The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of Prospective Teachers at Vocational Schools

Giek, Te esa; Eichen op , Philipp; Sei ied, Jü gen; Bu da-Zoyke, And ea
A icle — Published Ve sion
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic
Skills o P ospec i e Teache s a Voca ional Schools
Voca ions and Lea ning
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Giek, Te esa; Eichen op , Philipp; Sei ied, Jü gen; Bu da-Zoyke, And ea (2025) :
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o P ospec i e Teache s a Voca ional
Schools, Voca ions and Lea ning, ISSN 1874-7868, Sp inge Ne he lands, Do d ech , Vol. 18, Iss. 1,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12186-025-09378-1
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RESEARCH
Voca ions and Lea ning (2025) 18:22
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12186-025-09378-1
Abs ac
The abili y o e alua e eaching si ua ions e ec i ely is a c i ical componen o o-
ca ional school eache s’ p o essional compe encies, pa icula ly in diagnosing s u-
den s’ lea ning di icul ies and po en ial in he e ogeneous class ooms. Inclusi e di-
agnos ics se e as he ounda ion o adap i e eaching and indi idualized suppo ,
highligh ing he impo ance o os e ing hese compe encies in eache educa ion.
To mee hese demands and p o ide p ac ice-o ien ed aining, ideo-based each-
ing and lea ning o ma s a e gaining inc easing impo ance. In his con ex , ideo
igne es ha e been iden i ied as p omising ools o b idging he gap be ween
eache educa ion and p o essional p ac ice. In his con ex , we de eloped ideo
igne es o enhance s uden eache s’ p o essional ision and inclusi e diagnos ic
compe encies. In ou explo a o y s udy, we analyzed bo h (1) he cu en s a e and
(2) he de elopmen o s uden eache s’ p o essional ision ega ding inclusi e
diagnos ics h ough hei engagemen wi h ideo igne es in eache aining. The
indings indica e ha while p ospec i e oca ional school eache s ind he desc ip-
ion o he scena ios depic ed manageable, p o iding well- easoned jus i ica ions
o hei decisions p esen s g ea e di icul y bu shows imp o emen wi h con inued
engagemen . Fu he mo e, measu able changes bo h in compe encies and in sel -
e icacy ela ed o cogni i e, linguis ic, and beha io al aspec s, a e obse ed o e
he cou se o igne e-based in e en ions. These esul s highligh he e icacy o
ideo igne es as a pedagogical ins umen in ad ancing p o essional ision and
inclusi e diagnos ic skills wi hin he amewo k o eache educa ion p og ams.
Keywo ds Video igne es · Teache educa ion · P o essional ision · Pedagogical
diagnos ics · Compe ence de elopmen · Inclusion
Recei ed: 18 Feb ua y 2025 / Accep ed: 11 Augus 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic
Skills o P ospec i e Teache s a Voca ional Schools
Te esaGiek1· PhilippEichen op 2· Jü genSei ied1· And eaBu da-Zoyke2
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
1 3
T. Giek e al.
He e ogenei y and Inclusi e Educa ion a Voca ional Schools
Voca ional educa ion and aining (VET) sys ems a ound he wo ld se e a highly
di e se s uden popula ion. This he e ogenei y is e lec ed in a ious dimensions,
including s uden s’ educa ional backg ounds (Ei íksdó i & Ros all, 2019; Pasu a,
2015; Smi h & Yasukawa, 2017), linguis ic and cogni i e abili ies (I konen e al.,
2015; Kons an inidou e al., 2023; Smi h & Yasukawa, 2017), and demog aphic ac-
o s such as age and gende (Ei íksdó i & Ros all, 2019; Pasu a, 2015). Cul u al
and social in luences u he con ibu e o he di e si y ound wi hin VET class-
ooms (Ei íksdó i & Ros all, 2019; Fine-Da is & Faas, 2018; Smi h & Yasukawa,
2017). Addi ionally, VET sys ems can se e as an impo an pilla o he inclusion
o ulne able g oups, such as s uden s wi h special educa ional needs (Scha nho s
& Kamme mann, 2020). Al hough VET eache s o en alue lea ne di e si y (Smi h
& Yasukawa, 2017), i can also p esen signi ican challenges (I konen e al., 2015).
Teache s a e inc easingly equi ed o adop lexible and esponsi e eaching s a e-
gies o add ess he di e se needs o hei s uden s (Naka & Bagnall, 2024). These
challenges can be pa icula ly complex o no ice oca ional school eache s (Kä k-
käinen & Ta nanen, 2022).
Al hough VET in Ge many, pa icula ly he dual oca ional aining sys em, has
always been cha ac e ized by a he e ogeneous s uden popula ion (Vonken e al.,
2022), his he e ogenei y has inc eased in ecen yea s (Ge man Fede al Minis y o
Educa ion and Resea ch, 2024) and is expec ed o con inue g owing (Bu da-Zoyke
& Joos , 2023). Fo ins ance, he p opo ion o s uden s wi h limi ed o no language
p o iciency in VET has isen, pa icula ly in p epa a o y aining p og ams, a end
pa ly a ibu ed o e ugee mig a ion (Au ho ing G oup, Na ional Repo on Edu-
ca ion, 2024; Ge man Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch, 2024). Mo e-
o e , he Ge man VET sys em encompasses a ious school ypes (Au ho ing G oup,
Na ional Repo on Educa ion, 2024; Hippach-Schneide e al., 2007).
In his con ex , ou s udy examines p ospec i e eache s a Ge man oca ional
schools who ace speci ic challenges in he e ogeneous class ooms demanding inclu-
si e educa ion. This equi es adap i e eaching suppo ed by pedagogical diagnos ics
o assess s uden s’ s eng hs and weaknesses and p o ide ailo ed suppo (Lindmeie
& Lü je-Klose, 2015; She in e al., 2008). While diagnos ics a e cen al o eaching
p o essionalism (Klug e al., 2012), eache s o en lack skills o e ec i ely manage
he e ogenei y, suppo s uden s, and conduc inclusi e diagnos ics (Biede beck &
Ro hland, 2017).
Add essing hese gaps is essen ial in eache aining, as highligh ed by Buchne
e al. (2021), who iden i y insu icien emphasis on inclusion- ela ed opics, such as
indi idualized lea ning, as a ba ie o ully inclusi e educa ion. P omo ing diagnos-
ic compe encies and eaching skills, especially s uden suppo (see P ae o ius e al.,
2018, 2020), is he e o e a c i ical p io i y o os e ing inclusi i y in VET. The e o e,
i is impo an o enable (s uden ) eache s o deal wi h he e ogenei y. I is assumed
ha ac o s such as eache s’ sel -e icacy and hei a i ude owa ds inclusion in lu-
ence inclusi e eaching p ac ice (W ay e al., 2022).
In addi ion o sel -e icacy, p o essional ision— he selec i e pe cep ion and
in e p e a ion o class oom e en s by eache s (Van Es & She in, 2002)—is linked
1 3
22 Page 2 o 39
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
o highe eaching quali y and enhanced s uden lea ning ou comes (e.g., Ke s ing
e al., 2012; Ro h e al., 2011; She in & Van Es, 2009). As p o essional ision is
domain- and con ex -speci ic (Holodynski & Meschede, 2022; Van Es & She in,
2002), eache aining mus p o ide au hen ic, eal-li e lea ning oppo uni ies.
Video-based o ma s, pa icula ly ideo igne es, a e ecognized as e ec i e ools
o os e ing p o essional compe encies, especially p o essional ision, in eache
educa ion (Gaudin & Chaliès, 2015). Video igne es depic selec ed eaching si ua-
ions in sho ideo sequences, encou aging (p ospec i e) eache s o e lec on and
analyze hem. This app oach has p o en success ul in Ge many’s VET sys em, whe e
ideo igne es ha e been used o enhance p o essional ision, add ess he e ogenei y,
and p omo e diagnos ic compe encies (e.g., Enenkiel e al., 2022).
Agains his backd op, we de eloped ideo igne es speci ically designed o
oca ional school se ings, ocusing on he domain o business and adminis a ion.
