Schwa z, An je; Abend o h, Anja-K is in
A icle — Published Ve sion
Is in o mal elewo k a h ea o wo k- amily econcilia ion?
Compa ing he implica ions o o mal and in o mal
elewo k o wo k- amily con lic s
Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Schwa z, An je; Abend o h, Anja-K is in (2024) : Is in o mal elewo k a h ea o
wo k- amily econcilia ion? Compa ing he implica ions o o mal and in o mal elewo k o wo k-
amily con lic s, Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha , ISSN 2366-4681, Sp inge , Be lin, Heidelbe g,
Vol. 79, Iss. 1, pp. 1-11,
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s41449-024-00428-3
Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11
Is in o mal elewo k a h ea o wo k- amily econcilia ion? Compa ing
he implica ions o o mal and in o mal elewo k o wo k- amily
con lic s
An je Schwa z1· Anja-K is in Abend o h1
Accep ed: 11 June 2024 / Published online: 2 July 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
The s udy analyses he ela ionship be ween o mal and in o mal elewo k and wo k- amily con lic s using he job-demands
and esou ces (JD-R) model. P e iously, he model has mo e equen ly been applied o unde s and he implica ions o
elewo k wi hou dis inguishing be ween o mal elewo k and in o mal elewo k ou side con ac ed wo king hou s. We
conduc ed c oss-sec ional OLS- eg essions on pilo da a om he Eu opean Social Su ey compiled in 2019. The esul s
show ha o mal elewo k is associa ed wi h ewe , and in o mal elewo k wi h mo e wo k- amily con lic s. While o mal
elewo k appea s as a esou ce, in o mal elewo k a he unc ions as a demand. Addi ional analyses epo ha o mal
elewo ke s a e ne e heless a isk o wo k- amily con lic s because o mal elewo k o en goes hand in hand wi h in o mal
elewo k and, hus, wo k- amily con lic s.
P ac ical Rele ance: While o mal elewo k can acili a e he econcilia ion o wo k and amily li e, employees a e a
isk o coun e ac ing his dynamic when elewo k is conduc ed in o mally du ing paid o unpaid o e ime. The indings
sugges ha i is impo an o manage s, HR manage s and employees o be awa e o he po en ials and isks o equen
elewo king ha come wi h he abili y o wo k any ime and anywhe e in o de o a oid unin ended consequences. In his
con ex , an o ganisa ional cul u e ha alues adhe ence o schedules and ‘swi ching o ’ a he end o he wo kday, e en
unde condi ions o high wo kloads and low pe sonnel esou ces, can be bene icial.
Keywo ds In o mal elewo k · Wo k- amily con lic s (WFC) · O e ime · Aus ia · Uni ed Kingdom
Is in o melle Telea bei eine Ge ah ü die Ve einba kei on E we bsa bei und Familie? Ein
Ve gleich de Implika ionen on o melle und in o melle Telea bei ü Ve einba kei skon lik e
Zusammen assung
Die S udie un e such den Zusammenhang zwischen o melle und in o melle Telea bei und Ve einba kei skon lik en
au Basis des job-demands and esou ces (JD-R) Modells. Bislang wu de dies häu ig angewand ohne zwischen o male
Telea bei und in o melle Telea bei , auße halb e aglich- e einba e A bei szei , zu un e scheiden. Au Basis on
Pilo da en des Eu opean Social Su eys wu den OLS-Reg essionen du chge üh , die nahe legen, dass o melle Telea bei
mi wenige und in o melle Telea bei mi meh Ve einba kei skon lik en e bunden is . Wäh end o melle Telea bei als
Ressou ce e schein , wi k in o melle Telea bei ehe im Sinne eine Belas ung. Alle dings geh in o melle Telea bei häu ig
mi o melle Telea bei einhe , sodass e einba kei s eduzie ende Implika ionen on o melle Telea bei du ch in o melle
Telea bei abgeschwäch we den können.
An je Schwa z, M.A.
an je.schwa z@uni-biele eld.de
1Biele eld Uni e si y, Uni e si ä ss aße 25, 33615 Biele eld,
Ge many
K
2Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11
P ak ische Rele anz: Wäh end o melle Telea bei e einba kei s ö de n schein , bes eh die Ge ah , dass diese Dynamik
kon e ka ie wi d, sowei diese mi in o melle Telea bei wäh end bezahl e ode unbezahl e Übe s unden einhe geh .
Die Be unde legen nahe, dass es wich ig is , das Vo gese z e, Pe sonal e an wo liche und Beschä ig e das Po enzial und
die Risiken häu ige Telea bei kennen, die mi de Möglichkei einhe gehen jede zei und übe all a bei en zu können, um
unin endie e Folgen zu e meiden. In diesem Zusammenhang kann eine O ganisa ionskul u , die We au die Einhal ung
on Zei plänen und das „Abschal en“ am Ende des A bei s ages, auch bei hohen Belas ungen du ch zu g oße A bei smengen
und zu wenig Pe sonal essou cen, leg , gewinnb ingend sein.
