(0.0160) .0504126 .0199265 .0364956 .049518 (0.0190)
NA-NMS-EU15 0.145*** .2508488*** .1775791*** .097095*** .2936307*** 0.0895***
(0.0188) .0413104 .0251493 .0453394 .0539502 (0.0287)
NA-NMS-NMS 0.0942*** .3505328*** .200204*** -.1348145** -.022882 0.356***
(0.0248) .0632008 .0332285 .0598275 .0734733 (0.0356)
MR-EU15-NMS 0.0651*** (omi ed) .0071325 .0985143*** .0923532** 0.148***
(0.0234) .0496438 .0290378 .0399543 (0.0316)
MR-NMS-EU15 0.0377 (omi ed) -.0343424 .3994119*** -.1333244*** 0.0560
(0.0275) .0616616 .039404 .0400508 (0.0374)
MR-NMS-NMS 0.145*** (omi ed) .0789878 .2778632*** .0426703 -0.0996
(0.0338) .0579968 .046876 .0603844 (0.0608)
HR-EU15-NMS 0.128*** .0170128 (omi ed) .0411172 .2959768*** 0.257***
(0.0295) .0270469 .0499832 .0442682 (0.0318)
HR-NMS-EU15 0.276*** .3145475*** (omi ed) -.064045 .8265343*** 0.551***
(0.0367) .0311062 .059602 .0494348 (0.0401)
HR-NMS-NMS 0.209*** -.0845362* (omi ed) .0838884 .4971171*** 0.575***
(0.0371) .0438424 .0673421 .0511993 (0.0380)
None-EU15-NMS 0.166*** -.1212058*** .1458626*** .2292322*** -.0202643 0.144*
(0.0505) .0472334 .0405111 .076868 .0351835 (0.0834)
None-NMS-EU15 -0.122*** -.316273*** .0968501*** -.2923275*** .3317987*** -0.211***
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 86
VARIABLES All sec o s All sec o s High- ech Medium-high
ech
Medium-
low ech
Low ech All sec o s
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(0.0223) .0605635 .0360711 .0332407 .0500403 (0.0290)
None-NMS-NMS 0.431*** -.1457483** .147424*** .6738975 .2335274*** 0.357***
(0.0587) .0711817 .052262 .0969544*** .0610534 (0.0721)
NA-EU15-V4 -0.184***
(0.0207)
NA-V4-EU15 0.133***
(0.0190)
NA-V4-V4 -0.153***
(0.0315)
NA-V4-NMS -0.113***
(0.0287)
MR-EU15-V4 0.0136
(0.0278)
MR-V4-EU15 0.0293
(0.0311)
MR-V4-V4 0.0405
(0.0418)
MR-V4-NMS 0.169***
(0.0393)
HR-EU15-V4 -0.0323
(0.0397)
HR-V4-EU15 0.160***
(0.0407)
HR-V4-V4 -0.178***
(0.0613)
HR-V4-NMS 0.146***
(0.0403)
None-EU15-V4 0.115***
(0.0409)
None-V4-EU15 -0.151***
(0.0260)
None-V4-V4 0.125**
(0.0614)
None-V4-NMS 0.412***
Cons an 13.52*** 13.51*** 11.84421*** 13.28023*** 13.63611*** 13.6876*** 13.51***
(0.00157) (0.00158) .0027644 .0034178 .0022599 .0028308 (0.00155)
(0.102)
N o obs. 12,355,183 12,355,183 1,271,213 2,834,200 3,376,816 4,872,954
Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses, *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1
Con inuedTable 2. Es ima es o ade libe alisa ion in TBT among EU Membe S a es
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 93
Indus y NACE Technology TBT Indus y NACE Technology TBT
Mea p oduc s 151 Low-
echnology
HR Basic p ecious and
non- e ous me als
274 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
Fish and ish p oduc s 152 Low-
echnology
HR S uc u al me al
p oduc s
281 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
F ui s and ege ables 153 Low-
echnology
HR Tanks, ese oi s,
cen al hea ing
adia o s and boile s
282 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
Vege able and animal oils
and a s
154 Low-
echnology
HR+MRP Fo ging, p essing,
s amping and oll
o ming o me al;
powde 289x
me allu gy
284 Medium-high-
echnology
None
Dai y p oduc s; ice c eam 155 Low-
echnology
HR T ea men and
coa ing o me als;
gene al mechanical
enginee ing
285 Medium-high-
echnology
None
G ain mill p oduc s and
s a ches
156 Low-
echnology
HR Cu le y, ools and
gene al ha dwa e
286 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
P epa ed animal eeds 157 Low-
echnology
HR Machine y o
p oduc ion, use o
mech. powe
291 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
O he ood p oduc s 158 Low-
echnology
HR O he gene al
pu pose machine y
292 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
Be e ages 159 Low-
echnology
MRP Ag icul u al and
o es y machine y
293 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
Tobacco p oduc s 160 Low-
echnology
HR Machine- ools 294 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
Tex ile ib es 171 Low-
echnology
None O he special pu pose
machine y
295 Medium-high-
echnology
NA
Tex ile wea ing 172 Low-
echnology
None Domes ic appliances
n. e. c.