Ou explo a o y s udy aims o os e a speci ic compe ence dimension: p o essional
ision ela ed o inclusi e diagnos ics. This opic has been insu icien ly add essed
in bo h esea ch and p ac ice conce ning ideo igne es, highligh ing a p essing
p ac ical need and a signi ican esea ch gap. Al hough he e is g owing in e es in
p o essional ision, he condi ions necessa y o success ully de eloping such skills
emain unde explo ed and a e desc ibed as a pe sis en esea ch gap (Holodynski
& Meschede, 2022). Based on hese conside a ions, ou esea ch ques ions a e as
ollows:
(1) How can he p o essional ision o p ospec i e oca ional school eache s
ega ding inclusi e diagnos ics be cha ac e ized?
(2) Can he use o ideo igne es p omo e p ospec i e eache s’ sel -e icacy and
p o essional ision on inclusi e diagnos ics?
Theo e ical Backg ound
Inclusi e Diagnos ics and P o essional Vision
Inclusi e educa ion equi es adap i e eaching suppo ed by a speci ic o m o peda-
gogical diagnos ics o add ess he di e se needs and po en ials o all lea ne s (Lind-
meie & Lü je-Klose, 2015; She in e al., 2008). We call his inclusi e diagnos ics in
a b oad unde s anding (Bu da-Zoyke e al., 2025). This cons uc e e s on pedagogi-
cal diagnos ics (Ingenkamp & Lissmann, 2008), inclusi e diagnos ics (Schä e &
Ri meye , 2015, 2021; Simon & Simon, 2014), and didac ical diagnos ics (P engel,
2016).
(Inclusi e) pedagogical diagnos ic ac i i ies a e a co e esponsibili y o eache s
(Edelenbos & Kubanek-Ge man, 2004; Vog & Rogalla, 2009). B oadly de ined,
pedagogical diagnos ics desc ibes a wide ange o diagnos ic ac i i ies h ough
which he p e equisi es o lea ning and eaching p ocesses o indi idual lea ne s
and lea ne s in a g oup o class a e assessed, lea ning p ocesses a e analyzed, and
lea ning ou comes a e assessed in o de o op imize indi idual lea ning by in o med
pedagogical decisions, such as indi idualized suppo (Au schnai e e al., 2015;
1 3
Page 3 o 39 22
T. Giek e al.
Ingenkamp & Lissmann, 2008; Sch ade , 2013). This diagnos ic unc ion becomes
pa icula ly impo an in he con ex o inclusi e educa ion, whe e he ocus lies on
add essing he di e se needs and po en ials o all lea ne s.
Wi hin his heo e ical amewo k, we ollow a b oad unde s anding o inclusi e
diagnos ics (Bu da-Zoyke e al., 2025) as he p ocess o ga he ing in o ma ion on
s uden s’ needs, po en ial, and esou ces o suppo hei lea ning and de elopmen .
Unlike na owe app oaches ocused solely on s uden s wi h special needs, inclusi e
diagnos ics applies o all lea ne s and can be implemen ed a indi idual, g oup, o
class le els. While he ocus is on lea ning p ocesses, p e equisi es and ou comes
may also be conside ed. Inclusi e diagnos ics ga he da a on s uden s employing
bo h quan i a i e and quali a i e me hods, wi h an emphasis on semi- o non- o mal
dialogical app oaches co-cons uc ed wi h s uden s, in eg a ing he indi idual, hei
en i onmen , and in e ac ions. In summa y, inclusi e diagnos ics e e s o diagnos ic
p ac ices aimed a sys ema ically assessing s uden s’ indi idual lea ning p e equi-
si es, s eng hs, and po en ial ba ie s—pa icula ly wi hin di e se and he e ogeneous
class ooms. Ra he han ocusing on he iden i ica ion o de ici s o he pu pose o
selec ion o ca ego iza ion, inclusi e diagnos ics emb aces a esou ce-o ien ed and
pa icipa ion-cen e ed app oach, he eby in o ming inclusi e eaching s a egies and
he design o adap i e lea ning en i onmen s.
Teache s equi e ad anced p o essional compe encies o manage hese complex
asks, as esea ch highligh s he signi ican impac o eache expe ise on s uden s’
lea ning p ocesses and ou comes (Ha ie, 2008; Hill & Chin, 2018; Seidel & Sha -
elson, 2007).
Wi hin VET esea ch, a ious de ini ions o p o essional compe encies o oca-
ional eache s exis . A common unde s anding emphasizes ha compe encies a e
de elopmen al and si ua ed, meaning hey can be lea ned and mus be acqui ed wi hin
con ex (An e a, 2021). Diagnos ic knowledge and skills a e in eg al o eache s’ ped-
agogical con en knowledge (PCK, e.g., knowledge abou common misconcep ions
o s uden s) and pedagogical knowledge (PK, e.g., knowledge abou de elopmen al
psychology and diagnos ic me hods) (Shulman, 1986). Fu he mo e, con en knowl-
edge (CK) is equi ed o accu a ely iden i y and in e p e subjec -speci ic lea ning
di icul ies, pa icula ly in pe o mance-he e ogeneous g oups. In addi ion, inclu-
sion- ela ed belie s play an impo an ole in inclusi e eaching including pedagogi-
cal diagnos ics (Miese a, 2018). Teache compe ence can be iewed as a con inuum,
anging om disposi ions (cogni ion, a ec , and mo i a ion) o pe o mance, wi h
in e media e s eps in be ween called si ua ion-speci ic skills o p o essional ision
(Blömeke e al., 2015). These skills a e c ucial, as hey a e closely associa ed wi h
eaching quali y and s uden lea ning ou comes (e.g., Ke s ing e al., 2012; Ro h e
al., 2011; She in & Van Es, 2009).
P o essional ision, in eaching, e e s o he selec i e pe cep ion and knowledge-
based in e p e a ion o ele an class oom e en s (Goodwin, 1994; Van Es & She in,
2002). I comp ises wo in e ela ed componen s: no icing and easoning. No icing
in ol es dis inguishing ele an om i ele an e en s in complex en i onmen s and
ocusing a en ion on he o me . Reasoning en ails ca ego izing hese e en s using
p io knowledge o each alid conclusions (Seidel & S ü me , 2014; She in e al.,
2008; Van Es & She in, 2002). Some au ho s sugges a hi d componen : gene a -
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The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
ing al e na i e ac ions. This in ol es e alua ing possible esponses and making a
well- ounded decision on he app op ia e cou se o ac ion (e.g., San aga a & Gua-
ino, 2011). To u he speci y he p ocesses in ol ed in p o essional ision, Ba h
(2017) de eloped a comp ehensi e six-s age model ha expands upon he commonly
iden i ied componen s (Fig. 1). The i s s ep is (1) he acquisi ion o p o essional
knowledge. This is ollowed by (2) ecognizing (no icing) and (3) assessing ( eason-
ing), he wo s eps commonly included in exis ing models. In addi ion, Ba h places
pa icula emphasis on p o essional ac ion, exp essed h ough (4) he gene a ion o
al e na i e cou ses o ac ion, (5) deciding on a cou se o ac ion, and (6) i s imple-
men a ion. The au ho con i ms he hypo heses ha co ela ions exis among s ep
1 (Knowledge Acquisi ion), s ep 2 (Recognizing), and s ep 3 (Assessing), p opos-
ing ha ecogni ion is a p e equisi e o assessmen and ha knowledge acquisi ion
unde pins bo h. Co ela ions among he emaining s eps a e no examined. In ou
s udy, we adap his model o he con ex o inclusi e diagnos ics in he e ogeneous
class ooms. This means ha p ospec i e eache s a e expec ed o speci ically ec-
ognize and desc ibe aspec s ela ed o he e ogenei y and lea ning ba ie s ha may
indica e he need o inclusi e diagnos ics (S ep 2); o assess whe he diagnos ics is
necessa y and de e mine i s app op ia e ocus (S ep 3); o gene a e possible diagnos-
ic measu es—including me hod, objec , and objec i es (S ep 4); and inally, o make
a well- easoned decision abou which diagnos ic app oach o pu sue (S ep 5).
No ably, we concep ualize p o essional knowledge no as a sepa a e s ep, bu as a
c oss-cu ing dimension in luencing all s ages (Bu da-Zoyke & Joos , 2023).