Schlüsselwö e In o melle Telea bei · Ve einba kei skon lik e (WFC) · Übe s unden · Ös e eich · Ve einig es
König eich
1In oduc ion
Telewo k as a esou ce o a be e econcilia ion o wo k
and p i a e li e has gained a new momen um in ecen
yea s, in pa icula wi h he onse o he Co id-19 pan-
demic. Unde s ood as subs i u ing a po ion o ypical wo k-
ing hou s in a cen al wo kspace usually by wo king om
home (Allen e al. 2015), elewo k is o en ca ied ou
wi h digi al in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies
(ICTs) o collabo a e wi h o he s o o access wo k docu-
men s and equipmen . Following he job-demands and e-
sou ces model (Bakke and Deme ou i 2007; Deme ou i
e al. 2001), elewo k has been desc ibed as a esou ce o
be e align wo k and pe sonal li e bu also seems o in ol e
new demands. Fo example, i enables a lexible adjus men
o demands in he wo k and amily sphe e bu also os e s
he dissolu ion o bounda ies, which can inc ease he like-
lihood ha wo k in ades he amily li e (Cla k 2000). Fo
ins ance, ha ing he abili y o wo k on documen s om
a dis ance o being accessible o wo k communica ion i -
espec i e o he loca ion could no only enable elewo k
in con ac ed hou s bu also acili a e wo k ou side egula
wo king hou s.
Exis ing esea ch emphasises he impo ance o in o -
mali y (Nä i e al. 2011; Ojala e al. 2014) and o e ime
wo k in ol ed in he execu ion o elewo k (Lo 2019;Pe-
e s and Van de Lippe 2007). Al hough he equency o
elewo k plays an impo an ole in cu en esea ch, li le
is known on when i is pe o med (Golden 2012; Sulli an
2003). The iming o elewo k is o pa icula impo ance
because he di ision o a day acco ding o wo king hou s
and ee ime is po en ially h ea ened by he use o ICTs
and i s bounda y-spanning oppo uni ies (Cla k 2000;Ol-
son and P imps 1984; P ei e 2012; Tie ze and Musson
2003; Wajcman e al. 2010). In an ea ly s udy by Olson and
P imps, o mal elewo k and “a e -hou s wo k a home”
(1984, p. 99) we e dis inguished in o de o conside em-
ployees’ elewo k a e a egula wo kday a a cen al wo k-
place. Golden (2012) desc ibed he di e ence be ween “ a-
di ional elewo k” du ing ypical wo king hou s and “non-
adi ional elewo k” du ing he e ening o on he week-
end, and he in o mal cha ac e o elewo k was s essed
by Finnish and Swedish esea che s in con as o o mal
elewo k (Nä i e al. 2011; Ojala 2011; Ojala e al. 2014).
While ime pa e ns o elewo k a e add essed in heo e -
ical and quali a i e esea ch (Ammons and Ma kham 2004;
Olson and P imps 1984; Tie ze and Musson 2003), quan i-
a i e examina ions o he iming o elewo k a e s ill sca ce.
Findings on na ional samples highligh ha o e ime wo k
om home wi hou compensa ion is he mos p e alen con-
duc ion o elewo k and, hus, equi e u he in es iga ion
(Ojala 2011). Fo ins ance, a mo e ecen s udy on Ge man
employees highligh s a wo se empo al alignmen o wo k
and p i a e li e unde he execu ion o in o mal o e ime a
home (Me gene e al. 2023).
D awing on p e ious esea ch, we see he need o unde -
s and elewo k as a b oad and con inuously changing wo k
p ac ise ha has o be clea ly de ined in o de o a oid
misunde s andings wi h espec o i s di e en a ia ions.
We ollow he ad ice o using “p ojec -speci ic de ini ions”
(Sulli an 2003, p. 159) o con ibu e o he exis ing in es i-
ga ions on he phenomena wi hou neglec ing i s a ie y o
o ms. In his s udy, we ocus on o mal elewo k as wo k
om home o ano he loca ion o choice du ing con ac ed
wo king hou s. We dis inguish his wo k a angemen om
in o mal elewo k as wo k om home o ano he loca ion
o choice du ing paid o unpaid o e ime. Ou goal is o
unde s and he implica ions o bo h kinds o elewo k wi h
espec o he econcilia ion o wo k and amily by means
o he well-es ablished measu e o wo k- amily con lic s
(Gallie and Russell 2009). As he iming o elewo k seems
o be c ucial o i s implica ions o econcile p i a e and
p o essional li e, we ask: To wha ex en is o mal and in-
o mal elewo k associa ed wi h expe iences o wo k- amily
con lic s? In o de o answe he esea ch ques ion, we ap-
ply c oss-sec ional OLS eg essions on pilo da a om he
Eu opean Social Su ey (10 h ound), which p o ides e i-
dence o o mal and in o mal elewo k in Aus ia and he
Uni ed Kingdom. Exis ing su eys so a a ely allow o
dis inguish be ween o mal and in o mal elewo k.
