Gö ze, Jacqueline; Klingebiel, S ephan; Khalid, Ma yam
Wo king Pape
Local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o
g ea e gende equali y: Syn hesis s udy
IDOS Discussion Pape , No. 9/2025
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), Bonn
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Gö ze, Jacqueline; Klingebiel, S ephan; Khalid, Ma yam (2025) : Local eminis
pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y: Syn hesis s udy, IDOS Discussion
Pape , No. 9/2025, ISBN 978-3-96021-254-6, Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
(IDOS), Bonn,
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Local Feminis Pe spec i es as
T ans o ma ion Le e s o G ea e
Gende Equali y
Syn hesis S udy
Jacqueline Gö ze
S ephan Klingebiel
Ma yam Khalid
IDOS DISCUSSION PAPER
9/2025
Local eminis pe spec i es as
ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e
gende equali y
Syn hesis s udy
Jacqueline Gö ze
S ephan Klingebiel
Ma yam Khalid
Bonn 2025
D Jacqueline Gö ze is a esea che in he depa men “In e - and T ansna ional Coope a ion” a he Ge man
Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS) in Bonn.
Email: jacqueline.goe ze@idos- esea ch.de
PD D S ephan Klingebiel is Head o he depa men “In e - and T ansna ional Coope a ion” a he Ge man
Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS). He is Visi ing P o esso a Ewha Womans Uni e si y, Seoul
(Republic o Ko ea), Visi ing P o esso a he Uni e si y o Tu in (I aly) and Hono a y Dis inguished Fellow a
he Jindal School o Go e nmen and Public Policy (India).
Email: s ephan.klingebiel@idos- esea ch.de
Ma yam Khalid is an in e n a he Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS) and is cu en ly
pu suing he Mas e ’s in De elopmen S udies a he Uni e si y o Bay eu h.
This s udy is pa o he esea ch p ojec “Local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende
equali y”, which is unded by he Deu sche Gesellscha ü In e na ionale Zusammena bei (GIZ) as a GIZ sel -
inanced measu e. I has been conduc ed by he Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS), in
coope a ion wi h h ee pa ne o ganisa ions: he Gende S udies and Human Righ s Documen a ion Cen e
(Ghana), he Goa Ins i u e o Managemen (India) and Gende in De ail (Uk aine).
The Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS) is ins i u ionally inanced by he Fede al Minis y
o Economic Coope a ion and De elopmen (BMZ), based on a esolu ion o he Ge man Bundes ag, and he
s a e o No h Rhine-Wes phalia (NRW) as a membe o he Johannes-Rau-Fo schungsgemeinscha (JRF).
Sugges ed ci a ion:
Gö ze, J., Klingebiel, S., & Khalid, M. (2025). Local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e
gende equali y: Syn hesis s udy (IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025). Bonn: Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and
Sus ainabili y (IDOS). h ps://doi.o g/10.23661/idp9.2025
Disclaime :
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ee o copy, communica e and adap his wo k, as long as you a ibu e he Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen
and Sus ainabili y (IDOS) gGmbH and he au ho (s).
IDOS Discussion Pape / Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS) gGmbH
ISSN 2751-4439 (P in )
ISSN 2751-4447 (Online)
ISBN 978-3-96021-254-6 (P in )
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.23661/idp9.2025
© Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y (IDOS) gGmbH
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P in ed on eco- iendly, ce i ied pape .
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
III
Acknowledgemen s
We would like o hank pa icula ly Ina F iesen o he commi men o his p ojec and publica ion
as ou IDOS colleague and beyond. We also wan o hank ou colleagues Tina Zin l and
Do o hea Weh mann o hei aluable eedback on an ea lie e sion o his pape . Fu he mo e,
we wan o exp ess ou g a i ude o ou IDOS in e nal “sounding boa d” membe s o ou esea ch
p ojec “Local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s owa ds mo e gende equali y” in
addi ion o Tina Zin l, Lena Gu heil, Sebas ian Haug, Michael Roll and Alexande S öcke .
Special hanks also o ou colleagues Julian Be gmann, Niels Keijze and Anna No oselo a o
suppo ing he p ojec , o which his pape is one key ou pu . We also wan o hank ou
colleagues Nona Saeedghazi and Lydia Mu ongu o hei help ul esea ch assis ance. Special
hanks also go o No a Pis o , Robin Schmi z and Cha lo e Sophie Louise C ame a GIZ o
sha ing hei commen s on he s udy and hei i eless suppo o he esea ch p ojec . Mo eo e ,
we wan o hank ou colleagues Ch is iane Welle and Ma k Theisen: Thei suppo du ing he
cou se o he p ojec made his discussion pape and he di e en discussion o ma s as pa o
ou me hodology possible. Special hanks also o ou colleague Co nelia Ho nschild o he
suppo du ing he publica ion p ocess. We also wan o hank he pa icipan s o ou ound able
discussion in Bonn in Oc obe 2024, which ga e he pa ne o ganisa ions and he eam a IDOS
he chance o sha e and discuss p elimina y esea ch esul s.
Las ly and mos impo an ly, we wan o hank ou colleagues om ou pa ne o ganisa ions,
S ee upa Sengup a and Di ya Singhal om he Goa Ins i u e o Managemen ; Ananya
Chak abo y om he Wo ld Resou ce Ins i u e (India); Fidelia Ohemeng and Deda Ogum
Alangea om he Uni e si y o Ghana; Debo ah Tayo Akakpo and Do cas Coke -Appiah om
he Gende S udies and Human Righ s Documen a ion Cen e (Ghana); as well as Olena
S elnyk, Luidmyla Yuz a and Tama a Zlobina om Gende in De ail (Uk aine). This discussion
pape builds on you wo k (Ohemeng, Ogum, Akakpo, & Coke -Appiah, 2025; Sengup a,
Singhal, & Chak abo y, 2025; S elnyk, Yuz a, & Zlobina, 2025), you s o ies, as well as you
expe ise and expe iences sha ed wi h us du ing ou exchanges in Bonn, Acc a and Delhi.
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
IV
Con en s
Acknowledgemen s
Abb e ia ions
Execu i e summa y 1
1 In oduc ion: con en and me hodological embedding 4
1.1 S udying local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y 4
1.2 Whe e a e we coming om? Guiding concep s and amewo ks 6
1.2.1 Se ing he scene: o e iew o schola ship on eminis app oaches in
de elopmen and o eign policies 7
1.2.2 Ac oss he globe: eminis app oaches in o eign and de elopmen policies 9
1.2.3 Glimpses om pa ne coun ies’ discou ses on eminisms 11
1.3 Me hodological conside a ions: how o syn hesise he case s udies p epa ed by he
pa ne o ganisa ions 13
1.3.1 Case selec ion and p esen a ion o cases 13
1.3.2 A eminis esea ch e hic, e lexi i y and posi ionali y 14
1.3.3 Pa icipa o y ac ion esea ch 15
1.3.4 Me hodological app oaches used by he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne
o ganisa ions 16
1.3.5 Ra ionale and app oach o he syn hesis s udy 17
2 Syn hesis: discussion and e lec ions on case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne
o ganisa ions 18
2.1 Clus e s 20
2.1.1 In e sec ionali y 21
2.1.2 Special cha ac e is ics o local eminisms and gende (in)equali ies 21
2.1.3 Mul i-di ec ional low o no ms 23
2.1.4 Challenges and oppo uni ies o gende - ans o ma i e change 25
2.1.5 Fu u e o gende - ans o ma i e policies 27
2.2 Fu he concep ual discussions 28
3 Conclusions 32
Re e ences 37
Annex 44
Execu i e summa ies o case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions 44
Execu i e summa y om he Ghanaian case s udy 44
Execu i e summa y om he Indian case s udy 47
Execu i e summa y om he Uk ainian case s udy 51
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
V
Figu es
Figu e 1: Ma ix o clus e ed c i e ia o syn hesis 21
Figu e 2: Local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y 28
Tables
Table 1: De ini ion o concep s 11
Table 2: O e iew o me hodological app oaches used by he pa ne s 17
Boxes
Box 1: Feminis app oaches in Ge many’s o eign and de elopmen policies 10
Box 2: Abs ac s om he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions 19
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
VI
Abb e ia ions
EU Eu opean Union
FFP eminis o eign policy
GIZ Deu sche Gesellscha ü In e na ionale Zusammena bei (Ge man Agency o
In e na ional Coope a ion)
HIV human immunode iciency i us
HLPF High-Le el Poli ical Fo um
IDOS Ge man Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
IR in e na ional ela ions
LGBTQIA* lesbian, gay, bisexual, ansgende , quee /ques ioning, in e sex, and
asexual/a oman ic/agende
NGO non-go e nmen al o ganisa ion
SDG Sus ainable De elopmen Goal
UN Uni ed Na ions
UN Women Uni ed Na ions En i y o Gende Equali y and Empowe men o Women
WPS Women Peace and Secu i y
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
1
Execu i e summa y
The global landscape o gende equali y is inc easingly being challenged by a med con lic s, he
wo sening clima e and en i onmen al c ises, au oc a isa ion and an i-gende campaigns. In
mos pa s o he wo ld, gi ls, women, LGBTQIA* communi ies and o he ma ginalised gende s
a e no only p one o be ic ims o iolence, bu hei ac i e pa icipa ion in poli ics and
decision-making is also limi ed and made insigni ican . Sweden in oduced he i s eminis
o eign policy in 2014, ollowed by o he s, including Ge many in 2023, which adop ed a
eminis app oach in hei de elopmen and o eign policies. The idea o inco po a ing gende
sensi i i y in o de elopmen and o eign policy is no a new concep hough, as i may e e o
a ange o ini ia i es ha p io i ised he in ol emen o emales and o he ma ginalised
gende s in de elopmen p ocesses by challenging adi ional gende bina ies. Feminis
policies – despi e claiming o adop a pos -colonial, an i- acis and in e sec ional amewo k –
a e equen ly c i icised in academic schola ship and by p ac i ione s o hei po en ial
inapplicabili y o di e se con ex s in pa ne coun ies and o pe pe ua ing pa e nalis ic o neo-
colonial beha iou s. Conside ing he ecen end o igh -wing policies in in luencing poli ics
all o e he globe, discou ses in esea ch on eminis policies aise c i ical ques ions abou i s
limi a ion and ins i u ionalisa ion. In his con ex , we in oduce local eminis pe spec i es wi h
his s udy as ha ing he po en ial o ac as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y by
p oducing con ex -speci ic al e na i e app oaches o de elopmen p ocesses ha add ess
p e ailing gende no ms and p ac ices.