Fig. 1 S eps o P o essional Vision and Ac ion (own illus a ion based on Ba h, 2017)
1 3
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T. Giek e al.
A high le el o p o essional ision is associa ed wi h imp o ed eaching qual-
i y and s uden lea ning (e.g., Ke s ing e al., 2012; Ro h e al., 2011; She in & Van
Es, 2009). This holds ue especially o he gene a ion o al e na i e cou ses o
ac ion (S ep 3), which Ke s ing e al. (2010) hypo hesize o be a measu e o eache s’
knowledge ha can ac ually be used in eal-li e eaching si ua ions. So, p o essional
ision can be ega ded as a highly ele an skill o eache s and an in eg al pa
o eache aining (Seidel & S ü me , 2014). Ne e heless, p o essional ision is
o en imes di icul o no ices like s uden eache s and imp o es o e he cou se
o hei s udies (Keppens e al., 2019). Ba h (2017) highligh s hese lea ning needs
by con as ing expe and no ice eache s, showing ha p ospec i e eache s display
de ici s ac oss all ace s o p o essional ision—pa icula ly in gene a ing al e na i e
ins uc ional esponses, which equi es an icipa ing di e en cou ses o ac ion. San-
aga a and Gua ino (2011) a ibu e his di icul y o hei limi ed p o essional knowl-
edge. Ne e heless, he au ho s emphasize he impo ance o his skill and p esen
an in e en ion using a ious ypes o ideos, including class oom scenes om hi d
pa ies as well as eco dings o he u u e eache s hemsel es, a e which he pa -
icipan s demons a ed highe -quali y no icing and easoning. Addi ionally, some
pa icipan s we e able o gene a e mo e al e na i e cou ses o ac ion. The e al eady
ha e been se e al success ul sho - e m in e en ions o os e p o essional ision
using ideo-based lea ning a angemen s (e.g., Koschel & Weyland, 2020; Van Es &
She in, 2002). Ne e heless, as Koschel and Weyland (2020) s a ed, deepe insigh s
a e needed in o how ideo igne es can be e ec i ely used o de elop p o essional
ision in add essing he e ogenei y wi hin oca ional educa ion se ings.
Use o Video Vigne es in Teache Educa ion
Case-based ins uc ion is a eaching me hod ha engages s uden s in ac i ely e lec -
ing on eal o hypo he ical p oblems ypical o he discipline. The p oblems end o be
mo e i id and con ex ual han hose in a ex book, ye mo e manageable han hose
in eali y (Shulman, 1992, as ci ed in E me & Russell, 1995, p. 24), wha makes
he me hod sui able o no ices (Sy ing e al., 2016). I is equen ly used in eache
educa ion, also o ake accoun o inc easing he e ogenei y in he s uden body, and
has many ad an ages (Da ling-Hammond & Hamme ness, 2002; Mos e , 2007). Fo
example, case wo k can s eng hen heo y-p ac ice linkage, sel -e icacy o s uden
eache s and c i ical e lec ion on one´s own ac ions (Da ling-Hammond & Ham-
me ness, 2002). I has no been clea ly p o en whe he i is mo e e ec i e han o he
app oaches, bu he e a e s udies speaking in a o o ha (e.g., Baie e al., 2021).
The e a e a ious ways o p esen a p oblem-o ien ed case, e.g. in ex o m o as a
ideo. Bo h app oaches a e used egula ly, bu ideo cases ha e a signi ican ad an-
age, namely hei mo i a ing e ec (Sy ing e al., 2016). They also seem o enable
mo e ans e han ex cases (Mo eno & Valdez, 2007). Typically, app oaches o
p omo e p o essional ision include ideo clips o class oom si ua ions. These can be
in eg a ed in o a wide a ie y o didac ical se ings, o example ideo clubs, meaning
p ac icing eache s mee ing equen ly o wa ch and discuss ideo exce p s om each
o he ’s class ooms (She in & Van Es, 2009) o sho ideo sequences, called ideo
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The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
igne es, ha a e discussed wi h s uden eache s in uni e si y semina s (K umphals
& Fese , 2025).
Video igne es p esen eaching si ua ions o (p ospec i e) eache s as p omp s
o e lec ion (Bloo & Wood, 2006; Hughes & Huby, 2002; Teese e al., 2020). They
o e se e al ad an ages, including p ac ical ele ance, si ua i i y, au hen ici y, and
con ex uali y, while simpli ying eal-li e complexi y by ocusing on speci ic aspec s,
making hem pa icula ly manageable o no ices. Despi e his educ ion in complex-
i y, ideo igne es a e gene ally pe cei ed as ealis ic ep esen a ions o class oom
scena ios. Addi ionally, hey elimina e immedia e p essu e o ac and allow epea ed
iewing o analysis om di e en pe spec i es as needed (Lenske e al., 2022; Lind-
meie , 2013; Mille & Zhou, 2014; Pauli & Reusse , 2006; Seidel, 2022).
The selec ion o he ype and he speci ic ideos always depends on he in ended
lea ning objec i es (Adamina, 2022; Blombe g e al., 2013). A dis inc ion is made
be ween a ious aspec s, e.g., whe he (1) own o hi d-pa y eaching ideos a e
analyzed (e.g., Junke & Holodynski, 2022), (2) he ideos show eal si ua ions o
ac ed scenes (Piwowa e al., 2018), (3) he ideos show bes , wo s o ypical p ac-
ice (e.g., Blombe g e al., 2013) and (4) which cinema ic pe spec i es and oci a e
chosen (e.g., G öschne , 2021). In ou s udy we use s aged ideos wi h p o essional
ac o s, in con as o eal class oom si ua ions. Al hough his could possibly educe
hei au hen ici y, i has se e al ad an ages: esea che s as well as eache aine s
ha e ull con ol o e he sc ip s and he e o e can add ess all he mos impo an and
p essing issues while a he same ime uling ou dis ac ing ac o s. S e ensky and
Kleinknech (2016) conclude, based on hei analysis o se e al s udies, ha ideos
ea u ing o he s end o allow o a mo e c i ical analysis, pa icula ly o p oblema ic
si ua ions, including he de elopmen o al e na i e cou ses o ac ion, which was o
g ea impo ance in his s udy. Addi ionally, he quali y o he ideos ega ding sound
and ligh ing can be highe and ull da a p o ec ion o eache s and s uden s in po en-
ially sensi i e si ua ions can be always ensu ed. Fo some ideo igne es, accompa-
nying ma e ials (e.g. asks o analysis, in-dep h ma e ial on he lesson shown, e c.)
a e p o ided in addi ion o he ideo clip (e.g., Bu da-Zoyke & Joos , 2023).
The e has been ex ensi e p oo in li e a u e ha p o essional compe encies and
speci ically p o essional ision can be measu ed (Keppens e al., 2019) and os e ed
using ideo igne es in eache aining, including he con ex o dealing wi h he -
e ogenei y (Anas Seguin & Amb osio, 2002; Koschel & Weyland, 2020; Reuke &
Künzell, 2021) and ega ding diagnos ic skills (e.g., Enenkiel e al., 2022).
S a e o Resea ch on Video Vigne es Dealing wi h He e ogenei y o Inclusion in
Teache Educa ion
In ecen yea s, he e has been a ma ked inc ease in he use o ideo igne es in
eache educa ion (Gaudin & Chaliès, 2015; Holodynski e al., 2022). The ollowing
sec ion p o ides a concise o e iew o a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew in es iga ing
he use o ideo igne es in he con ex o inclusion and/o he e ogenei y in school
1 3
Page 7 o 39 22
T. Giek e al.
educa ion. A o al o 22 ele an s udies we e iden i ied (see Table 4 in he appendix).1
Mos s udies add essing he use o ideo igne es in he con ex o eache educa-
ion and class oom he e ogenei y o inclusion ha e been conduc ed in ecen yea s,
e lec ing he g owing in eg a ion o ideo-based o ma s in highe educa ion. Wi h
one excep ion om Belgium, all s udies o igina e ei he om he Uni ed S a es ( i e
s udies) o Ge many (16 s udies). This dis ibu ion is no su p ising, as he high num-
be o Ge man s udies can be a ibu ed o se e al na ional unding ini ia i es ha
ac i ely p omo ed he use o ideo igne es2.