K
Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11 3
2 Reconcilia ion o wo k and amily:
Telewo k as a demand o a esou ce?
Wi h he inc ease o emale employmen in he las cen u y
(OECD 2022) and he o e all inc ease o demanded lexi-
bili y in ime and place a wo k (Senne 1999), challenges
in econciling wo k and p i a e li e ha e gained impo ance.
Employees ha e o manage he bounda ies be ween wo k
and amily (Cla k 2000) in o de o educe he likelihood o
wo k- amily con lic s. These a e e e ed o “as a o m o
in e ole con lic in which he ole p essu es om he wo k
and amily domains a e mu ually incompa ible in some e-
spec ” (G eenhaus and Beu ell 1985, p. 77). Acco ding o
F one e al. (1992), he pe cep ion o wo k- amily con lic s
a ises when demands o wo k c oss he bounda y in o he
p i a e domain. Howe e , con lic s could also esul om
amily demands in ading he p o essional domain (Gu ek
e al. 1991). Assuming ha ac o s associa ed wi h he job
a e s onge ela ed o wo k- amily con lic s han amily-
wo k con lic s (By on 2005), we in es iga e he unidi ec-
ional pe cep ion o ime- and s ain-based wo k- o- amily
con lic s.
Following exis ing esea ch, we d aw on he job-de-
mands esou ces model (JD-R) (Bakke e al. 2004;Bakke
and Deme ou i 2007;Deme ou ie al.2001)ino de o
g asp elewo k as a mul i ace ed phenomenon, which can
include bo h esou ce gains as well as inc eases in wo k
demands, and o conside i s ela ionship wi h o mal and
in o mal elewo k. The JD-R model desc ibes wo king con-
di ions and hei unc ioning as a job demand o job e-
sou ce. Al hough he ini ial aim o he model was o in es-
iga e he eme gence o bu nou (Deme ou i e al. 2001),
i has been used o s udy o he ou comes in he ield o
well-being (Bakke and Deme ou i 2007). In his app oach,
job demands a e desc ibed as physical, social and o gani-
sa ional cha ac e is ics o a job ha equi e e o and a e,
hus, ela ed o men al and physical bu dens o employ-
ees. Con e sely, job esou ces a e de ined as simila phys-
ical, social and o ganisa ional aspec s o a job ha impac
wo ke s posi i ely, o ins ance, in achie ing wo k goals,
inducing pe sonal de elopmen , o educing job demands
and he associa ed bu dens (Bakke e al. 2004; Deme ou i
e al. 2001). We assume ha o mal elewo k se es as a job
esou ce easing he econcilia ion o wo k and amily li e,
whe eas in o mal elewo k a he unc ions as a job demand
on he wo k- amily in e ace. In he ollowing sec ions, we
elabo a e ha o mal elewo k is ela ed o an employee-
iendly lexibili y, while in o mal elewo k is conduc ed o
se e employe s’ in e es s.
2.1 Job esou ce: Fo mal elewo k and wo k- amily
con lic s
Following he pe spec i e o o mal elewo k as a job e-
sou ce, o mal elewo k se es employees’ econcilia ion o
wo k and amily li e and hus con ibu es o lowe con lic s
be ween hese li e domains. The a ionale is ha elewo k
o e s loca ional lexibili y while i is embedded in ules o
a o mal a angemen . Fo mal elewo k du ing con ac ed
wo k hou s is subjec o ag eemen s wi h supe iso s, and
he e o e no hidden in in o mali y. Wo king hou s e e o
a no ma i e ame o an accep ed wo k ime, e en i hey
a e no ully scheduled, o ins ance, du ing hou s when
colleagues and supe io s a e expec ed o be a ailable. O -
en, a angemen s o o mal elewo k go hand in hand wi h
s a egies o collabo a ion (Collins e al. 2016) and a sup-
po i e in as uc u e owa ds loca ion-independen wo k,
such as egula communica ion by mail o phone, o sched-
uled ideo con e ences. These help elewo ke s gain easy
access o sho - e m coo dina ion, collabo a ion o wo k-
ela ed ad ice.