A se o c i e ia was de eloped – based on ac o s o gende (in)equali y, geog aphy/wo ld
egion, ci il socie y landscape, he socio-poli ical and socio-economic si ua ions in and o he
coun ies – o he selec ion o he pa ne coun ies o in o m ou unde s anding o local eminis
pe spec i es. This syn hesis s udy builds on he expe ise, knowledge and expe iences o he
colleagues om h ee pa ne o ganisa ions in Ghana, India and Uk aine. The aim o he
syn hesis is o iden i y he common pa e ns and di e ences among a ious local eminis
pe spec i es and esea che s, while also acili a ing a con e sa ion be ween di e en local
eminis pe spec i es and schola ship on o eign and de elopmen policies ollowing eminis
agendas. Fu he mo e, we wan o inqui e abou gende no ms, p ac ices and s uc u al ba ie s
ha hinde gende - ans o ma i e policies, and seek o unco e o en o e looked local eminis
pe spec i es in he na ional con ex (see Roy, 2016). The s udy hen u he explo es how hese
local pe spec i es can o e al e na i e app oaches o de elopmen p ocesses, imp o e
women’s, gi ls’ and LGBTQIA* pe sons’ access o esou ces, and imp o e hei e ec i e
pa icipa ion in poli ical p ocesses and decision-making. O e all, hese ques ions aim o
unde s and how local eminis knowledge and expe iences can be u ilised o c ea e mo e
inclusi e, equi able and sus ainable de elopmen s a egies.
We also ook in o accoun eminis calls o e lec ion upon inhe en powe asymme ies in
knowledge cons uc ion and how me hodological choices con ibu e o he s udy’s quali a i e
amewo k. As me hodological conside a ions o his syn hesis s udy, along wi h a eminis e hic,
we ocused on pa icipa o y ac ion esea ch while applying an induc i e and explo a i e
app oach. When we app oached he pa ne o ganisa ions wi h he idea o a commissioned
s udy on local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y, we
delibe a ely a oided u he concep ualising local eminis pe spec i es, ans o ma ion le e s
and gende equali y. Ins ead, we see he main concep ual con ibu ion o his syn hesis s udy
as exac ly his: he syn hesising o he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions, hei
concep ualisa ion and he applica ions o such e ms. Acco dingly, his s udy does no p esen
a concep ual amewo k in de ail, bu we ha e p epa ed a able (Table 1) wi h ou de ini ions o
he mos ele an concep s and e ms necessa y o analyse local eminis pe spec i es as
ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y. As pa o he syn hesis sec ion (Sec ion 2),
we discuss and e lec he pa ne s’ app oaches and con ex ualise hem agains he backd op
o schola ly deba es in eminis esea ch. These discussions hen build on he case s udies
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
8
(Nylund e al., 2023). Pa is-Jennings and E oukhmano (2024) p o ide an o e iew o eminis
policy-making in mul iple a eas o policy and examine a ious gende - ocused p og ammes ha
s a es and in e na ional o ganisa ions ha e unde aken in he las decade. The schola ship on
he heo e ical and analy ical ounda ion o FFP pa es he way o unde s anding and e alua ing
he discou ses a ound eminis policies.
Se e al schola s examine he de elopmen o FFP by analysing he unde lying s a egies and
na a i es ha shape and in o m hese policies. In his ega d, Scheye and Kumsko a (2019)
con ibu e o he schola ship wi h an analysis o FFPs and how hey e lec an au hen ically
eminis app oach. A heo e ical con ibu ion by Uspenskaya and Kozlo a (2022) in oduces i e
ac o s ha ha e in luenced he de elopmen o FFP. The au ho s name (1) hinke s like de
Pizan, on Su ne , Addams and hei ideas on a wo ld ee o iolence, (2) he In e na ional
Cong ess o Women in 1915 and he In e na ional Cong ess o Wo king Women in 1919, (3) he
schola ship o eminis IR, (4) no m en ep eneu s and (5) Uni ed Na ions (UN) ini ia i es, o
example he Women Peace and Secu i y (WPS) agenda. Fä be con ibu es empi ically and
heo e ically o he schola ship wi h a ocus on which ac o s a e in ol ed in he knowledge
p oduc ion a ound FFP and he ep oduc ion o i s na a i es (Achilleos-Sa ll e al., 2023).
Agges am and T ue (2020) add an empi ical and heo e ical con ibu ion wi h hei esea ch on
s a egies o he ins umen alisa ion o “gende ” as a ca ego y in o eign (and de elopmen )
policies. To he ield o empi ical/ heo e ical con ibu ions belong he wo ks by Zhuko a e al.
(2022) on he use o FFPs as s a egic na a i es while e e ing o IR heo ies o no m
ansla ion and s a egic na a i es. Wi h hei heo e ical wo k on he ques ion o whe he an
FFP can be undone, Towns e al. (2024) sha e e lec ions om Sweden and explo e he sus ain-
abili y o he Swedish FFP. The au ho s ind h ee aspec s conce ning he go e nance o FFP
ha p e en he wi hd awal om a eminis agenda: in e na ional law, decen alised o eign
policy implemen a ion as well as in e na ional ole expec a ions (Towns e al., 2024, p. 1264).
Acco dingly, he au ho s also c i ically e lec on equalising FFP wi h he Swedish example, as
“i was embedded in a web o in e na ional no ms, ins i u ions and ag eemen s on women’s
igh s and gende equali y, hos ed by egional and global o ganisa ions” (Towns e al., p. 1268).
Feminis policies, unlike “ adi ional” policies, a e g ounded in his o ical eminis s uggles and
mo emen s, which, upon e ec i e implemen a ion, become sel -sus aining and less dependen
on poli ical o legal amewo ks. Wi h a ocus on local eminis pe spec i es, we can add ess
his gap in he li e a u e o endemic, local unde s andings and discou ses on eminism(s).
O he schola s in he ield expand hei analyses by iden i ying missing links and p oposing
amewo ks ha can enhance he o mula ion and implemen a ion o eminis policies, in he
local and in e na ional con ex s. Achilleos-Sa ll e al. (2023) elabo a es on he missing link
be ween FFP and he clima e and en i onmen al c ises as well as on he absence o e lec ions
on humans’ ela ions wi h each o he and he plane . Robinson (2024) a ibu es p oblems wi h
FFP’s implemen a ion o he lack o epis emological and e hical amewo ks as well as
unde lying p esump ions ha ail o su icien ly ques ion colonial and hie a chical s uc u es and
ely on bina y app oaches ha u he pe pe ua e powe imbalances. Kan ola and Lomba do
(2019) analyse he ela ionship be ween eminis poli ics and bo h le populism (in Spain) and
igh populism (in Finland), and hey sugges ha poli ical ma e s o he implemen a ion o
eminis policies and le pa ies a e mo e esponsi e o eminis ideas. Wi h hei a icle om
2020 on “Gende ing Fo eign Policy”, Agges am and T ue sugges a heo e ical amewo k on
gende ing o eign policy ha shall allow c oss-na ional compa a i e s udies. In addi ion, Madadli
(2024) o e s a hema ic analysis o in eg a ing e hical p inciples in FFP implemen a ion, high-
ligh ing he impo ance o s iking a balance be ween eminis ideals and he p ac icali ies o
o eign (and de elopmen ) policy. In he explo a o y esea ch, Ra ho e (2024) emphasises he
o go en con ibu ions o he non-Wes e n wo ld – especially women – o FFP discou ses,
ad oca ing o a mo e inclusi e app oach in he s udy o IRs ha in eg a es gende and e hics.