All hese s udies examine s uden eache s. Mos s udies concen a e on gene al
educa ion, speci ically on p ima y (Ande son & Lignuga is/K a , 2006; Böhme,
2022; Geisen & Zende , 2024; Keppens e al., 2019) o seconda y educa ion (Bud-
debe g e al., 2022 ; G ewe & Mölle , 2020; Hö e e al., 2020; Jü gens & Neube ,
2020; Meu el & Hemme , 2020; Win e & Junke , 2020) o on a mix u e o hose
(Abels e al., 2022; Enenkiel e al., 2022; F anz e al., 2019; K ame e al., 2017;
Kun ze e al., 2024). Few s udies ocus on (Baeche & Conno , 2010) o include
(Enenkiel e al., 2022; F anz e al., 2019; K ame e al., 2017; Kun ze e al., 2024)
special needs educa ion. Some s udies do no speci y exac ly wha ype o school he
ideos a e om o wha school he s uden eache s a e aining o (Anas Seguin &
Amb osio, 2002; G een ield e al., 2016; Holdb ooks Townsel, 2016; Lange e al.,
2022). Howe e , e y ew s udies ocus on (Koschel & Weyland, 2020) o a leas
include (K ame e al., 2017) he con ex o VET, i appea s o be unde ep esen ed.
Rega ding he ideo igne es used, mos s udies ely on ideos ea u ing hi d
pe sons. Two s udies addi ionally (Abels e al., 2022) o exclusi ely (Baeche &
Conno , 2010) wo k wi h s uden eache s’ own ideos. Mos s udies employ ideos
o eal eaching si ua ions. One s udy uses s aged ideos (Anas Seguin & Amb o-
sio, 2002), ano he one combines bo h o ms (Ande son & Lignuga is/K a , 2006).
O he excep ions a e a s udy wi h ca oon igne es (Kun ze e al., 2024) and one
wi h in e iew si ua ions as con en o he igne es (G een ield e al., 2016). No
all au ho s s a e explici ly wha exac ly is shown in hei ideos o how hey we e
p oduced. Simila ly, he e is o en no in o ma ion abou he accompanying ma e ials
used.
1 Fo he li e a u e sea ch, we used EBSCO and Google Schola wi h he sea ch e ms “ eache educa ion”
OR “ eache ” AND “inclusion” OR “di e si y” OR “he e ogenei y” AND “ ideo igne es” OR “ ideo”.
The sea ch e ms we e used in Ge man and English. Addi ionally, he da abase o he Ge man Ini ia i e
“Quali ä so ensi e Leh e bildung” pa icula ly in he ca ego y “He e ogeni ä /Inklusion” (he e ogenei y/
inclusion) and, he bibliog aphies o he s udies ound we e checked o u he sui able li e a u e. Pape s
wi h no empi ical da a we e excluded.
2 Eigh o he iden i ied p ojec s a e pa o he Ge man ini ia i e “Quali ä so ensi e Leh e bildung” six o
which s em om he p ojec Dealing wi h Di e si y. (“Quali y Ini ia i e o Teache Educa ion” [QLB] is a
la ge-scale unding p og am launched by he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch in 2014.
I s aim is o imp o e he quali y and cohe ence o eache educa ion ac oss uni e si ies in Ge many. The
ini ia i e suppo s p ojec s ha s eng hen he in eg a ion o subjec -speci ic, pedagogical, and p ac ical
componen s o eache aining—o en wi h a s ong ocus on inclusi e educa ion, he e ogenei y, and digi-
aliza ion.) In addi ion, wo s udies we e conduc ed wi hin he InkBi 1 unding p og am, also suppo ed by
he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch, while wo u he p ojec s a e pa o coRe lec @
ma h, an E asmus + ini ia i e unded by he Eu opean Union.
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22 Page 8 o 39
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
con en knowledge, and clea ly de ined ub ics (León e al., 2023; Panade o e al.,
2016).
These indings a e also ele an o p ese ice eache s. Many p ospec i e each-
e s end o ei he o e es ima e o unde es ima e hei p o essional knowledge and
compe encies. Se e al s udies indica e a gene al endency among p ese ice eache s
o o e a e hei knowledge—pa icula ly hei pedagogical knowledge (PK)—when
compa ed o objec i e pe o mance measu es (Akyuz, 2018). Howe e , o he s ud-
ies pain a mo e he e ogeneous pic u e, epo ing bo h o e es ima ion and unde es-
ima ion among indi iduals (E ns e al., 2023). This disc epancy in sel -assessmen
may be in luenced by ac o s such as leniency bias, modes y bias, o he inhe en
challenges associa ed wi h accu a e sel -e alua ion (Baeche e al., 2013). Mo eo e ,
sel -assessmen s o en e lec a cen al endency bias, whe eby indi iduals a e hei
abili ies nea he scale’s midpoin , ega dless o hei ac ual pe o mance dis ibu ion.
This bias ends o esul in low-pe o ming s uden s signi ican ly o e es ima ing hei
compe encies, whe eas high-pe o ming s uden s do so o a lesse ex en (Max e al.,
2022). Wa d e al. (2002) poin ou he lack o a uni e sally ecognized de ini ion
o sel -assessmen o i s accu acy. Mo eo e , he au ho s label co ela ions be ween
sel -assessmen s and objec i e es sco es as insu icien and po en ially inadequa e
o e alua ing he accu acy o sel -assessmen (E ns e al., 2023; Wa d e al., 2002).
Me hodological limi a ions in de e mining sel -assessmen accu acy aise he ques-
ion o whe he lea ne s a e genuinely insu icien a sel -e alua ion o whe he he
ools used o measu e hei accu acy a e hemsel es inadequa e (Wa d e al., 2002).
To desc ibe s uden eache s’ p o essional ision ega ding inclusi e diagnos ics
(RQ 1) we e e o wo k esul s o he ask desc ibed in Sec . 3.2 om n = 45 p e-
se ice eache s (age: M = 24.65, SD = 2.26; 28 emale, 15 male, 2 no speci ied; 28
Mas e , 15 Bachelo , 2 no speci ied) all wo king wi h he same igne e. All solu-
ions we e sco ed o de e mine hei quali y. Each s ep o he ask was assessed indi-
idually, ecei ing ze o o h ee poin s. Coding guidelines we e d awn up o his
pu pose, speci ying which equi emen s had o be me o which sco e (see Table 3,
o u he in o ma ion see Table 5 in he appendix). Bo h he co ec ness and com-
ple eness o he esponses we e conside ed. A sco e o ze o was assigned i he
esponse did no mee expec a ions a all—e.g., he ask was no comple ed, o he
answe was la gely inco ec . One poin was awa ded o udimen a y explana ions
ha la gely ailed o mee he p ede ined c i e ia. Responses ha la gely ul illed he
expec a ions, albei wi h some sho comings, ecei ed wo poin s. A sco e o h ee
poin s was gi en o answe s ha (almos ) ully me he expec a ions, demons a ing
comp ehensi e and co ec easoning. Speci ic indica o s we e se o each igne e
o de ine wha exac ly a solu ion had o con ain o ce ain poin s. All solu ions we e
coded by wo p e iously comp ehensi ely ained a e s. I hey did no ag ee on a
sco e, he mean alue was used o u he calcula ions. As he al e na i es can be
anked, weigh ed Cohen´s Kappa was used o in e code eliabili y. Ag eemen o
all igne es and s eps o he ask was a leas subs an ial, he majo i y was almos
pe ec (0.77 < κ < 1.00 [see Landis & Koch, 1977]).