In line wi h he pe cep ion o o mal elewo k as a e-
sou ce, he e is suppo ing e idence, o ins ance, on e-
duced wo k- amily con lic s (Hill e al. 2010; Laß and
Wooden 2022), employees’ s onge pe cep ion o wo k-li e
suppo om supe iso s (Abend o h and Schwa z 2023),
a highe likelihood ha mo he s e u n o he labou ma -
ke wi h mo e hou s a e he bi h o a child (Chung and
Van de Ho s 2018), and a s onge en ichmen o pa -
en -child in e ac ions (Kim 2020). Mo eo e , exis ing e-
sea ch shows ha hou s in elewo k can be used o ul-
il asks wi h less wo k- ela ed dis ac ion han in cen al
wo kplaces (Allen e al. 2015). Addi ionally, con ol by line
manage s is limi ed h ough spa ial dis ance. This could a-
cili a e wo k beyond pe cei ed “s anda ds” o ideal wo ke
no ms (Williams 1999) and acco dingly lead o less s ain.
Ano he aspec o elewo k du ing con ac ed wo king
hou s is i s abili y o s eng hen he bounda ies be ween
occupa ional and p i a e sphe es. E en hough he isk o
bounda y blu ing is cons an ly discussed as a cen al im-
plica ion o elewo k, i is limi ed h ough he ins i u ional
ame o o mali y and con ac ed wo king hou s. Wo king
in an accep ed ime ame acili a es he di e en pe cep ion
o ce ain poin s in ime du ing a day and o pe o m spe-
cial oles possibly minimizing beha iou -based con lic s. In
his pe cep ion, ime can be used as a bounda y o segmen
p i a e li e om wo king hou s (Cla k 2000). Followingly,
we assume ha o mal elewo k unc ions as a esou ce:
H1 The mo e equen ly esponden s wo k in o mal ele-
wo k, he less equen ly hey expe ience wo k- amily con-
lic s.
K
4Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11
2.2 Job demand: In o mal elewo k and wo k-
amily con lic s
Ne e heless, elewo k can also in ol e new wo k demands
(Abend o h and Reimann 2018; Gla in and Schieman 2012;
Lo 2019). We assume ha in o mal elewo k du ing paid
o unpaid o e ime could especially inc ease he likelihood
ha wo k om home in ol es high wo k demands and mo e
bounda y blu ing, and hus, inc eases he likelihood o con-
lic s be ween he li e domains. One explana ion is ha i
se es employe s’ in e es s in lexibili y and a ec s a ail-
able ime o employees in a leas wo ways: i s , ee ime
a e wo k is illed wi h wo k and he need o in es ad-
di ional e o , while, second, o he elaxing ac i i ies can-
no be ca ied ou o he ulles . Fo ins ance, Schieman
and Young (2010) epo mo e wo k- amily con lic s due o
wo k- amily mul i asking. Thus, a cons an swi ching be-
ween bo h domains may lead o highe bounda y-blu ing
and possible dis ac ion (Cla k 2000). This is likely o be
an e en mo e p e alen si ua ion in an in o mal se ing, be-
yond con ac ed wo king hou s and o en in he e ening,
han in a o mal se ing o elewo k. Besides mo e simul-
aneous wo k and po en ial dis ac ions, Nä i e al. (2011)
epo ed an ex ension o wo king hou s and a educ ion o
ee ime o wo ke s doing unpaid elewo k. The exam-
ined mo i a ions o supplemen al wo k om home seem
o be h ee old (Ojala 2011): a olun a y willingness based
on en husiasm, he need o inish ga he ed asks on a sho
no ice, and he pe cep ion o an in o mal, egula wo k p ac-
ise suppo ed by he o ganisa ional cul u e.
In addi ion o he challenges posed by ex a wo k wi h
ega d o ime, a s udy based on a sample o p o essionals
in a la ge compu e company in he Uni ed S a es epo ed
ha he p opo ion spen in in o mal elewo k inc eased he
associa ion be ween wo k- amily con lic s and he eeling
o exhaus ion (Golden 2012). Wo k- amily con lic s can
become appa en when occupa ional oles cons an ly ex-
end in o wha would o he wise be ee ime. Resul s om
a Finnish s udy u he suppo his assump ion: in o mal
o e ime a home was mo e likely associa ed wi h conce ns
o neglec ing amily demands due o wo k and he pa ne s’
pe cep ion ha he esponden was wo king oo ha d (Ojala
e al. 2014). I can be assumed ha space o p i a e de-
mands is sh inking and people ha e o o go po en ial ime
spen oge he due o he equen pe o mance o in o mal
elewo k. In addi ion, accompanying ac o s o supplemen-
al wo k a home a e a egula wo k day, such as cons an
connec i i y (Mazmanian e al. 2013; Mullan and Wajcman
2019), can play a ole when ee ime is used o wo k.
Thus, i can be p esumed ha in o mal elewo k is a de-
mand o he econcilia ion o wo k and amily li e:
H2 The mo e equen ly esponden s wo k in in o mal ele-
wo k, he mo e equen ly hey expe ience wo k- amily
con lic s.