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
9
1.2.2 Ac oss he globe: eminis app oaches in o eign and de elopmen
policies
In he nex s ep, we c i ically examine he p ac ical aspec s o he e ec i e ansla ion o eminis
agendas in o ac ionable s a egies and meaning ul ou comes. The majo i y o a ailable s udies
ocus on Wes e n s a es’ eminis policies. As Sweden was he i s coun y o adop an FFP,
he schola ship on eminis app oaches o o eign policy has a s ong empi ical ocus on Sweden
(Agges am & Be gman Rosamond, 2019; Agges am & T ue, 2020, 2024; Agges am e al., 2024,
2018; Geo ge, 2022; Nylund e al., 2023; Sunds öm e al., 2021; Towns e al., 2024). O he s
explo e FFP in Canada (Robinson, 2024), F ance (E oukhmano , 2024) o p o ide a
compa ison be ween Canada, F ance, Spain and Mexico (Thomson, 2024). The wide
ecogni ion o Sweden as a endse e and he app oaches o unde s anding FFP h ough he
angle o Wes e n policies ha e been c i icised o igno ing non-Wes e n amewo ks and
his o ical con ibu ions, especially hose a ising om pos -colonial con ex s (Ra ho e, 2024).
Ce ain schola s highligh hough ha , e en wi hou calling a o eign policy explici ly eminis ,
o he coun ies, o example in Sou h Asia, ha e implemen ed eminis -in o med measu es in
hei policies be o e, o example in India (Pa asha & D’Cos a, 2017). All hese con ibu ions
ake a a he na ional pe spec i es, as hey e e ing o he o icial documen s p epa ed by he
go e nmen s hemsel es. Wha is missing is a ocus on how/i local pe spec i es ac oss and
beyond na ional bo de s eed in o hese unde s andings o eminism(s).
FFP has been desc ibed as “some hing wi hou clea o m, which is con inually un olding ac oss
di e en con ex s” (Achilleos-Sa ll e al., 2023, p. 4). Pa asha and D’Cos a (2017) combine his
obse a ion wi h a c i ique o he coloniali y ha is ca ied and ep oduced by FFP app oaches
(see also Achilleos-Sa ll e al., 2023; Uspenskaya & Kozlo a, 2022). These au ho s highligh
he di e ences in he uses o he e ms “ eminis ” and “ eminisms” in o he s a e’s app oaches,
and hey highligh ha coun ies in Sou h Asia, like India, ha e implemen ed eminis -in o med
measu es in hei policies wi hou calling hei o eign policies explici ly eminis . They also
iden i y blind spo s in he discou ses ha shaped FFP om eminis pe spec i es – om peace
ac i is s ac oss he globe and om an i-colonial hinke s in he Global Sou h (Uspenskaya &
Kozlo a, 2022, p. 5; see also Achilleos-Sa ll e al., 2023). In addi ion, Pa asha and D’Cos a
(2017, p. 28) poin ou ha eminis s uggles in he Global Sou h challenge bo h he local
pa ia chies and he epis emic iolence o he Global No h. In his c i icism, hey link eminis
discou ses wi h (pos -)colonial discou ses, which is an unde s udied a ea (Uspenskaya &
Kozlo a, 2022, p. 5). As a heo e ical con ibu ion, Ki by elabo a es on eminism and ealism,
while Thomson and Fä be ocus on FFP and powe asymme ies be ween he so-called Global
Sou h and Global No h (Achilleos-Sa ll e al., 2023). He e, he eminis policies a e challenged
o exac ly wha hey a e claiming o do di e en ly: F om a mo e local pe spec i e, a eminis
de elopmen o o eign app oach can be seen as a concep ha migh no be applicable o
di e en con ex s in pa ne coun ies.
When eminis o eign and de elopmen app oaches igno e non-Wes e n pe spec i es and ail
o adap o local eali ies, hey con adic hei in en o p omo e gende equali y, add ess powe
asymme ies and isk o being pe cei ed as pa e nalis ic o (neo-)colonial. I is a e ealing
ension be ween domes ic and o eign p io i ies, bo h wi hin he dono – ecipien ela ionship and
wi hin he coun y i sel . Agges am and T ue (2024) analyse he gende ed dynamics in o eign
policies agains he backd op o con a y ends in con empo a y global poli ics, wi h coun ies
implemen ing eminis app oaches in hei o eign policies on he one hand, and misogyny
go e nmen s on he o he hand. Fo ins ance, Thomson’s sec ion (2024) in es iga es he
concep and implica ions o FFP while also e lec ing on he isk o a supe icial adop ion o he
agenda wi hou any signi ican changes. E oukhmano (2024) c i ically analyses F ench
eminis diplomacy, emphasising he con adic ions be ween F ance’s sel -po ayal as a leade
in gende equali y and he complex, o en oubled eali ies o i s domes ic gende poli ics.
Tamang (2024) also c i ically examines India’s FFP, highligh ing how i s ou wa d commi men
o p og essi e eminism and gende equali y se es o conceal in e nal eali ies o acism,
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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iolence and mili a isa ion. Be gman Rosamond (2024) deals wi h he ension be ween he
achie emen s o Sweden’s FFP on a global scale and i s limi ed in luence on Sweden’s own
socie y.
Box 1: Feminis app oaches in Ge many’s o eign and de elopmen policies
As pa o he coali ion ea y be ween he Social Democ a ic Pa y, he G een Pa y and he Libe al
Pa y,2 he Ge man go e nmen announced in 2021 ha hei o eign, de elopmen and de ence
policies will ollow a eminis app oach.3 In hei o icial policy documen s and communica ions,
bo h he Ge man Fede al Minis e o De elopmen Coope a ion, S enja Schulze, and he Ge man
Fede al Minis e o Fo eign A ai s, Annalena Bae bock, s ess he necessi y o link he ocus on
ma ginalised gende s o mo e gene al a emp s o decolonise o eign and de elopmen policies.
They p opose a human-cen ed and igh s-
based app oach ha akes in o accoun
in e sec ionali y, meaning he in e sec ions o di e en dimensions o social and gende iden i ies
and hei ( ein o cing) pa e ns o disc imina ion and ma ginalisa ion. Agains his backd op, he
minis ies seek o link hei eminis app oach o b oade academic and p ac i ione s’ deba es on
pos -coloniali ies, decoloniali y and (gende ed) powe asymme ies in de elopmen coope a ion
and o eign a ai s. Howe e , in a 2024 opinion moni o , B ude , Gödde z, Schneide and Zille
(2024, pp. 67-90) p esen how eminis de elopmen policy is seen and unde s ood in Ge man
socie y. Feminis de elopmen policy as a concep is mo e commonly known in Ge man socie y
(in 2024, 52 pe cen o he esponden s, om which 27 pe cen said hey know wha i is abou ).
The numbe o hose who suppo his agenda has dec eased om 59 pe cen o 52 pe cen om
2023 o 2024. In con as , mo e esponden s suppo a human- igh s-based app oach o a peace-
building app oach. Labelling he policy “ eminis ” u he leads o s onge di e ences be ween
suppo e s o di e en pa ies (pola ising impac ). Mo eo e , he e is mo e suppo i ins umen al
(gende equali y as a means o achie e o he goals) and no ma i e a gumen s (gende equali y
as a human igh ) a e combined (see also Schneide , Gödde z, Zille, & Sassenhagen, 2024). The
de achmen o global eminis agendas and policies om he local con ex s highligh s he necessi y
o a nuanced, in e sec ional and con ex -speci ic unde s anding o local eminis pe spec i es o
gende - ans o ma i e change.
The exis ing li e a u e la gely ocuses on he concep ualisa ion and ins i u ionalisa ion o eminis
de elopmen and o eign policies, wi h compa a i ely limi ed a en ion gi en o he analysis o
hese policies om he local/na ional con ex s in he pa ne coun ies. Schola s analyse eminis
policies om implemen ing coun ies’ pe spec i e, while de o ing li le a en ion o he
pe spec i es o ecipien coun ies ha a e di ec ly a ec ed by hei de elopmen and o eign
policies. The discussion he e o e excludes local eminis pe spec i es om pa ne coun ies
and hei conside a ions as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y.