Fo he e alua ion o he e ec s o wo king wi h he ideo igne es (RQ 2) we
p ima ily e e o sel -assessmen s o s uden eache s. They sel -assessed hei com-
pe encies in each o he h ee dimensions o he e ogenei y (cogni ion, language, and
1 3
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T. Giek e al.
beha io ) sepa a ely, using closed-ended ques ionnai es wi h 4-poin Like scales,
each comp ising 14 i ems. The scales we e based on he model o p o essional ision
and ac ion by Ba h (2017) as well as ou model o inclusi e diagnos ics (au ho s,
2025), e.g., “I am able o ecognize aspec s in he class oom ha may indica e cog-
ni ion- ela ed impai men s in s uden s’ lea ning p ocesses.”. Assessmen s we e con-
duc ed p io o engaging wi h he igne es (p e- es ) and again a e wo king wi h a
igne e add essing he espec i e dimension (pos - es ). Due o he sho ime span
o only a ew weeks be ween he p e- es and pos - es , no majo changes we e o be
expec ed. We ob ained comple e da a se s o 52 pa icipan s in he domain o cogni-
ion, 41 in he domain o language, and 45 in he domain o beha io . The a ia ion
in sample sizes is due o he ac ha only s uden eache s who comple ed bo h he
p e- es and pos - es o he espec i e dimension o he e ogenei y we e included in
he analysis. The ques ionnai es we e comple ed in pape o m, subsequen ly digi-
ized, and analyzed using IBM SPSS S a is ics (Ve sion 28). C onbach’s alpha was
calcula ed o assess he in e nal consis ency o he scales. Reliabili y was sa is ac-
o y o bo h he p e- es (0.79 < α < 0.88) and he pos - es (0.84 < α < 0.91) ac oss
all he e ogenei y dimensions. To examine changes in s uden eache s’ sel -e icacy
o e ime, - es o pai ed samples we e conduc ed o compa e p e- and pos - es
sel - epo sco es.
To gain mo e in-dep h insigh in o changes in s uden eache s’ compe ence de el-
opmen (RQ2), a subsample o 10 pa icipan s om subs udy 4 (age: M = 24.80,
SD = 3.46; 7 emale, 3 male; all mas e ’s s uden s) engaged wi h h ee addi ional
ideo igne es a bo h he beginning and he end o he semina . Thei ask esponses
we e collec ed and ex e nally a ed (see Table 3) o ack de elopmen al changes and
compa e hem wi h he pa icipan s’ sel -assessmen s.
Sco e Meaning
(s eps: Desc ip ion/Assessmen /Gene a ion o
cou ses o ac ion/Decision)
0 No Desc ip ion/Assessmen /Gene a ion o
cou ses o ac ion/Decision:
The answe does no con ain any ele an ele-
men s o hese a e no ep oduced co ec ly.
1 Rudimen a y Desc ip ion/Assessmen /Gene a-
ion o cou ses o ac ion/Decision:
The answe con ains a ew ele an elemen s,
mos o which a e ep oduced co ec ly.
2 Desc ip ion/Assessmen /Gene a ion o cou ses
o ac ion/Decision wi h some ese a ions:
The answe con ains se e al ele an elemen s,
mos o which a e ep oduced co ec ly.
3 Comp ehensi e Desc ip ion/Assessmen /Gen-
e a ion o cou ses o ac ion/Decision:
The answe includes (almos ) all ele an ele-
men s, which a e ep oduced co ec ly almos
wi hou excep ion.
Table 3 Sco ing ub ics
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22 Page 16 o 39
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
Findings
RQ 1: P ospec i e VET Teache s’ P o essional Vision Rega ding Inclusi e
Diagnos ics
To lea n mo e abou p ospec i e VET eache s’ p o essional ision on inclusi e diag-
nos ics we analyzed he quali y o he w i en ask esponses o n = 45 pa icipan s.
Each pa icipan wo ked on he ask desc ibed in Sec . Task s uc u e. Each s ep in
he ask was sco ed on a 0–3 poin scale. Fo e e y s ep, he e we e s uden eache s
who achie ed he ull sco e as well as hose who ecei ed no poin s a all. The o e all
mean sco e ac oss all s eps was 1.30, which is sligh ly below he midpoin o he scale.
Pa icipan s pe o med bes on he Desc ibing s ep (M = 1.67; SD = 1.08). The s eps
Assessing (M = 1.23; SD = 0.91) and Gene a ing Al e na i es (M = 1.33; SD = 0.98)
yielded mid- ange esul s. The lowes sco es we e obse ed in he Decision Making
s ep (M = 0.98; SD = 0.91), sugges ing his was he mos challenging componen . This
is suppo ed by he ac ha nea ly wice as many pa icipan s ecei ed ze o poin s in
Decision Making compa ed o he o he s eps.
S ep 1: Desc ibing: Speci ically, se e al c i e ia needed o be ul illed in s ep
1. The desc ip ion was conside ed comple e only when bo h he gene al se ing
and he s uden (Niclas) and small g oup o s uden s cen al o he scene we e
men ioned. These desc ip ions we e equi ed o be accu a e and mos ly objec-
i e, ideally inco po a ing app op ia e echnical e minology. When examining
he desc ip ions o he si ua ions, i becomes e iden ha only a ew con ained
e o s. Mos poin s we e deduc ed due o a lack o de ail o he absence o aspec s
essen ial o he si ua ion. Fu he mo e, he a oidance o e alua i e judgmen s
was di icul o some p ospec i e eache s. Fo example, while one pa icipan
me hese expec a ions by w i ing abou a s uden in he ideo: “Niclas aps his
pen and plays wi h his inge s. No all he blanks on his wo kshee a e illed in
ye ”, ano he pa icipan was desc ibing he same beha io by s a ing “lack o
concen a ion, limi ed p io knowledge” wi hou speci ying any obse able indi-
ca o s, which does no ul ill he ask equi emen s.
S ep 2: Assessing: When assessing, mos s uden eache s iew inclusi e
diagnos ics as bene icial in he gi en si ua ion. Ou o 45 s uden eache s, only
one op ed agains diagnos ics, while ele en s uden eache s did no make a clea
decision by s a ing whe he hey would ega d pedagogical diagnos ics as bene i-
cial in he gi en si ua ion. Mos poin s we e deduc ed o missing o unsui able
jus i ica ions.
S ep 3: Gene a ing Cou ses o Ac ion: A close analysis o he Gene a ion o
cou ses o ac ion de eloped by he pa icipan s e eals ha on a e age, each
s uden eache gene a ed wo al e na i e ac ions, hough he s anda d de ia ion
(SD = 1.61) indica es conside able a ia ion. The e a e also no able di e ences
be ween indi idual se ings. Diagnos ic dialogues wi h s uden s we e he mos
equen ly men ioned ac ion s ep (29 men ions, e.g. “One could gene ally ha e
con e sa ions, o example wi h he s uden wi h low sel -con idence, maybe ha e
a con e sa ion oge he wi h a school psychologis o ind ou he easons o his
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Page 17 o 39 22
T. Giek e al.
lea ning di icul ies”), consis en ly appea ing ac oss all se ings. Fu he mo e,
he e was a signi ican o e lap in he equency o indi idual op ions men ioned
ac oss he a ious semina s. The p ima y challenge o mos s uden each-
e s does no lie in naming di e en cou ses o ac ion bu a he in su icien ly
desc ibing hem—speci ically, he me hod, goal, and subjec o he diagnos ic
ac ion—and adap ing hem o he si ua ion.
S ep 4: Deciding: In he inal s ep, Deciding, en s uden eache s chose a single
diagnos ic s ep, while 17 s uden eache s selec ed an ac ion s a egy comp is-
ing mul iple diagnos ic s eps. One exce p om a cohe en sequence o ac ions
is: “...basically i s obse e wha and how he s uden s wo k. Maybe he e a e
a ew p oblems in he wo k (g oup o indi idual le el). I you see hey ha e
p oblems [...] I would con on hem o ally wi h he goal o ind ou wha he
eason is. Tha way you could maybe quickly emo e exis ing lea ning ba ie s.
A e wa ds, w i en esul s could be looked a i a close diagnosis is needed…”).
Bo h app oaches we e sui able o comple ing he ask and ea ning ull poin s.
Howe e , 18 s uden eache s did no op o a diagnos ic ac ion, indica ing ha
he ask was ei he incomple e o ha non-diagnos ic ac ion s eps we e selec ed.