Wi h ou p e iously s a ed hypo heses, we d aw on o -
mal and in o mal elewo k as dis inc wo k p ac ises wi h
opposing in luences on wo k- amily con lic s. Ne e heless,
bo h kinds o elewo k can be pe o med by he same em-
ployees, o ins ance, h ough o mal elewo k du ing a eg-
ula wo kday and addi ional in o mal a e -hou s wo k a
home.
3 Ma e ials and me hods
We use pilo da a om he 10 h ound o he Eu opean
Social Su ey (ESS). The ESS is a end su ey ha is
conduc ed e e y wo yea s and which was expanded by
he o a ing module “Digi al Social Con ac s in Wo k and
Family Li e” (Eu opean Social Su ey 2022) in ound 10.
Unlike he da a om he ESS main su ey, only he pilo
da a in es iga es bo h kinds o o mal and in o mal elewo k
as well as i ems measu ing wo k- amily con lic s. Un o u-
na ely, he b oad examina ion o elewo k was omi ed om
he main su ey due o he educ ion o he ques ionnai e
o a sho e sel -comple ion e sion as a esul o he pan-
demic. The e o e, his sou ce o da a on elewo k is unique
as an oppo uni y o a mo e comp ehensi e examina ion
o he phenomena. Pa icipan s we e ques ioned in ace- o-
ace in e iews in 2019 be o e he onse o he pandemic in
Aus ia and he Uni ed Kingdom. We selec ed a es ic ed
sample wi h esponden s aged 19 o olde who epo ed ha
hey conduc ed paid wo k du ing he p e ious se en days
(N= 206). In o de o in es iga e ou esea ch ques ion, we
conduc ed linea OLS eg ession and p o ided addi ional
sensi i i y es s using linea s uc u al equa ion models.
The pe cep ion o ime- and s ain-based wo k- amily
con lic s was measu ed wi h he app o ed i ems conduc ed
in ESS in 2004 and 2010 (Round 2 and 5, Gallie and Rus-
sell 2009): “How o en do you keep wo ying abou wo k
p oblems when you a e no wo king?”, “How o en do you
eel oo i ed a e wo k o enjoy he hings you would like
o do a home?”, “How o en do you ind ha you job p e-
en s you om gi ing he ime you wan o you pa ne o
amily?” and “How o en do you ind ha you pa ne o
amily ge s ed up wi h he p essu e o you job?”. Respon-
den s we e asked o assess hei si ua ion on a 5-poin scale
om 0 “Ne e ”, 1 “Ha dly e e ”, 2 “Some imes”, 3 “O -
en”, o 4 “Always”. A mean alue index (sum di ided by
numbe o i ems) was o med (α= 0.7865). Fo esponden s
who did no answe he hi d ques ion because hey we e
no in a ela ionship, he index is based only on he i s
wo i ems.
K
Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11 5
The equencies o o mal and in o mal elewo k we e
assessed using he i ems “How o en do you wo k om
home o om ano he place o you choice du ing you ba-
sic o con ac ed wo king hou s?” and “How o en do you
wo k om home o om ano he place o you choice du -
ing paid o unpaid o e ime?” on a ange om 1 “Ne e ”,
2 “Se e al imes/Once a mon h/Less o en”, and 3 “E e y-
day/Se e al imes a week”.
Social demog aphic cha ac e is ics, such as coun y,
gende , age and domicile we e used as con ols. Respon-
den s om “Aus ia” we e coded 0 and esponden s om
he “Uni ed Kingdom” 1. Gende was limi ed o 0 “Men”
and 1 “Women”. Age was measu ed con inuously. Respon-
den s we e asked o desc ibe hei esiden ial en i onmen
as bes as possible on a ange om 1 “A big ci y”, 2 “Sub-
u bs o ou ski s o big ci y”, 3 “Town o small ci y”, and
4 “Coun y illage/Fa m o home in he coun yside”.
As wo k- ela ed con ols, con ac ed weekly wo king
hou s and occupa ions we e in ol ed in he analyses. The
ca ego ies desc ibing he esponden s’ occupa ion we e:
1 “P o essional/Technical occupa ions”, 2 “Highe /Cle ical
adminis a o occupa ions”, 3 “Sales/Se ice occupa ions”,
4 “Skilled wo ke ”, and 5 “Semi-skilled/Unskilled/Fa m
wo ke s”. Fu he mo e, o e ime was calcula ed as he di -
e ence be ween s a ed o al and con ac ed weekly wo king
hou s.
Household- ela ed con ols we e applied h ough es i-
ma ion o p esence o pa ne and kids in he esponden s’
household, coded by 0 “No” and 1 “Yes”.
4Resul s
4.1 Desc ip i e esul s
Ou desc ip i e esul s (Table 1) show signi ican ly mo e
wo k- amily con lic s on a e age in he sample o he
Uni ed Kingdom (2.75) compa ed o he Aus ian sample
(2.39). In line wi h he compa able di usion o o mal
elewo k in bo h coun ies desc ibed abo e, desc ip i e e-
sul s on he use o elewo k a e e y simila in ou sample.