2 The Libe al Pa y le he coali ion on 7 No embe 2024. Acco ding o he Ge man Fede al Minis y o
Jus ice (2024), he elec ion o he 21s Ge man Bundes ag (Pa liamen ) shall be held on 23 Feb ua y
2025. A he ime o w i ing his syn hesis s udy, i is no clea i a new go e nmen will con inue wi h
a eminis app oach o he o eign and de elopmen policy po olio.
3 Ge many joined he In e na ional Alliance o Feminis Mo emen in Sep embe 2024 (BMZ, 2024b).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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Table 1: De ini ion o concep s
Concep De ini ion
Local eminis
pe spec i es
Feminisms s and o “c i ical pe spec i es on social and poli ical li e” (Acke ly &
T ue, 2020, p. 1) h ough he lens o gende , ace, coloniali y, (dis)abili y, age
and/o social/economic class. The a ie y o di e en eminisms ac oss he wo ld
build a mosaic o di e se pe spec i es.
T ans o ma ion
le e
The idea o ans o ma ion en ails a d as ic change om a s a us quo o a ( adical)
new s a us, o en in he ield o socie al, ecological and/o economic ans-
o ma ions (Schneidewind, 2018). The concep o “le e s” e e s o he no ion o
an accele a ing e ec o a ce ain measu e, ini ia i e o pe spec i e ha could
in luence o he ac o s o a eas.
In e sec ionali y The concep desc ibes how di e en elemen s o iden i y in e sec and esul in
speci ic expe iences o opp ession and p i ilege o di e en g oups (C enshaw,
1989).
Gende equali y
“Gende equali y means ha he igh s, esponsibili ies and oppo uni ies o
indi iduals will no depend on whe he hey a e male o emale [o non-bina y],
handicapped o able bodied, young o elde ly, whi e o black, o om u al o u ban
se ings” (Uni ed Na ions Popula ion Fund, 2023).
Gende no ms Ge
nde no ms a e a subse o social no ms. They desc ibe accep able and
unaccep able gende ed expec a ions, beha iou s and p ac ices (Ma cus & Somji,
2024).
Pa ia chy A sys em o gende ed powe ela ions ha a ou s males o indi iduals iden i ied
as males by o he s (Ma cus & Somji, 2024, p. 15).
Epis emic injus ices can only be esol ed by an ac i e p omo ion o jus ice, acknowledgemen
o he alue o ma ginalised people’s es imonies and he s i e o mo e inclusi e knowledge
sys ems (Cummings, Dhewa, Kemboi, & Young, 2023). Fo his pu pose, he syn hesis s udy
also akes in o accoun eminis calls o a e lec ion upon inhe en powe asymme ies in
knowledge cons uc ion and app oached he pa ne o ganisa ions wi h no concep ualisa ions
abou local eminis pe spec i es, ans o ma ion le e s o gende equali y. In ligh o his deba e,
he nex sub-sec ion p esen s he local con ex s o Ghana, India and Uk aine – he pa ne
coun ies o his syn hesis s udy – hei concep ualisa ions o a ious e ms ele an o his
s udy, as well as he a emp s o unde s and how eminis discou ses a y ac oss di e en
se ings and equi e policies ha a e speci ically ailo ed o hese unique con ex s.
1.2.3 Glimpses om pa ne coun ies’ discou ses on eminisms
To con ex ualise hese s ands o li e a u e wi h he con ex s o he pa ne coun ies, we wan
o b ie ly ela e o he ich eminis li e a u e ocusing on women’s oles, igh s, and ep esen a-
ion, pa icula ly explo ing how cul u al, poli ical and social s uc u es impac women’ igh s and
expe iences in Ghana, India and Uk aine. This is no mean o duplica e he wo k done in he
s udies conduc ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions, bu a he o si ua e he case s udies p epa ed
by he pa ne o ganisa ions in he di e en schola ships. The e o e, we can only p esen
glimpses om he pa ne coun ies’ discou ses on eminisms in he emainde o his sec ion.
The ich Ghanaian eminis li e a u e co e s a wide a ay o opics, anging om gende
ep esen a ion (Ako-Nai & Obamamoye, 2018), cul u al and s uc u al challenges o gende
equali y (Odame, 2014), and ba ie s o poli ical pa icipa ion (Boakye, 2009; Odame, 2010),
ape my hs, a i udes (Boakye, 2009; Fakunmoju e al., 2021), women’s empowe men and
leade ship (T ipp, 2023). B oade hemes co e ed a e he women’s mo emen o gende
quo as in Nige ia and Ghana (2000-2016), women in poli ics (in e e ence o he women’s
empowe men amewo k), adi ional women leade s, Aban u o De elopmen (in he Women’s
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
12
Mani es o o Ghana) and he ele ance o he Fou h Wo ld Con e ence on Women in Beijing
in 1995 o women’s igh s in Ghana.4 These esea ch pape s highligh he impo ance o
add essing cul u al, s uc u al and sys emic ba ie s o women’s igh s and ep esen a ion in
Ghana, and hey ad oca e o a ge ed policies and e o ms o empowe women and p omo e
gende equali y in all sphe es o li e.
The li e a u e on Indian eminisms is equally complex and di e se, co e ing in e sec ionali y
(Kaymaz Me & Ünsal, 2022; Nandi ha, 2021), he ole o cul u al na a i es o eminis
mo emen s (Moun , 2020; Na ayan, 1998, 2019) and hei his o ical de elopmen (Bha i &
Goyal, 2021), he link be ween eminisms and he digi al space (Jain, 2020; Nandi ha, 2021),
c i iques o Wes e n eminism (e.g. Na ayan, 1998, 2019) and neolibe al in luences (Gup a,
2016). All in all, hese s udies co e wo b oad a eas ela ing o ep esen a ion and oice as well
as empowe men and agency in Indian eminis esea ch. By looking a he cases o Ghana and
India, ele an opics deal wi h by eminis esea che s a e gende -based iolence and socie al
a i udes, eminis ac i ism and digi al pla o ms, he cul u al con ex and eminis heo y, poli ical
ep esen a ion and gende quo as, in e sec ionali y and inclusi i y, Global Sou h pe spec i es,
and empowe men h ough educa ion and li e a u e. The emphasis on in e sec ionali y and
inclusi i y u he unde sco es he complexi y o women’s issues in bo h Ghana and India,
highligh ing he necessi y o ailo ed app oaches in eminis ac i ism and policy-making.
The schola ship on Uk ainian eminisms co e s ou b oad hemes. One heme e e s o
Uk aine’s posi ion “be ween he Wes and he Eas , he No h and Sou h” and add esses i s
being a pos -socialis socie y. H y senko (2022) si ua es Uk ainian eminism be ween he Wes
and Russia, Channell-Jus ice (2020) explo es eminis esea ch and ac i ism in pos -socialis
socie ies, and San oi e (2023) concen a es on he WPS agenda and i s missing ocus on pos -
So ie spaces. San oi e iden i ies a me ageog aphy and in-be weenness o pos -So ie egions
as nei he Global No h no Global Sou h, desc ibing i as a “Second Wo ld” while e e ing o
he ea angemen om Eas /Wes geopoli ical imagina ies o Sou h/No h a e he end o he
Cold Wa . The second b oad heme co e ed by Uk ainian eminis schola ship desc ibes he
ela ionship be ween women, mili a y and wa . He e, Ma senyuk and G y senko (2017)
elabo a e on women and he mili a y in Uk aine, Olike (2022) in es iga es gende dynamics
shaping he wa and O’Sulli an (2019, 2022) concen a es on he WPS agenda in Uk aine.
O’Sulli an (2019) desc ibes he Uk ainian Na ional Ac ion Plan as ollowing a oo na ow
mili a ised o m o he WPS agenda due o he ongoing con lic , na ionalis ic eminism and he
in luence o in e na ional o ganisa ions. He wo k om 2020 connec s WPS schola ship wi h
eminis secu i y s udies and eminis poli ical economy and demons a es ha pos -wa
neolibe al economy and gende - esponsi e peace-building in Uk aine clash wi h each o he . A
hi d heme ocuses on women and na ion-building, wi h Zhu zhenko (2001) elabo a ing on he
ole o women in na ion- and s a e-building, and H ycak and Rewakowicz (2009) highligh ing he
ole o Eas Eu opean in ellec uals in building ounda ions o democ a ic ins i u ions h ough he
es ablishmen o Uk ainian eminis mic o-publics. T ansna ionalis eminisms and (gende ed)
egional dynamics o m a ou h heme wi hin Uk ainian eminis schola ship, wi h Sha o a
(2022) explo ing he gende dimension in poli ical p ocesses in pos -communis s a es in
Eas e n Eu ope and H ycak (2007) explo ing he link be ween ansna ionalism and eminis
mo emen s in Uk aine.