O en, he chosen ac ions we e pu ely suppo o he s uden s, lacking diagnos-
ic elemen s, such as epea ing speci ic con en (e.g., “Go h ough he example
ask again. Le a s uden explain he ask. Tha means, le s uden s explain he
ask. Go h ough he example calcula ion a he beginning. Gi e mo e suppo o
he s uden s du ing he wo king phase”). Whe he conside ing indi idual ac ion
s eps o comp ehensi e ac ion s a egies, which may o may no include mul-
iple s eps, pe sonal con e sa ions wi h s uden s eme ged as he mos equen ly
chosen diagnos ic ac ion (16 ou o 45 cases). Obse ing s uden s´ beha io was
also commonly men ioned (12 men ions), ollowed by discussions wi h o he
eache s (9 men ions) and using es s o assess s uden s' p io knowledge (also
9 men ions). Six s uden eache s op ed o collec he wo kshee s comple ed by
s uden s in he scene o gain u he insigh s.
We addi ionally calcula ed Pea son co ela ions be ween he di e en s eps o he
ask (see Table 6). All s eps showed mode a e o s ong posi i e associa ions (Cohen,
1992), which is consis en wi h he unde s anding o p o essional ision as one com-
pe ence, despi e being composed o dis inguishable s eps. Howe e , he s eng h
o he co ela ions does no suppo a clea di ision be ween s ep 1 (no icing) and
s eps 2, 3, and 4 ( easoning). Likewise, he e is no e idence o pa icula ly s ong
associa ions be ween s eps 1 and 3 (which emphasize hands-on o ac ion-o ien ed
componen s) and be ween s eps 2 and 4 (which ocus mo e on decision-making, jus-
i ica ion, and e lec ion).
I can be concluded ega ding esea ch ques ion 1 ha he s uden eache s achie e
highe sco es in Desc ibing han in he o he h ee s eps. This i s well wi h he li -
e a u e ha no ice eache s ind no icing easie han easoning. The indi idual s eps
show high in e co ela ions, suppo ing he in e p e a ion o p o essional ision as an
in eg a ed compe ence.
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The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
RQ 2: De elopmen o P ospec i e VET Teache s’ Sel -e icacy and P o essional
Vision Rega ding Inclusi e Diagnos ics
To e alua e he change in s uden eache s’ pe cei ed abili ies ega ding dealing wi h
challenging eaching si ua ions in he e ogenous classes, we analyzed he esul s o
he pa icipan s’ sel - epo da a on sel -e icacy (41 o 52 assessmen s o each o he
h ee he e ogenei y dimensions add essed, see Fig. 3). Pai ed-sample - es s e ealed
a signi ican inc ease in s uden eache s’ sel -e icacy om p e- o pos - es ac oss
all dimensions o he e ogenei y. Sel -e icacy ega ding cogni ion ( (51) = −5.310,
p <.001, n = 52, d = −0.74), language ( (40) = −4.984, p <.001, n = 41, d = −0.78) and
beha io ( (44) = −4.184, p <.001, n = 45, d = −0.62)4.
To gain deepe insigh s in o he e ec s o wo king wi h ideo igne es, a subg oup
o pa icipan s (n = 10) addi ionally engaged wi h h ee u he ideo igne es—one
o each dimension o he e ogenei y—a wo sepa a e poin s in ime. This enables
an assessmen o whe he s uden eache s show de elopmen bo h in hei sel -pe -
cei ed compe encies and in he objec i ely a ed quali y o hei ask pe o mance.
A 0 he s uden eache s achie ed mode a e sco es ( o sco es pe s ep o he ask
and measu emen poin see Fig. 4). A 1, highe a e age alues we e achie ed in
all s eps, which does no imply ha he sco e o e e y single pe son has imp o ed.
The highes a e age sco e a 0 is achie ed in Desc ibing, ollowed by Gene a ing
al e na i e cou ses o ac ion. A 1, Desc ibing s ill has he highes a e age bu Gen-
e a ing ac ions he lowes . This is because he inc eases in all igne es a e lowes
in Gene a ing ac ions (0.15 poin s on a e age). In con as , he highes gains we e
4 A Shapi o-Wilk- es shows ha all a iables a e no mally dis ibu ed excep om cogni ion a 0
(W = 0.929, p =.037) and beha io a 1 (W = 0.914, p =.014). Tha is why non-pa ame ic Wilcoxon- es s
we e calcula ed o compa ison, which also showed signi ican e ec s o cogni ion (z = 4.40, p <.001) and
beha io (z = 3.51, p <.001).
2.49
2.77
2.61
2.95
2.54
2.84
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
1 0
Cogni ion Language Beha io
Fig. 3 De elopmen o sel -e icacy in h ee he e ogenei y dimensions (sel - epo )
1 3
Page 19 o 39 22
T. Giek e al.
achie ed in Assessing (0.98 poin s on a e age). As he esul s o he a ing a e mos ly
no no mally dis ibu ed acco ding o a Shapi o-Wilk es , non-pa ame ic Wilcoxon
es s a e ca ied ou . These show ha he s uden eache s´ sco es inc eased signi i-
can ly om 0 o 1 o Desc ibing (z = 1.96, p =.050), Assessing (z = 2.67, p =.008) and
Fig. 4 De elopmen o s uden eache s’ p o essional ision (quali y a ing, mean ac oss all h ee
igne es)
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The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
Deciding (z = 2.40, p =.016) bu no o he Gene a ion o al e na i e cou ses o ac ion
(z = 0.56, p =.570).
All s uden eache ’s sco es o Desc ibing a e al eady abo e he a i hme ic mean
o he scale om 0 o 3 on which hey a e a ed a 0. Ne e heless, wi h one excep-
ion, he quali y o all s uden eache ’s esponses imp o es om 0 o 1, he answe s
become mo e de ailed and he ocus on ele an ac o s is inc easing. Response qual-
i y when Assessing he si ua ion a 0 is widesp ead. Ne e heless, al eady a 0 mos
esponden s assess inclusi e diagnos ics o be ad an ageous, in some cases no clea
decision was made. A 1, all esponden s clea ly decided in a o o inclusi e diag-
nos ics. The esponse quali y s ays cons an om 0 o 1 in one case and o he wise
imp o es, in some cases s ongly so, mos ly because o be e jus i ica ions o he
s uden eache s´ decisions. The esponse quali y when Gene a ing al e na i e cou ses
o ac ion is widely sca e ed a bo h 0 and 1. Mo e al e na i e cou ses o ac ion we e
named a 1 compa ed o 0. A 1, he s uden eache s gene a ed new al e na i e
cou ses o ac ion o each si ua ion, pa icula ly in mul i-p o essional collabo a ion,
e.g., wi h school psychology and he aining company (“…She [ he eache ] could
also alk o colleagues o see i S e an [s uden in he igne e] exhibi s simila beha -
io he e. A school psychologis could also be consul ed…“). A 0, hey we e e y
ocused on he na ow con ex o eaching, whe eas a 0 hei iew b oadened. I is
s iking ha almos hal o he s uden eache s achie ed a lowe sco e a 1 han a 0.
Speci ically, howe e , only in ou cases we e he same numbe o ewe al e na i e
cou ses o ac ion iden i ied. In mos cases, he numbe o diagnos ic cou ses o ac ion
was inc eased, bu pa ly hese we e insu icien ly desc ibed. A he second measu e-
men poin , s uden eache s o en answe ed in bulle poin s and did no su icien ly
desc ibe he ocus, me hod and objec i es o he diagnos ics o eso ed o gene al
lis s o diagnos ic me hods ins ead o ela ing hem o he speci ic si ua ion. I is pos-
sible ha diagnos ic me hods om he wo k wi h he o he igne es we e ans e ed,
bu hese could no be adap ed o he si ua ion a hand. Mos ly, he s uden eache s’
esponses wi h p e iously a he low quali y imp o e, while hose wi h he highes
quali y a he beginning de e io a e. Rega ding Decision making we encoun e he
s onges dispe sion a 0. Di e ences in he decision made be ween he wo poin s
in ime a e ma ginal. The quali y o he jus i ica ions gi en inc eases signi ican ly
a 1 wi h one excep ion (de e io a ion a a e y low le el o e all, possibly ask no
co ec ly unde s ood as no decision o a diagnos ic al e na i e). The jus i ica ions
con ain mo e e e ences o bo h heo y and he si ua ion i sel . Wo king wi h mo e
ideo igne es he e o e seems o mainly p omo e he quali y o he s uden eache s´
easoning compa ed o hei no icing.