An almos equal sha e o wo hi ds o he esponden s in
each coun y epo ha hey ne e wo k om home. In
he Uni ed Kingdom, he emaining one hi d comp ises
a highe sha e o employees doing elewo k mon hly o
less o en (26.73%) han weekly o e e yday (9.90%). In
Aus ia, he sha e o employees wo king om home is
equal in bo h g oups o equency (17.14%). Howe e ,
he di e ences be ween he coun ies a e no s a is ically
signi ican . O e all, he majo i y ne e wo ks om home
in o mally (66.02%), while app oxima ely one hi d o
he esponden s pa icipa es in in o mal elewo k mon hly
o less o en (21.36%), o weekly o e e yday (12.62%).
Fu he analyses indica e ha he equencies o o mal and
in o mal elewo k a e associa ed (Spea man’s ho= 0.6474,
p< 0.001), hus, equen o mal elewo k goes hand in
hand wi h equen in o mal elewo k (Fig. 1). Co ela ions
o he me ic a iables (Table 3in he Appendix) a e
p esen ed in he appendix.
4.2 Mul i a ia e analysis
The linea eg ession model in es iga es he associa ion o
o mal and in o mal elewo k wi h wo k- amily con lic s
(Table 2). The esul s show suppo o he hypo hesized
associa ion H1 o a highe equency o o mal elewo k
and less equen expe ience o wo k- amily con lic s. Em-
ployees who pe o m elewo k weekly o e e y day e-
po a lowe equency o expe ienced wo k- amily con lic s
compa ed o esponden s who ne e pa icipa e in elewo k
(β= –0.493*). The analysis u he lends suppo o hypo h-
esis H2. In o mal elewo k is associa ed wi h a highe e-
quency o wo k- amily con lic s (β= 0.774**) o espon-
den s who pe o m elewo k weekly o e e y day in con as
o non- elewo ke s.
In addi ion, se e al con ols we e signi ican ly ela ed o
wo k- amily con lic s. A highe equency o wo k- amily
con lic s was ound o emale esponden s and he g oup
o semi-skilled, unskilled and a m wo ke s. Fu he mo e,
wo king longe con ac ed hou s is ela ed o mo e pe -
cei ed con lic s. Vice e sa, olde esponden s and espon-
den s li ing in a coun y illage, on a a m o in he coun-
yside we e associa ed wi h ewe wo k- amily con lic s.
Mo eo e , no di e ences we e ound accoun ing o e-
sponden s om he Uni ed Kingdom and Aus ia.
The desc ip i e esul s (Fig. 1) u he indica e ha em-
ployees who pe o m o mal elewo k a e also mo e likely
o pe o m in o mal elewo k equen ly. Addi ionally, we
es he media ing e ec o in o mal elewo k be ween o -
mal elewo k and wo k- amily con lic s using a s uc u al
equa ion model accoun ing o he p e ious con ols (Fig. 2
and Table 4in he Appendix). While o mal elewo k o -
en goes hand in hand wi h highe in o mal elewo k (β=
0.546***), he di ec associa ion be ween o mal elewo k
and wo k- amily con lic s is nega i e (β= –0.189+) a he
signi icance le el o p< 0.010. In line wi h he p e ious
esul s, mo e equen in o mal elewo k is also associ-
a ed wi h a s onge expe ience o wo k- amily con lic s
(β= 0.349**). The signi ican indi ec e ec (β= 0.190**)
sugges s ha he associa ion be ween o mal elewo k and
wo k- amily con lic s is media ed h ough equen in o -
mal elewo k. Thus, mo e in o mal elewo k seems o in-
luence he associa ion o o mal elewo k and wo k- amily
con lic s.