The common h ead ac oss Ghanaian, Indian and Uk ainian eminis s udies is he explo a ion
o he ways in which cul u al, poli ical and social s uc u es impac women’s igh s and
expe iences. They collec i ely ad oca e o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o eminism(s) ha
conside s local con ex s and he need o sys emic changes o add ess gende -based iolence
4 The Beijing Con e ence was “pi o al o o mula ing ideas and goals o gende and de elopmen ,
culmina ing wi h he 1995 Beijing Pla o m o Ac ion – a guably he mos p og essi e bluep in e e
o ad ance women’s igh s” (Towns e al., 2024, p. 1268).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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and enhance women’s poli ical ep esen a ion. A he same ime, he e is a signi ican lack o
schola ship examining how hese elemen s in e connec and in e sec o add ess bo h global
and con ex -speci ic de elopmen challenges owa ds g ea e gende equali y. Following a
mul i-di ec ional unde s anding o no m lows and a els (Zwingel, 2012), his s udy explo es
how no ms a a ious le els and scale in luence each o he and how hey can be changed o
suppo de elopmen s owa ds gende - ans o ma i e change. In o de o p o ide a mo e
comp ehensi e analysis o hese concep s and hei ole as ans o ma ion le e s, he nex sub-
sec ion ou lines he me hodological conside a ions o his s udy ha seek o ensu e a deepe
unde s anding and e lec ion on he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions.
1.3 Me hodological conside a ions: how o syn hesise he
case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions
The li e a u e on eminis de elopmen and o eign policies p o ided a ounda ional unde -
s anding o he la es global eminis discou ses and amewo ks, and i poin ed o he need o
de elop s a egies o d i ing gende - ans o ma i e change in localised and con ex -sensi i e
eminis agendas. In o al, h ee pa ne o ganisa ions in Ghana, India and Uk aine, which we e
selec ed based on a ca e ully de ined se o c i e ia, con ibu ed o his s udy wi h hei expe ise,
knowledge and expe iences o na ional con ex s. The me hodological amewo k in his
syn hesis s udy was c ea ed wi h he in en o enabling a esea ch p ocess ha cap u es global
and local eminis pe spec i es, while p io i ising a eminis esea ch e hic, ensu ing pa icipa o y
ac ion esea ch app oaches, and in eg a ing heo e ical ounda ions o a syn hesis.
1.3.1 Case selec ion and p esen a ion o cases
The case selec ion was based on a se o c i e ia ha helped in iden i ying h ee coun ies o
pa icula ele ance o ou esea ch ques ions and he o e all esea ch objec i es o he p ojec .
These c i e ia included he s a e o gende (in)equali y in he coun y, he coun y’s socio-
economic si ua ion/de elopmen s a us and i s socio-poli ical/ agili y s a us, as well as i s ci il
socie y landscape. Fu he mo e, we wan ed o include coun ies ha di e ed in popula ion sizes,
poli ical sys ems (e.g. p esiden ial, pa liamen a y, semi-p esiden ial; decolonised s a es, pos -
socialis socie ies) and geog aphical loca ions o co e a a ie y o socie ies and poli ical
sys ems in ou sample.
Ghana has been an independen s a e since 1957, and wi h ha i became he i s independen
s a e in sub-Saha an A ica. Ghana is a uni a y p esiden ial cons i u ional democ acy wi h a
mul i-pa y sys em. Ghanaians had an in luen ial ole in decolonisa ion and Pan-A ican
mo emen s. Be o e i s independence, Ghana was unde Po uguese and B i ish colonial
adminis a ion, and i is a ounding membe o he Non-Alignmen Mo emen and he A ican
Union. I is also a membe o he Economic Communi y o Wes A ican S a es (ECOWAS). I
has a ound 31 million inhabi an s. Wi h a iew owa ds ques ions conce ning gende equali y,
in Ghana he e a e ma ilineal and pa ilineal socie ies,5 o e ing an in e es ing lens o analyse
gende no ms as well as ba ie s o ans o ma i e change.
India has been an independen s a e since 1947 and a ede al epublic since 1950. I is
cons i u ed as a democ a ic pa liamen a y s uc u e wi h a mul i-pa y sys em. India is also pa
o he Non-Aligned Mo emen and suppo ed decolonisa ion p ocesses in A ica and Asia. India
5 In Ghana, indi iduals iden i y hei lineage h ough ei he ma ilineal o pa ilineal ies, ha is, h ough
he emale o male bloodline, o ming he basis o hei amilial a ilia ions (Ku soa i & Mo ck, 2016).
In Indian ma ilineal socie ies, e en he au ho i y and powe o men is inhe i ed om women
(Goswami, 2024).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
14
is he mos populous coun y o he wo ld, wi h a ound 1.4 billion inhabi an s. Al hough ce ain
schola s iden i ied eminis ideals in Indian poli ics (Pa asha , 2016), in e ms o gende
(in)equali y, India is “among he coun ies ha a e conside ed as leas gende sensi ised” (Malik,
2021, p. 290). Simila o Ghana, in India he e a e ma ilineal and pa ilineal socie ies as well as
di e ences be ween adi ional socie ies and u ban a eas – in e ms o gende (in)equali y – ha
can in o m s udies on gende no ms.
Uk aine became an independen s a e in 1991 ollowing he dissolu ion o he So ie Union. I
is a semi-p esiden ial epublic and a uni a y s a e. Uk aine has app oxima ely 33 million
inhabi an s. Russia s a ed i s wa agains Uk aine in 2014 wi h he illegal annexa ion o C imea
and a des ablisa ion p ocesses in eas e n Uk aine. In Feb ua y 2022, Russia launched a ull-
scale in asion o Uk aine, which has also had an in luence on socie al oles, o example
gende ed ci izenships, and he wo k o eminis mo emen s. Acco ding o a epo by UN
Women (2022), “Rapid Gende Analysis o Uk aine”, he issues o social de elopmen and
gende equali y a e being neglec ed because o he cu en wa , despi e he ac ha he
si ua ion has exace ba ed gende inequali y, disc imina ion and disp opo iona e le els o
iolence agains women and gi ls. Zychowicz (2020, p. 5) desc ibed his issue in Uk aine as he
“common sidelining o women’s needs and expe iences e iden h oughou pe iods o
unce ain y”. Wi hin na ionalis con ex s, he eminis hemes in Uk ainian li e a u e can be aced
back o 1890, when women w i e s and jou nalis s in he p e-So ie e a o med o ganisa ions o
esol e women’s issues and ad oca e o gende equali y (Ma senyuk, 2023). Thei w i ings
ha e spawned mode n emale oices and mo emen s such as Femen, which ha e modi ied
Wes e n ideas o eminism o add ess local social and poli ical issues h ough e olu iona y and
ebellious ac ions.
1.3.2 A eminis esea ch e hic, e lexi i y and posi ionali y
The me hodological conside a ions o his s udy a e based on a eminis esea ch e hic, which
can be amed as a
me hodological commi men o any se o esea ch p ac ices ha e lec on powe o
epis emology, bounda ies, ela ionships, and he mul iple dimensions o he
esea che ’s loca ion h oughou he esea ch p ocess and o a no ma i e commi men
o ans o ming he social o de in o de o p omo e gende jus ice. (Acke ly & T ue,
2020, p. 2)
Rela ions be ween and wi hin socie ies, pa icula ly hose be ween he so-called Global Sou h
and Global No h, a e shaped by powe asymme ies wi h people(s) belonging o mo e powe ul
socio-economic, majo i y g oups and o he s belonging o g oups wi h less-accep ed socio-
economic s a us (Foucaul , 1977; Ziai, 2015). A eminis esea ch e hic “helps us o e lec on
and a end o dynamics o powe , knowledge, ela ionships, and con ex h oughou he esea ch
p ocess” (Acke ly & T ue, 2020, p. 2) h ough a gende ed lens. A eminis esea ch e hic e e s
o he epis emological dimension o esea ch ( heo y o knowledge), he me hodology ( heo y
and analysis o esea ch) as well as he me hods ( echniques o ga he ing e idence) (Acke ly
& T ue, 2020, p. 9). A eminis esea ch e hic calls o c i ical e lec ion as a wo k e hic and an
unde s anding o he “p o isionali y and con ingency o da a and he cons uc ion o knowledge
h ough ca ego iza ion and bounda ies” (Acke ly & T ue, 2020, p. 2). Such ca ego ies and
bounda ies also need, in u n, o be e lec ed upon and ela ed in “non-essen ialis and ans-
o ma i e ways” (Acke ly & T ue, 2020, p. 2). This me hodological commi men also se s he
objec i es o he esea ch conduc ed as se ing o e a ching “ eminis goals o social jus ice”
(Acke ly & T ue, 2020, p. 7). To his end, esea ch ques ions need o be o ele ance o hose
who a e pa icipa ing in o being a ec ed by he esea ch (Acke ly & T ue, 2020, p. 258; Ge ais,
Webe , & Ca on, 2020, pa 2, p. 15). The p inciples o a eminis e hic guide his syn hesis and
i s app oach o c i ically e lec on he knowledge and expe iences sha ed by he pa ne s in
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
15
hei s udies, add ess he ques ion o powe dynamics, and na iga e he bounda ies and ca ego i-
sa ion o ou c oss-cul u al esea ch.