297 Medium-high-
echnology
NA+MRA
Finishing o ex iles 173 Low-
echnology
MRP O ice machine y and
compu e s
300 Medium-high-
echnology
MRA
Made-up ex ile a icles 174 Low-
echnology
MRP Elec ic mo o s,
gene a o s and
ans o me s
311 Low- echnology NA
O he ex iles 175 Low-
echnology
NA+MRA Elec ici y dis ibu ion
and con ol appa a us
312 Low- echnology MRP
Kni ed and c oche ed
ab ics
176 Low-
echnology
MRP Isola ed wi e and
cable
313 Low- echnology MRA
Kni ed and c oche ed
a icles
177 Low-
echnology
MRP Ligh ing equipmen
and elec ic lamps
315 Low- echnology NA+MRA
O he wea ing appa el
and accesso ies
182 Medium-low-
echnology
None Elec onic al es
and ubes, o he
elec onic comp.
321 Low- echnology NA+MRA
D essing and dyeing o
u ; a icles o u
183 Low-
echnology
MRP TV, adio and
eco ding appa a us
323 Low- echnology HR+MRA
Con inuedTable 5. The lis o TBT and indus y
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 94
Indus y NACE Technology TBT Indus y NACE Technology TBT
Tanning and d essing o
lea he
191 Medium-low-
echnology
None Medical equipmen 331 Medium-low-
echnology
NA
Foo wea 193 Medium-low-
echnology
None Ins umen s o
measu ing, checking,
es ing, na iga ing
332 Medium-low-
echnology
None
Sawmilling, planing and
imp egna ion o wood
201 Medium-high-
echnology
None Op ical ins umen s
and pho og aphic
equipmen
334 Medium-low-
echnology
None
Panels and boa ds o
wood
202 Medium-high-
echnology
NA Wa ches and clocks 335 Medium-low-
echnology
None
Builde s’ ca pen y and
joine y
203 Medium-high-
echnology
NA Mo o ehicles 341 Medium-low-
echnology
HR
Wooden con aine s 204 Medium-high-
echnology
None Bodies o mo o
ehicles, aile s
342 Medium-low-
echnology
None
O he p oduc s o wood;
a icles o co k, e c.
205 Medium-high-
echnology
None Pa s and accesso ies
o mo o ehicles
343 Medium-low-
echnology
HR
Pulp, pape and
pape boa d
211 High-
echnology
HR Ships and boa s 351 Low- echnology MRP
A icles o pape and
pape boa d
212 High-
echnology
HR Railway locomo i es
and olling s ock
352 Low- echnology MRP
Publishing 221 High-
echnology
HR Ai c a and
spacec a
353 Low- echnology MRP
P in ing 222 Medium-low-
echnology
None Mo o cycles and
bicycles
354 Low- echnology MRP
Coke o en p oduc s 231 Medium-low-
echnology
MRP Fu ni u e 361 Low- echnology MRP
Re ined pe oleum and
nuclea uel
232 Medium-low-
echnology
HR Jewelle y and ela ed
a icles
362 Low- echnology NA
Nuclea uel 233 Medium-low-
echnology
HR Musical ins umen s 363 Low- echnology None
Basic chemicals 241 Medium-low-
echnology
MRP Spo s goods 364 Low- echnology NA
Pes icides, o he ag o-
chemical p oduc s
242 Medium-low-
echnology
HR+MRP Games and oys 365 Low- echnology NA
Pain s, coa ings, p in ing
ink
243 Medium-low-
echnology
MRP Miscellaneous
manu ac u ing n. e. c.