K
6Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11
Table 1 Desc ip i e S a is ics
Tab. 1 Desk ip i e S a is ik
Uni ed Kingdom Aus ia To al
(n= 101) (n= 105) (N= 206)
Pe cen aSD Pe cen SD Pe cen SD
Wo k- amily con lic s 2.75** 0.91 2.39 0.85 2.57 0.90
Fo mal elewo k
Ne e 63.37 – 65.71 – 64.56 –
Se e al imes/Once a mon h/Less o en epo ed 26.73 – 17.14 – 21.84 –
E e y day/Se e al imes a week 9.90 – 17.14 – 13.59 –
In o mal elewo k
Ne e 64.36 – 67.62 – 66.02 –
Se e al imes/Once a mon h/Less o en epo ed 21.78 – 20.95 – 21.36 –
E e y day/Se e al imes a week 13.86 – 11.43 – 12.62 –
Demog aphy
Women 55.45 – 46.67 – 50.97 –
Age 40.35 12.84 42.42 – 41.40 12.69
Domicile
A big ci y 22.77** – 22.86 – 22.82 –
Subu b/ou ski s 15.84 – 9.52 – 12.62 –
Town/small ci y 47.52 – 33.33 – 40.29 –
Coun y illage/ a m/coun yside 13.86 – 34.29 – 24.27 –
Wo k
Occupa ion (p o ./ ech. occupa ion)
P o essional/ echnical occupa ion 35.64*** – 19.05 – 27.28 –
Highe /cle ical adminis a ion occupa ions 15.84 – 25.71 – 20.87 –
Sales/se ice occupa ion 16.83 – 34.29 – 25.73 –
Skilled wo ke 6.93 – 12.38 – 9.71 –
Semi-skilled/Unskilled/Fa m wo ke 24.75 – 8.57 – 16.50 –
Con ac ed wo king hou s 33.24 11.18 33.98 8.83 33.62 10.03
O e ime hou s 1.17** 6.76 3.71 5.24 2.46 6.10
Family
Li ing wi h pa ne 61.39 – 50.48 – 55.83 –
Li ing wi h child 19.80 – 24.76 – 22.33 –
Pilo da a Eu opean Social Su ey (Round 10). S anda d e o s in pa en heses
*p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001
aAs e isks symbolize signi ican di e ences be ween coun y samples examined by - es s ( wo- ailed) ac oss con inuous a iables and Chi2 o
all bina y and ca ego ial a iables
5 Discussion
The aim o his s udy was o examine he associa ion o
o mal and in o mal elewo k wi h wo k- amily con lic s.
P e ious esea ch has s essed he impo ance o analysing
o e ime hou s and in o mali y o elewo k (Golden 2012;
Ojala e al. 2014) bu li le is known abou he di e ences
be ween he implica ions o o mal and in o mal elewo k
o wo k- amily con lic s. Ou s udy con ibu es wo majo
indings: i s , we conclude ha o mal and in o mal ele-
wo k a e exp essions o elewo k ha a e associa ed wi h
an agonis ic ou comes i equen ly used. In line wi h he
job demands- esou ces model we conclude on he phenom-
ena o elewo k: Fo mal elewo k can se e as a means
o a be e econcilia ion o wo k and amily li e. This
inding is in line wi h he esul s o me a-analyses on ewe
wo k- amily con lic s when pa icipa ing in elewo k (Allen
e al. 2013; Gajend an and Ha ison 2007). We assume ha
he egula ed con ex wi h wo king hou s as he subjec o
ag eemen s in an equipped in as uc u e du ing a no ma-
i e ame o wo king hou s (Nä i e al. 2011) has a posi-
i e impac on he wo k- amily in e ace h ough acili a ed
sho - e m coo dina ion, collabo a ion and access o wo k-
ela ed ad ice. Opposi e o ha , equen use o in o mal
elewo k, in paid o unpaid o e ime, a he unc ions as
a h ea o he econcilia ion o wo k and amily li e. Due o
he un egula ed and o en hidden pe o mance (Ojala 2011),
p i a e demands a e mo e likely o be unde p essu e om
K
Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11 7
Fig. 1 F equency o in o mal
elewo k g ouped by equency
o o mal elewo k
Abb. 1 Häu igkei de in o mel-
len Telea bei g uppie nach
Häu igkei de o mellen Telea -
bei
p o essional demands han ice e sa. The eme gence o
wo k- amily con lic s is likely when wo k is pe o med in
he e ening (Nä i e al. 2011) o due o a hea y wo kload
(Ojala 2011). This becomes pa icula ly i al when wo k
has o be conduc ed unde condi ions o low pe sonnel e-
sou ces. Ne e heless, p e ious esea ch also desc ibes he
pe o mance o in o mal elewo k ou o ee will. Fo in-
s ance, s udies epo a olun a y in ensi ica ion o elewo k
in o e ime (Kellihe and Ande son 2010) o a willingness
o wo k ex a-hou s based on en husiasm (Ojala 2011), pos-
sibly going along wi h a highe likelihood o wo k- amily
con lic s.
The con adic o y ou comes o elewo k canno be con-
side ed sepa a ely, as in o mal elewo k is o en in e wined
wi h o mal elewo k a angemen s. E en hough some o -
mal elewo ke s do no pa icipa e in in o mal elewo k and
ice e sa, he dynamics sugges ha o mal elewo ke s
a e a isk o wo k- amily con lic s because in o mal ele-
wo k is mo e likely in elewo k and o en goes hand in hand
wi h mo e expe iences o wo k- amily con lic s. One possi-
ble explana ion is he adhe ence o gi -exchange dynamics,
whe e employe s p o ide elewo k in he lexibili y in e -
es s o employees bu expec ha elewo k is also used in
he lexibili y in e es s o he employe as a e u n (Chung
2017). I seems ha policy-make s, o ganisa ions and su-
pe iso s should pay special a en ion o he g oup o em-
ployees who equen ly pa icipa e in elewo k on a weekly
o daily basis in o de o p omo e a econcilia ion o wo k
and amily li e and p o ec hem om unconside ed e ec s,
such as highe equency o wo k- amily con lic s.