By e e ing o he eminis call o e lec ions upon ca ego ies and bounda ies used and applied
in he p ocess o knowledge cons uc ion, we wan o in oduce ano he dimension o eminis
esea ch a ound ques ions o e lexi i y and posi ionali y. Re lexi i y “can se e as a ool o
disman le embedded powe hie a chies” (Bilgen, Nasi , & Schönebe g, 2022, p. 2) in he
esea ch p ocess. Being e lexi e suppo s iden i ying “dominan o ms o knowledge
p oduc ion” (Bilgen e al., 2022, p. 2) while no p oblema ising subjec i i y bu emb acing i .
Posi ionali ies, (in e sec ing) iden i ies o ace, class, gende , sex, e hnici y, ci izenship(s),
(dis)abili y and age shape ou analyses ha “a e ine i ably subjec i e” (Bilgen e al., 2022, p. 3).
Wi h such a “subjec i e lens” (Bilgen e al., 2022, p. 3), we highligh ha ou con ibu ion can be
only one among many – wha Bilgen e al. (2022) call “plu i e sal dialogues” (p. 3). These plu i-
e sal dialogues a e, in u n, needed o ques ion and con es no ions o neu ali y and objec i i y
o knowledge p oduc ion in science. Hence, e lexi i y and posi ionali y a e in e linked, wi h
e lexi i y being he p ocess o becoming awa e o one’s posi ionali ies i s ly, and o he oles
ha one’s posi ionali ies play in he esea ch p ocess and how hey shape he esea ch esul s
secondly. In his way, being e lexi e abou posi ionali ies means also o be e unde s and how
esea ch p ocesses cons uc and ein o ce hie a chical powe ela ions (Bilgen e al., 2022, p.
5). Acco dingly, Bilgen e al. (2022) desc ibe posi ionali y as he “in-be weenness” o he
esea che s’ iden i ies and he esea ch p ocess/ he knowledge cons uc ion. Fu he mo e, his
in-be weenness poin s o he cha ac e and ci cums ances o issues ha de elopmen s udies
deal wi h, o ins ance ques ions o po e y and inequali y (Bilgen e al., 2022, p. 5).
Building on he idea o “plu i e sal dialogues”, we ame local eminis pe spec i es as in o ming
al e na i e app oaches o de elopmen by challenging “de elopmen as a powe ul discou se”
(Bilgen e al., 2022, pp. 3-5). To e lec on ou own posi ionali ies, we all sha e di e en
cha ac e is ics and linked ypes o p i ileges ha in o m esponsibili ies along he phases o he
esea ch p ocess (Degai e al., 2022). We all a e pa o es ablished discou ses and powe
asymme ies. Wo king wi h colleagues om pa ne o ganisa ions was a delibe a e choice, as
we do no wan o in e p e “local” eminis pe spec i es om o he pa s o he wo ld, bu wan
o decons uc inhe en discu si e hie a chies. Fo he commissioned s udies implemen ed by
he pa ne o ganisa ions, we ha e se a b oad amewo k bu ha e always communica ed ha
we a e in e es ed in hei pe spec i es and s o ies. We a e conscious ha he e m “ eminism”
does no se e as a doo opene in all con ex s, and ha he do-no-ha m app oach shall lead
ou wo k. Ne e heless, we a e awa e o he asymme ic ela ionship be ween ou colleagues
in he pa ne coun ies and ou eam. The colleagues a ou pa ne o ganisa ions hemsel es
hen s and in ela ionships wi h hei esea ch pa icipan s, which desc ibes hei addi ional ole
as b idge builde s. In he exchange wi h us, he colleagues a he pa ne o ganisa ions
ep esen “local” pe spec i es, bu oge he wi h hei esea ch pa icipan s, hey ul il ano he
ole on ano he scale. This ci cums ance is in o med by luid iden i ies desc ibing di e en
posi ionali ies in di e en spaces, si ua ions and con ex s.
1.3.3 Pa icipa o y ac ion esea ch
Acco dingly, o he opic o his s udy – local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o
g ea e gende equali y – we in oduce as me hodological conside a ions pa icipa o y ac ion
esea ch as pa o ou ope a ionalisa ion (Reid, Tom, & F isby, 2006), which is needed o
add ess exis ing powe asymme ies and o he alignmen wi h a eminis esea ch e hic.
Pa icipa o y ac ion esea ch is in ended o ac owa ds social jus ice by being di ec ed owa ds
oo causes o (gende ed) inequali ies. By applying his amewo k o he s udy, we s ess he
ele ance and ole o he wo k o ou pa ne o ganisa ions and hei esea ch pa icipan s. Wi h
his p ojec , we ha e se he b oad amewo k o he esea ch, bu we ga e he pa ne s ull
owne ship abou how his esea ch is implemen ed and designed in de ail. Th ough di e en
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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ypes o wo kshops – ei he online o in pe son, o ganised as kick-o wo kshops a he beginning
o he p ojec , as in e im wo kshops in he pa ne coun ies and in Ge many as well as a join
in-pe son wo kshop – we sough o p o ide space o exchange and mu ual lea ning, among
and be ween he pa ne o ganisa ions and wi h ou eam. The in-pe son wo kshop – wi h all
pa ne o ganisa ions and us coming oge he – u he allowed us o discuss ou ideas o he
syn hesis s udy and how we aim o con ex ualise he esul s om he case s udies p epa ed by
he pa ne o ganisa ions agains he backd op o esea ch on eminis de elopmen and o eign
app oaches. Mo eo e , ou pa ne o ganisa ions applied pa icipa o y app oaches in hei
s udies by acknowledging he con ibu ions o he esea ch pa icipan s o hei esea ch.
1.3.4 Me hodological app oaches used by he case s udies p epa ed by he
pa ne o ganisa ions
We ha e compiled he me hodological app oaches used by he pa ne o ganisa ions in Table
2 o show hei di e si y as well as commonali ies.6 Bo h he Ghanaian and Indian s udies ha e
ollowed a quali a i e app oach o hei da a collec ion and analysis, while he Uk ainian s udy
has applied a mixed-me hods app oach by combining quali a i e and quan i a i e elemen s. All
he pa ne s conduc ed comp ehensi e e iews o he a ailable li e a u e on legisla ion, policies
and ac i ism wi hin hei espec i e coun ies. Simila ly, all o hem engaged wi h ac i is s,
expe s and ep esen a i es o local o ganisa ions, bo h indi idually and in g oups, o ga he
da a o hei s udies. In addi ion, he Uk ainian s udy was unique o inco po a ing a su ey ha
eached people om all egions, including occupied e i o ies, as well as membe s o he
diaspo a, some o whom we e o cibly displaced ab oad o le due o he wa . The cu en
con lic es ic ed Uk ainian pa ne s o online app oaches, unlike Ghana and India, whe e
in e iews and g oup ac i i ies we e held bo h i ually and in-pe son.
6 We ha e summa ised and compiled he o e iew o me hodological app oaches used by he case
s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions, adhe ing o he same e minologies as he case s udies
o main ain cla i y and consis ency.