O e all, he s anda d de ia ion is pa icula ly high a 0 anging om 0.49 o 1.23.
A 1, he s anda d de ia ion dec eases signi ican ly o all s eps. The minimum poin s
achie ed inc ease ac oss all h ee igne es o Desc ibing, Assessing and Gene a ing
Ac ions. Wo king wi h he igne es in he semina no only seems o ha e imp o ed
he a e age solu ion quali y, bu abo e all has a balancing e ec , so ha he s uden
eache s a e a a mo e simila le el han a he beginning.
1 3
Page 21 o 39 22
T. Giek e al.
Conclusions
Summa y and Discussion
In ou s udy, we i s examined s uden eache s’ p o essional ision, and hei sel -
e icacy ela ed o inclusi e diagnos ics. Second, we in es iga ed he ex en o which
hese a iables can be os e ed using ideo igne es. As a p e equisi e, we ound
ha s uden eache s la gely pe cei e he ideo igne es and accompanying ma e i-
als o be ealis ic and bene icial o lea ning abou inclusi e diagnos ics, wi h only
mino di e ences in pe cep ion ac oss di e en igne es. Expe s also endo sed
he igne es, inding hem ealis ic, au hen ic, and use ul o de eloping diagnos ic
skills h ough c i ical discussion. This aligns well wi h he goal o p oducing he
igne es, as hey we e designed no o show a model solu ion bu o con ain many
s a ing poin s o con o e sial discussions.
RQ 1 (P ospec i e VET eache s’ p o essional ision ega ding inclusi e diag-
nos ics): The s udy examined s uden eache s’ p o essional ision ac oss ou s eps
(Desc ibing, Assessing, Gene a ing al e na i es, and Deciding) wi h mixed esul s.
S uden eache s pe o med bes in Desc ibing and s uggled mos wi h Decision-
making. The esul s align wi h exis ing esea ch, con i ming ha no icing is easie
o s uden eache s han easoning. I was o be expec ed ha no ices would ind
i mos di icul o gene a e al e na i e cou ses o ac ion (Ba h, 2017). Unexpec -
edly, we ound s uden eache s challenged mo e by jus i ying hei decisions a he
han gene a ing al e na i e cou ses o ac ion. Ne e heless, he di e ences we e no
signi ican , and os e ing e lec ion on al e na i e cou ses o ac ion emains highly
ele an , as i is a p econdi ion o making adequa e decisions and seems o be associ-
a ed wi h s uden lea ning (Ke s ing e al., 2010).
RQ 2 (P omo ion o p ospec i e eache s’ sel -e icacy and p o essional ision
ega ding inclusi e diagnos ics): We also analyzed he impac o wo king wi h ideo
igne es on s uden eache s’ sel -e icacy and compe ence in handling he e oge-
neous classes. O e all, sel -e icacy signi ican ly imp o ed o e ime ( om p e- o
pos - es ) ac oss all dimensions, wi h medium e ec s. P ospec i e eache s end o
epo high le els o sel -e icacy ega ding a ious eaching asks, accompanied by
an upwa d end o e he cou se o lea ning oppo uni ies in eache aining (Ha dy
e al., 2015; Rea es e al., 2023). This is con i med in ou indings wi h espec o
sel -e icacy conce ning inclusi e diagnos ic asks. While s uden eache s showed
signi ican gains in Desc ibing, Assessing, and Decision-making asks, imp o emen s
in Gene a ing al e na i e cou ses o ac ion we e minimal. Despi e an inc ease in he
numbe o al e na i es gene a ed a he second measu emen poin (which is in line
wi h he esul s o San aga a & Gua ino, 2011), many esponses a 1 lacked de ail
and adap a ion o he si ua ion a hand. The semina sessions appea ed o enhance
s uden eache s´ easoning quali y, leading o mo e de ailed jus i ica ions and a mo e
balanced pe o mance among s uden eache s o e ime. Ne e heless, some p o-
1 3
22 Page 22 o 39
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
spec i e eache s also exhibi ed a decline in pe o mance. The easons o his a e
no en i ely clea . One possible explana ion is ha wo king wi h ideo igne es may
no be bene icial o all p ospec i e eache s. K umphals and Fese (2025), in hei
in e en ion using ideo igne es, desc ibe a ious lea ning ajec o ies, including
nega i e ones. Al e na i ely, i is possible ha he ask was misunde s ood o com-
ple ed wi h less mo i a ion a 1. I would be in e es ing o explo e he di e ences
be ween he ini ial ( 0) and subsequen ( 1) and hei lea ning p ocesses in be ween
oge he wi h he pa icipan s.
Limi a ions
A key limi a ion o his s udy lies in i s sampling: only a small numbe o s uden
eache s om wo Ge man uni e si ies pa icipa ed. Al hough pa icipa ion in he
s udy was olun a y, pa icipa ion in he semina s in which i ook place was com-
pulso y. No all s uden eache s we e p esen a all poin s o da a collec ion, which
could ha e biased he sample u he i he absences we e no comple ely a andom.
Addi ionally, he absence o a con ol g oup has a limi ing e ec . The e o e, any
inc ease in sel -e icacy o compe ence canno be causally a ibu ed solely o he
ea men , i.e., wo king wi h he igne es. All s uden eache s pa icipa ed in o he
cou ses du ing he semes e s in ques ion. Al hough none o hose di ec ly add essed
he opic, compe ence inc eases due o o he lea ning oppo uni ies in eache aining
canno be uled ou .
Fu he mo e, Koschel and Weyland (2020) conclude ha didac ic embedding
and he me hodical app oach seem o be pi o al when wo king wi h igne es. Ou
en i onmen was no s ic ly s anda dized. Since he igne es we e used a di e en
uni e si ies in di e en semes e s by di e en ins uc o s, he e may ha e been di -
e ences in he didac ic embedding ha could limi he compa abili y o he indings.
The e we e di e ences in he esul s ac oss he a ious se ings. Howe e , he exac
easons o hese di e ences could no be sys ema ically o conclusi ely de e mined
wi hin he scope o his explo a o y s udy. No ably, he ou comes o he sel -lea ning
condi ion we e si ua ed in he mid- ange, sugges ing ha nei he he ask solu ions
no he sel -assessmen s alone p o ide clea e idence ha his app oach is mo e o
less e ec i e. Quali a i e eedback, howe e , sugges s ha pa icipan s pe cei e he
social componen o he semina s as en iching. These di e ences, combined wi h
he small sample size, also limi he gene alizabili y o he indings, as he igne es
could po en ially ha e di e en e ec s in ano he en i onmen wi h di e en didac ic
choices.
Also, we assessed sel -e icacy ega ding he he e ogenei y dimensions o cogni-
ion, language, and beha io , only h ough sel -assessmen and assuming hem o
be di e en cons uc s. Since sel -e icacy ega ding all he e ogenei y dimensions
de eloped simila ly, an in es iga ion in o whe he his may be one cons uc is nec-
essa y. Ano he limi a ion lies in ou da a collec ion me hods. Fi s ly, we used a -
1 3
Page 23 o 39 22
T. Giek e al.
ings o ask solu ions, which we e e alua ed based on p ede ined coding guidelines.
Howe e , i is unce ain how comp ehensi ely hese coding guidelines we e able o
cap u e he nuances o each indi idual case, and o wha ex en he ou included le -
els su icien ly di e en ia ed he quali y o all ask solu ions. Secondly, we elied on
sel -assessmen da a. Lea ne s equen ly do no assess hei abili ies and compe en-
cies accu a ely (Boud & Falchiko , 1989; León e al., 2023; Panade o e al., 2016).
Consequen ly, we mus assume ha he p ospec i e eache s in ou sample also ei he
o e es ima e o unde es ima e hei abili ies, which cons i u es a signi ican limi a-
ion o he s udy.