366 Low- echnology None
Pha maceu icals 244 Medium-low-
echnology
MRA P oduc ion and
dis ibu ion o
elec ici y
401 Low- echnology None
De e gen s, cleaning and
polishing, pe umes
245 Medium-low-
echnology
HR Manuac u e o
gas; dis ibu ion o
gaseous uels h ough
mains
402 Low- echnology None
O he chemical p oduc s 246 Medium-low-
echnology
MRP S eam and ho wa e
supply
403 Low- echnology None
Con inuedTable 5. The lis o TBT and indus y
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 95
Indus y NACE Technology TBT Indus y NACE Technology TBT
Rubbe p oduc s 251 Medium-low-
echnology
None Collec ion,
pu i ica ion and
dis ibu ion o wa e
410 Low- echnology HR
Plas ic p oduc s 252 Medium-low-
echnology
NA Mo ion pic u e and
ideo ac i i ies
921 Low- echnology None
Glass and glass p oduc s 261 High-
echnology
NA
Sou ce: Eu opean Commission (1997)
Table 6. Summa y s a is ics
Va iable Obs Mean S d. De . Min Max
Yea 12,652,175 2009.808 6.449645 1995 2020
Expo alue 12,652,175 19094.65 341852.5 1.15e-10 2.01e+08
RTA 12,652,175 .2013112 .4009801 0 1
RTA-CEE-UE 12,652,175 .0121949 .1097551 0 1
RTA-CEE 12,652,175 .002402 .0489509 0 1
NA 12,652,175 .3144369 .4642912 0 1
NA-EU 12,652,175 .0226739 .1488616 0 1
NA-EU15-NMS 12,652,175 .0055967 .0746018 0 1
NA-NMS-EU15 12,652,175 .0048632 .0695668 0 1
NA-NMS-NMS 12,652,175 .0036937 .0606633 0 1
NA-EU15-NMS(o he ) 12,652,175 .0037779 .0613486 0 1
NA-EU15-V4 12,652,175 .0024246 .0491801 0 1
NA-V4-EU15 12,652,175 .0030244 .0549112 0 1
NA-V4-V4 12,652,175 .0024284 .0492193 0 1
NA-V4-NMS 12,652,175 .0013491 .0367053 0 1
MR 12,652,175 .342041 .4743933 0 1
MR EU 12,652,175 .0252982 .1570292 0 1
MR-EU15-NMS 12,652,175 .0062408 .078752 0 1
MR-NMS-EU15 12,652,175 .0053653 .0730516 0 1
MR-NMS-NMS 12,652,175 .0040377 .0634147 0 1
MR-EU15-NMS(o he ) 12,652,175 .0041938 .0646238 0 1
MR-EU15-V4 12,652,175 .0027208 .0520903 0 1
MR-V4-EU15 12,652,175 .0033346 .0576497 0 1
MR-V4-V4 12,652,175 .0026562 .0514701 0 1
MR-V4-NMS 12,652,175 .0014717 .0383343 0 1
HR 12,652,175 .2246639 .4173608 0 1
Con inuedTable 5. The lis o TBT and indus y
CEEJ • 11(58) • 2024 • pp. 79-96 • ISSN 2543-6821 • DOI: 10.2478/ceej-2024-0008 96
Va iable Obs Mean S d. De . Min Max
HR EU 12,652,175 .0167582 .1283643 0 1
HR-EU15-NMS 12,652,175 .0041769 .0644939 0 1
HR-NMS-EU15 12,652,175 .0034418 .0585656 0 1
HR-NMS-NMS 12,652,175 .0026463 .0513737 0 1
HR-EU15-NMS(o he ) 12,652,175 .0028076 .0529122 0 1
HR-EU15-V4 12,652,175 .0018074 .0424755 0 1
HR-V4-EU15 12,652,175 .0020909 .045679 0 1
HR-V4-V4 12,652,175 .0017252 .0414992 0 1
HR-V4-NMS 12,652,175 .0009456 .0307362 0 1
None 12,652,175 .2428346 .428796 0 1
None EU 12,652,175 .0193679 .1378143 0 1
None-EU15-NMS 12,652,175 .0047352 .0686499 0 1
None-NMS-EU15 12,652,175 .003963 .0628271 0 1
None-NMS-NMS 12,652,175 .0029981 .0546731 0 1
None-EU15-NMS(o he ) 12,652,175 .0031353 .0559056 0 1
None-EU15-V4 12,652,175 .0021295 .0460975 0 1
None-V4-EU15 12,652,175 .002423 .0491641 0 1
None-V4-V4 12,652,175 .0020193 .0448908 0 1
None-V4-NMS 12,652,175 .0010664 .032638 0 1
Sou ce: Own calcula ions
Con inuedTable 6. Summa y s a is ics