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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Table 2: O e iew o me hodological app oaches used by he pa ne s
Ghana India Uk aine
O e iew C oss-sec ional s udy ha
used quali a i e app oach
o da a collec ion
Quali a i e s udy d awing
on bo h p ima y and
seconda y da a sou ces
Mixed-me hod s udy
design ha combines
quan i a i e and quali a i e
me hods
Li e a u e
e iew
Desk e iew o in o ma ion
on ac i ism, laws and
policies om he las wo
decades
Li e a u e e iew o policy
documen s, legisla ion,
da a and o he
in e en ions
Desk s udy o legisla ions,
socio-cul u al p ac ices,
and eminis ini ia i es, in
he con ex o wa
Su ey
Web su ey was illed ou
by 720 pa icipan s om all
egions o Uk aine
(including occupied
e i o ies, C imea and
diaspo a)
In e iews Indi idual in e iews wi h
35 local ep esen a i es
we e held in-pe son and
i ually
Key In o man In e iews
(KIIs) include 12 in e iews
wi h expe s and 18 wi h
local o ganisa ions
In-dep h in e iews wi h
20 eminis esea che s
and ac i is s we e
conduc ed online
Valida ion Valida ion wo kshop was
ca ied ou in hyb id o ma
in Acc a o 30 pa icipan s
S akeholde dialogue
was conduc ed in New
Delhi, in h ee segmen s
among 40 pa icipan s
Focus g oup discussions
held online wi h 25 people
in 5 g oups (4 g oups o
women and 1 o men)
Da a
analysis
Da a collec ed om hese
semi-s uc u ed in e iews
we e ansc ibed and
analysed using bo h
deduc i e and induc i e
coding me hods
The da a om he li e a u e
e iew and KIIs we e
analysed using hema ic
analysis
Da a om su eys using
SPSS, along wi h in e -
iews and g oup dis-
cussions, we e analysed
induc i ely wi h open
coding and he Voyan ool,
ollowed by da a
iangula ion
Sou ce: Au ho s; case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions
1.3.5 Ra ionale and app oach o he syn hesis s udy
Building on hese me hodological conside a ions, he key me hod o his s udy is a syn hesis
s udy as pa o he case s udy esea ch. The speci ic me hod applied o his syn hesis s udy
o ms pa o he quali a i e case s udy esea ch (Ge ing, 2007; Mahoney & Goe z, 2012). The
syn hesis s udy aims a con ibu ing o heo y-building by iden i ying pa e ns ac oss p ima y
s udies (Hoon, 2013, p. 526). In he ield o eminis esea ch, his syn hesis s udy con ibu es
o a be e unde s anding o local eminis pe spec i es by p o iding e idence o hei po en ial
o ac as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y. To build heo y, he syn hesis s udy
seeks o ex ac , analyse and syn hesise he quali a i e e idence de i ed om he p ima y
s udies (Hoon, 2013, p. 523). The e a e h ee di e en pe spec i es on how o syn hesise: 1)
agg ega ion ( ollowing he esea ch pa adigm o posi i ism), 2) in e p e a ion ( ollowing
pos posi i ism) and 3) ansla ion ( ollowing social cons uc i ism) (Hoon, 2013, p. 525). By
applying he in e p e a i e pe spec i e in his syn hesis s udy, he in eg i y o he p ima y s udies
shall be main ained while building on hei insigh s o conduc ing he syn hesis (Hoon, 2013, p.
526). Hence, con ex ualisa ion plays a c ucial ole and needs o be conside ed o o mula ing
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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in e ac ion be ween local and ansna ional eminisms is u he complemen ed by so-called
diaspo a eminisms – he phenomenon o eminis s li ing ab oad and con ibu ing o discou ses
in hei home con ex s (Camp & Thomas, 2008; Hua, 2012).
All h ee s udies p o ide poin s o e e ence om global, egional and local discou ses by
poin ing o no ms and di e si ies o cul u es as well as impac s om hei speci ic con ex s on
global discou ses on eminism(s). Fo he Ghanaian s udy, he di e si y o cul u es, eligions,
belie sys ems and socie al o ganisa ion is s essed. Ques ions o gende (in)equali ies –
pa icula ly he di e ences be ween ma ilineal and pa ilineal socie ies – a e highligh ed. The
si ua ion in he no h o he coun y – wi h i s majo i y o pa ilineal socie al o ganisa ions – is
mo e challenging o women’s igh s and pa icipa ion han in o he pa s o he coun y wi h hei
majo i y o ma ilineal socie ies. In e es ingly, in he Ghanaian con ex , eminis and gende
equali y discou ses a e no s ongly linked o decolonial app oaches, o ins ance in o he
decolonised con ex s such as Namibia and Kenya. Fo he impac on global discou ses on
eminism, he Ghanaian con ex o e all con ibu es o he ield o A ican eminism(s).
Simila ly, also India p esen s a qui e di e se con ex wi h di e en eligions and he cas e
sys em. Gende issues in e sec wi h hese o he dimensions o iden i y and lead o di e en
o ms o disc imina ion and ma ginalisa ion. Agains his backd op, mo emen s such as Dali
eminism de eloped speci ically o ell di e en s o ies han hose old by Hindu, uppe -class
mo emen s. Also in he Indian con ex , he s udy elabo a es on ma ilineal and pa ilineal
socie ies, while he la e ep esen a majo i y. The Indian s udy addi ionally e e s o ibal
socie ies and hei qui e p og essi e social no ms, which challenge s e eo ypical unde s andings
o u al and u ban a eas and hei communi ies. These socie ies a e, howe e , s ill o en amed
as ecei e s o change – and acco dingly as objec s, ic ims and bene icia ies – ins ead o
agen s o change. In gene al, he Indian s udy indica es ha Indian discou ses on eminisms
show s ong linkages o ansna ional ends, o example in he a eas o NGOisa ion (non-
go e nmen al o ganisa ion) and he de e i o ialisa ion o eminisms (Roy, 2016). Mo eo e , he
Indian s udy c i icises ha , in he ield o women and en i onmen , local mo emen s can ge
hijacked by global discou ses, o example h ough he eminisa ion o na u e. The cul u al
dimension o na u e is s essed and na u e is p esen ed as a woman by gi ing na u e and land
a emale body. Indian discou ses impac global deba es on eminism(s), mos p ominen ly
h ough sex wo ke s’ mo emen s. Fu he mo e, India has in luenced o he con ex s – ques ions
o child ma iage in Bangladesh and abo ion in I eland – by being an example o how o keep
eligion ou o law-making and challenging mode ni y in he na ion-s a e.
In he Uk ainian con ex , poin s o e e ence om global, egional and local discou ses can be
ound in he a ea o pos -socialis socie ies and hei speci ic ype o gende equali y. This ype
can be desc ibed as suppo ing gende equali y on a supe icial le el by e e ing o he socialis
o ganisa ion o socie y, which also included women as ac i e in he wo k o ce, while gende
inequali ies con inued o exis unde p opaganda (S elnyk, Yuz a, & Zlobina, 2025). The s udy
s ill iden i ies gende ed no ms and ules, wi h a pa icula ly challenging si ua ion being in he
lands occupied unde illegal Russian au ho i a ian ule. O he poin s o e e ence o he
Uk ainian con ex a e con lic -a ec ed socie ies and mili an eminism. In e ms o he impac s
o he Uk ainian case on global discou ses on eminism(s), we can iden i y he ques ion o
socie al changes in imes o wa and how Uk ainian socie ies a e no con i ming ends o
s onge pa ia chal no ms.
Fo he c i e ion o dono -d i en and ex e nal in luence/incen i es, he h ee cases show simila
bu also di e en insigh s. Fo he Ghanaian case, he in luence o e angelical g oups on he
public discou se needs o be men ioned, as i culmina ed in he “P ope Human Sexual Righ s
and Ghanaian Family Values” bill. I was b ough in o pa liamen as a p i a e bill by a ew
pa liamen a ians in 2021 and was anonymously passed by he pa liamen in 2024. Al hough he
p esiden is no signing he bill, he discou se has u ned nega i e in e ms o he igh s o he
LGBTQIA* communi y. The discou se has a di ec in luence on he ield o de elopmen
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
25
coope a ion and i s aim o do-no-ha m. Wi h socie al discou se p oblema ising quee igh s,
ex e nal ac o s need o p oceed wi h pa icula ca e when implemen ing p ojec s gea ed owa ds
mo e gende equali y. In he Uk ainian case, gende equali y is seen as a pa o Eu opean
in eg a ion. All h ee con ex s poin o NGOisa ion as an issue o women’ igh s and o ganisa ions
ha a e ac i e in his ield. Since he budge is ied o p ojec s ha o en a ou beha iou al and
indi idual app oaches o e s uc u al ones, eminis agendas can become ins umen alised by
ex e nal dono s and hei agendas. The Indian case u he indica es a he libe al eminis
app oaches pushed by ex e nal ac o s ha canno achie e changes on he s uc u al le el.
The no ions o glocali y and hype locali y a e also e e ed o in he case s udies p epa ed by
he pa ne o ganisa ions. The s udy conduc ed by he Indian pa ne s, in pa icula , p o ides
some ele an aspec s in ha ega d, because hey ha e eached ou o ac o s and o ganisa-
ions a he g ass oo s le el o hei app oach, and applied g ass oo s’ pe spec i es o analyse
local eminis pe spec i es. The idea o glocal connec ions is qui e s ongly exp essed in hei
hema ic ocus on women and heal h, as well as women and clima e change. Fu he mo e, hey
con ibu e o an unde s anding o hype locali y in he Indian con ex and beyond by e lec ing on
who is conside ed local by whom. The s udy highligh s he dynamics o poin ing o he local as
always being one le el down, and ha he locals a e always he o he s om he posi ion o he
speake .