Al hough ou analysis epo highe wo k- amily con-
lic s o semi-skilled, unskilled, and a m wo ke s com-
pa ed wi h p o essional and echnical occupa ions, p e ious
esea ch has highligh ed highe wo k- amily con lic s in e-
la ionship wi h elewo k o employees wi h highe occu-
pa ional s a us (Fels ead e al. 2002; Schwa z e al. 2023).
Highe con lic s o lowe occupa ional p o essions o e -
all a e no in con adic ion wi h elewo k-speci ic indings
o highe occupa ional s a us g oups, as exis ing esea ch
poin s owa ds a highe access o elewo k o highe occu-
pa ional p o essions in Eu ope (Gschwind and Va gas 2019)
which goes hand in hand wi h a highe wo k-nonwo k in-
e e ence o occupa ions wi h g ea e job au ho i y, job
skill, and decision-making la i ude in line wi h he s ess
o highe s a us hypo hesis (Schieman e al. 2009). Fu he -
mo e, highe con ac ed wo king hou s a e associa ed wi h
highe wo k- amily con lic s in ou analysis. This inding is
consis en wi h e idence on highe wo k-nonwo k in e e -
ence o long wo k hou s, which a e e en mo e p onounced
unde condi ions o lexible wo king a angemen s (Schie-
man e al. 2009).
To conclude, i is impo an o conside elewo k as
a mul i ace ed phenomenon. Bailey and Ku land (2002,
p. 390) s a ed i as “The o e looked ques ion: How do peo-
ple elewo k?”. Simple concep ualisa ions a e ine i able in
p ac ise, bu we would like o mo i a e esea che s o use
mo e de ined de ini ions a he han “one o all” o mu-
la ions (Sulli an 2003). F om his pe spec i e, i is wo h
conside ing indings ha epo ha he majo i y o ele-
wo k akes places in in o mal se ings (Ojala 2011).
K
8Zei sch i ü A bei swissenscha (2025) 79:1–11
Table 2 OLS- eg ession analysis o wo k- amily con lic s
Tab. 2 OLS-Reg essionsanalyse on Ve einba kei skon lik en
βSE
Fo mal elewo k (Re . Ne e )
Se e al imes/Once a mon h/
Less o en
0.066 (0.1749)
E e y day/Se e al imes a week –0.493*(0.2353)
In o mal elewo k (Re . Ne e )
Se e al imes/Once a mon h/
Less o en
0.247 (0.1691)
E e y day/Se e al imes a week 0.774** (0.2513)
Demog aphy
Women (Re . Men) 0.423** (0.1298)
Age –0.012*(0.0048)
Domicile (Re . A big ci y)
Subu b/Ou ski s –0.252 (0.1973)
Town/Small ci y –0.160 (0.1497)
Coun y illage/Fa m/
Coun yside
–0.318+(0.1706)
Wo k
Occupa ion (Re . P o essional/Technical occupa ion)
Highe /Cle ical adminis a ion
occupa ion
–0.102 (0.1693)
Sales/Se ice occupa ion –0.211 (0.1745)
Skilled wo ke 0.054 (0.2219)
Semi-skilled/Unskilled/Fa m
wo ke
0.525** (0.1881)
Con ac ed wo king hou s 0.024*** (0.0062)
O e ime hou s 0.012 (0.0102)
Family
Li ing wi h pa ne 0.001 (0.1255)
Li ing wi h child 0.004 (0.1444)
Uni ed Kingdom (Re . Aus ia) 0.138 (0.1286)
Cons an 1.987*** (0.3539)
N206
Adj. R20.2340
Pilo da a Eu opean Social Su ey (Round 10). S anda d e o s in
pa en heses
+p< 0.10, *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001
Addi ionally, limi a ions in he analysis ha e o be
poin ed ou . The analysis is conduc ed c oss-sec ionally
wi h a small sample size. Bo h ac o s limi he scope o
he esul s. This should be imp o ed o a mo e eliable
in es iga ion in he u u e. Fo his eason, bo h exp essions
o elewo k need o be included in la ge su eys in o de o
gain insigh s o la ge samples o e ime. Ne e heless, he
esul s p o ided highligh ha he examina ion o o mal
and in o mal elewo k con ibu es o a be e unde s anding
o he pa ly con a y indings on he econcilia ion o wo k
and amily li e unde he condi ion o elewo k and gi e
u he ad ice on how he p ac ical use o elewo k could
be imp o ed.
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