Implica ions o Teache Educa ion and Resea ch
Inc easing he e ogenei y in VET c ea es a need o ac ion a mul iple le els: On a
policy le el, o ins ance discussions a ound imp o ed da a collec ion and sha ing
ac oss ins i u ions ha e been ongoing (e.g., Goldhabe e al., 2022). A he school
le el, s uc u es o collegial and mul i-p o essional collabo a ion a e needed (e.g.,
Sonn ag, 2022). On he indi idual le el, VET eache s a e inc easingly equi ed o
ecognize and add ess he e ogeneous lea ne needs in hei daily p ac ice o which
sys ema ic p epa a ion is necessa y (Kä kkäinen & Ta nanen, 2022; Naka & Bag-
nall, 2024).
This includes mo e oppo uni ies o p ac ice skills essen ial o inclusion, pa -
icula ly in inclusi e diagnos ics, wi hin eache educa ion. Uni e si ies could mo e
consis en ly in eg a e inclusion- ocused aining in o hei manda o y cu icula.
Addi ionally, specializa ion oppo uni ies could be o e ed du ing eache educa ion,
allowing s uden eache s o build in-dep h compe encies o wo king e ec i ely
wi h he e ogeneous lea ne g oups. Agains his backd op, he p esen s udy ocuses
on he de elopmen o p o essional compe encies in p ospec i e VET eache s, wi h
a pa icula emphasis on he ole o eache educa ion p og ams in os e ing inclusi e
eaching skills. Video igne es o e a aluable lea ning oppo uni y in his con-
ex , especially o os e ing p o essional ision as a cen al componen o inclusi e
pedagogical diagnos ics. They allow s uden eache s o p ac ice and e lec wi h-
ou he immedia e p essu e o ac in a eal class oom. Mo eo e , he use o ideo
igne es has shown p omising esul s, no only in he p esen s udy bu also in p e i-
ous esea ch (e.g., Anas Seguin & Amb osio, 2002; Enenkiel e al., 2022 Koschel &
Weyland, 2020). The e o e, hei use should be made pe manen in uni e si y eache
aining. To u he imp o e lea ning oppo uni ies, i ’s impo an o conside ha
sco es a y depending on he se ing, indica ing i s signi icance.
Fu he mo e, he alue s uden eache s place on discussion and social in e ac-
ion in semina s highligh s he bene i s o his o ma o e sel -lea ning. This may
be linked o he inhe en ly social na u e o p o essional ision and no icing s uden
beha io , which is shaped by socie al no ms and assump ions abou wha cons i u es
ypical o de ian beha io . In he con ex o inclusion, such pe cep ions a e pa icu-
1 3
22 Page 24 o 39
The Po en ial o Video Vigne es o P omo e Diagnos ic Skills o …
Sco e Meaning Example solu ions o each s ep
3Comp ehensi e
Desc ip ion/
Assessmen /
Gene a ion
o cou ses o
ac ion/Decision:
The desc ip-
ion/… includes
(almos ) all el-
e an elemen s,
which a e ep o-
duced co ec ly
almos wi hou
excep ion.
Se ing: eaching
si ua ion, dual
oca ional aining,
wholesale and
o eign ade cle ks,
con en : comme cial
in oice. Explana-
ion by he eache ,
hen indi idual
wo k (20 min),
ye con e sa ions
be ween s uden s,
o he s uden s w i e
on hei wo kshee s
Cla a & Yus a:
Cla a add esses
Yus a, unce ain y
abou paymen
e ms, speci i-
cally he di e ences
be ween discoun
and cash discoun ;
men ion o he
aining company
whe e “e e y hing is
easie ”; independen
lookup by Yus a
in he ex book; no
ini ia i e om Cla a
in his ega d (“you
always know whe e
e e y hing is”);
eache o e hea s
and encou ages
looking i up in he
ex book, o e s no
u he assis ance
Niclas: Signs o
es lessness in
Niclas: plays/clicks
wi h pen; bounces
leg; looks a he
ceiling o a ound
he oom; uns a
hand h ough his
hai ; has, howe e ,
illed ou almos
e e y hing on he
wo kshee . Teache
encou ages u he
wo k; he says he
“won’ ge he las
numbe s anyway”
I is ad an a-
geous o
diagnose in
an inclusi e
manne . The
s uden s ha e
di e en
le els o p io
knowledge in
ela ion o he
exe cise on he
wo kshee .
Cla a and
Yus a ask each
o he some-
hing abou a
e m/app oach
o he ask
and help each
o he , whe eas
Niclas in he
ideo doesn’
know wha o
do and he e-
o e decides
no o con inue
wi h he ask.
He has no sel -
con idence and
he easons
why he does
no seek help
should be
ound. Cla a
and Yus a y
o sol e he
p oblem wi h
he book, bu
one o hem
elies on he
classma e
ins ead o
aking ac ion
he sel . I is
impo an o
iden i y wha
is ha ming
hei lea ning
p ocess.
• I could be wo h-
while o de e mine
he cu en le el o
lea ning o he p io
knowledge o he
s uden s in o de o
see whe e de ici s
can be iden i ied
• Talk o he Niclas
a e class o ind
ou easons o lack
o sel -con idence
• Look a he
s uden ’s ask
solu ion, collec
wo kshee s om
he whole class (a
class le el) o check
how a Niclas has
unde s ood he ma-
e ial and de e mine
whe e he e a e
de ici s
• Find ou whe e he
gaps in knowledge
a e. I would be
good o he eache
o know whe he
i is due o he
mo i a ion o he
indi idual p io
knowledge o he
s uden s.
• Conduc pe sonal
one- o-one discus-
sions o ind ou
exac ly wha he
p oblem is. Find ou
whe he he wo k
assignmen was
no unde s ood o
whe he he opic is
gene ally unclea .
• Obse e indi-
idual s uden s o e
a longe pe iod o
ime in o de o ana-
lyze hei beha io
Du ing he
wo k phase,
I would i s
obse e wha
and how he
s uden s a e
wo king.
I you see
ha s uden s
a e ha ing
p oblems wi h
hei wo k, I
would y o
ind ou in a
con e sa ion
wha he p ob-
lem is. This
could quickly
emo e any
exis ing lea n-
ing obs acles.
W i en
esul s could
hen be
looked a i a
mo e de ailed
diagnosis is
necessa y. By
e alua ing
he esul s,
I could, o
example,
iden i y calcu-
la ion e o s
and hus
gain a mo e
de ailed un-
de s anding o
he s uden s’
mis akes and
he e o e p io
knowledge.
Table 5 (con inued)
1 3
Page 31 o 39 22

T. Giek e al.
Acknowledgmen s The publica ion o his a icle was unded by he Uni e si y o Mannheim.
Au ho Con ibu ions All au ho s con ibu ed o he s udy concep ion and design. Da a collec ion was pe -
o med by T.G. and P.E., da a analysis was pe o med by T.G. The i s d a o he manusc ip was w i en
by T.G. and J.S. and all au ho s commen ed on p e ious e sions o he manusc ip . All au ho s ead and
app o ed he inal manusc ip .
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
Da a A ailabili y The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e no publicly a ailable ye due o
ongoing analysis ela ed o quali ica ion wo k. A e he comple ion o he p ojec , which is unded by he
Ge man Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch, he da a will be ans e ed o a sui able eposi o y
and made a ailable.
Decla a ions
Compe ing in e es s The au ho s decla e no compe ing in e es s.
E hical App o al The e hics boa d o he Uni e si y o Mannheim app o ed he s udy (EK Mannheim
47/2023). All pa icipan s decla ed in o med consen be o e pa icipa ing in he s udy.
Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License,
which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long
as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e
Commons licence, and indica e i changes we e made. The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his
a icle a e included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence, unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line
o he ma e ial. I ma e ial is no included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence and you in ended use
is no pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mission
di ec ly om he copy igh holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p : / / c e a i e c o m m o n s . o g / l i c e n
s e s / b y / 4 . 0 / .
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Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps
and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Au ho s and A ilia ions
Te esaGiek1· PhilippEichen op 2· Jü genSei ied1· And eaBu da-Zoyke2
Te esa Giek
[email p o ec ed]
Philipp Eichen op
[email p o ec ed]
Jü gen Sei ied
[email p o ec ed]
And ea Bu da-Zoyke
[email p o ec ed]
1 Uni e si y o Mannheim, Mannheim, Ge many
2 Kiel Uni e si y, Kiel, Ge many
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