2.1.4 Challenges and oppo uni ies o gende - ans o ma i e change
This clus e bundles he ideas o mula ed in and s a egies explained by he case s udies
p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions on Ghana, Uk aine and India ha could c ea e mo e
gende -equal socie ies. One s a egy ha we can ind in all h ee s udies ocuses on building
and con ibu ing o ansna ional eminis mo emen s. Pa icula ly o he Ghanaian and Indian
con ex s, he Beijing Decla a ion, adop ed a he Fou h Wo ld Con e ence on Women in Beijing
in 1995, was pi o al o women’s igh s. Equi y is amed as a means o achie e gende equali y,
which s esses he in e ela ionship be ween human igh s and women’s igh s. Collec i isa ion
and he building o alliances we e men ioned as s ong ools o o mula e common isions o
he u u e. S a egies ha ha e wo ked need o be documen ed and sha ed. To show he in e -
ela ions o in e sec ions o issues conce ning gende inequali ies and inequi ies, he s udies
ecommend new na a i es ha go beyond es ablished discou ses.
The Ghanaian case iden i ies ce ain ci il socie y o ganisa ions and NGOs as he main d i e s
o change. As le e s, he s udy lis s he expe iences o ad oca es and ne wo ks as well as he
use o media. S a egies ha ac o s ha e used o could use a e pushing o new bills o changing
exis ing d a s, in es ing in collabo a ion wi hin and beyond Ghana in he sense o coali ion-
building, commi ing o lobby and ad ocacy wo k, as well as making bills and laws public ha
a e no wo king owa ds gende equali y. Fu he mo e, he s udy sugges s a mapping o c i ical
s akeholde s o engagemen . The s udy has also poin ed o hind ances in achie ing gende
equali y in he Ghanaian con ex , wi h issues conce ning he weak poli ical implemen a ion o laws,
he unclea applica ion and scope o laws, o e all policy designs, limi ed esou ce alloca ion,
suppo sys ems and unding. In addi ion, he s udy sees changes o go e nmen s and minis e ial
o a ions as challenging o a sus ainable commi men o wo k owa ds gende equali y. O e all,
he s udy ames a lack o poli ical will o gende equali y and he male-domina ed legisla i e
sys em as s ong ba ie s. The s udy iden i ies e angelical g oups as spoile s ha y o lobby o
adi ional oles o men and women as well as o he e ono ma i i y.11 Fo he Indian case, he
s udy di e en ia es be ween ou pu and ou come le el while ollowing a heo y o change. I
11 He e ono ma i i y can be unde s ood as a igid s uc u e ha ies o con ol “how men and women
should beha e, how hei bodies should be ep esen ed and how hei in e pe sonal ela ions can be
composed” (Sa ai a, San os, & Pe ei a, 2020, p. 117). I ea u es a bina y unde s anding o gende .
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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analyses mos ini ia i es as ocusing mo e on ou pu s han ou comes. As ools, he s udy p esen s
capaci y-building, communica ion, ad ocacy and he p o ision/acquisi ion o esou ces. Key
ac o s o achie ing gende equali y a e go e nmen bodies, local communi y leade s, olun-
ee s and pee s. The s udy iden i ies he collec i e le el as being pi o al o sha e knowledge,
build coali ions, mobilise wi hin communi ies and con ibu e o g ass oo s ne wo ks. The Indian
s udy calls o a mul i-dimensional empowe men h ough emo ional, educa ional and economic
empowe men o achie e gende equali y. The Indian case sees ime po e y as a spoile
wo king agains people who a e ying o achie e gende equali y. The Uk ainian s udy iden i ies
he bu eauc acy as a g ea hind ance o in oducing eminis pe spec i es and ac ions. O e all,
poli ics and he mili a y a e seen as he mos p oblema ic a eas o eminism, wi h he wa
a ec ing he possibili ies o eminism o ac . The s udy u he poin s o he limi ed socie al
space o c i icise he mili a y due o hei ole in de ending he coun y agains he Russians and
hei wa o agg ession.
Addi ionally, he s udies also de e mine ce ain windows o oppo uni y and en y poin s o
gende - ans o ma i e change. The Ghanaian s udy names he A i ma i e Ac ion Ac 12 as a
ele an law-making p ocess o gende equali y in Ghana. I ook mo e han 12 yea s o ge i
passed, bu in 2024, he pa liamen inally decided in a ou o i . The Indian s udy sees he HIV
mo emen , sex wo ke s’ mo emen and he Dali women’s mo emen as all ha ing p o ided
windows o oppo uni y o he igh s o LGBTQIA* communi ies, he heal h o HIV-a ec ed
people and he igh s o Dali women, espec i ely. Fu he mo e, he Beijing Decla a ion wi h i s
Pla o m o Ac ion a e bo h iden i ied by he Indian s udy as ha ing buil momen um o gende
equali y and women’s igh s. Fo one o he oci o he s udy on clima e ac ion, he Indian case
also ames he en i onmen al jus ice mo emen as a po en ial en y poin o ans o ma ions
owa ds gende equali y. Mo eo e , he Indian case asse s ha alking abou he ole o women
ins ead o hei igh s can build an en y poin o discussions wi h ce ain ac o s, and can hen
lead o ans o ma i e change on a s uc u al le el la e on. The Uk ainian s udy p esen s he
Maidan p o es s as ha ing been a window o oppo uni y. Women we e qui e ac i e as
olun ee s while aising eminis issues as pa o he collec ion o ideas abou Eu opean
in eg a ion. In addi ion, he Uk ainian s udy names he wa si ua ion and eco e y con ex as
po en ial en y poin s o ans o ma ion. The s udy s esses he ele ance o eminis
pe spec i es in he p ocess o pos -wa de elopmen and eco e y, wi h a ocus on ep oduc i e
and ca e wo k agains he backd op o demog aphic challenges. Fu he mo e, he s udy
analyses he cu en si ua ion as being a s ong ca alys o posi i e change o he igh s o
membe s in he LGBTQIA* communi ies. Finally, he s udy also poin s o Uk ainian women li ing
ab oad who expe ience di e en ypes o ela ionships and gende oles h ough a pe spec i e
o diaspo a eminisms, which migh ha e an impac on Uk ainian socie ies as well.
All h ee s udies iden i y he limi a ions o gende - ans o ma i e change in hei espec i e
con ex s. In he Ghanaian con ex , he case o he “P ope Human Sexual Righ s and Ghanaian
Family Values” bill is qui e in o ma i e, as i is e y much in ension wi h a eminis app oach.
Howe e , no only he democ a ically elec ed pa liamen , bu also he majo i y o Ghanaians a e
in a ou o i . The bill is amed as p o ec ing child en and he you h. I o ms pa o he na a i e
o a “global igh ” agains LGBTQIA* igh s pushed o wa d by eligious leade s all o e he wo ld.
Al hough i is no being implemen ed since he p esiden is no signing i , he discou se in Ghana
and on Ghana has been in luenced. Fo he Indian case, he ques ion o land igh s speaks o
he c i e ion conce ning he limi a ions o gende - ans o ma i e change. E en hough land igh s
can be held by women, hey a e no claiming hem and land s ill o en goes o he b o he s. A
simila limi a ion can be ound in he a ea o he ep esen a ion o women on he local le el.
12 “The A i ma i e Ac ion (Gende Equali y) Ac 2024 app o ed minimum 30% emale ep esen a ion in
majo sec o s, gende - esponsi e budge ing, p o ec ions agains gende -based disc imina ion,
suppo o gende equali y in poli ical pa ies, and ax incen i es o p i a e en i ies p omo ing emale
employmen ” (Eas A ican Cen e o Law and Jus ice, 2024).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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Though he e a e ese ed sea s o emale ep esen a i es, women a e o en only he symbolic
igu ehead, whe eas men in he backg ound (e.g. hei husbands o a he s) a e aking he
decisions. The Uk ainian s udy poin s o he limi ed ecological dimension in Uk ainian eminis
mo emen s. Agains he backg ound o he wa si ua ion, he s udy u he unde lines ha
in as uc u al challenges ha e a g ea impac on women and o he ma ginalised gende s, and
ha hese canno be add essed su icien ly due o a lack o esou ces.
2.1.5 Fu u e o gende - ans o ma i e policies
On he le el o policy ecommenda ions, he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions
o mula e he need o base eminis de elopmen and o eign agendas mo e on human igh s
and less on economic and geopoli ical ques ions. By ha , he s udies add ess he phenomenon
o an i-gende backlashes in di e en con ex s ha a e o en pa o b oade a emp s o limi he
space and democ a ic igh s o ma ginalised gende s and/o people(s). All h ee s udies exp ess
he need o mo e esea ch on eminis mo emen s and eminis con ibu ions o socie al
change, gi en he limi ed knowledge and s udies in h ee hema ic and egional oci chosen by
he pa ne s o hei s udies, namely women, clima e and heal h (in India), eminis pe spec i es
in imes o de ence and eco e y (in Uk aine) and gende - ans o ma i e policies (in Ghana).
Mo e speci ically, he Ghanaian s udy s esses he need o unding o ad ocacy, mobilising
wo k and suppo o ne wo ks ha is no ied o p ojec s and hei objec i es. Fu he mo e, he
s udy iden i ies in e gene a ional dialogues and male allies as being key o achie ing mo e
gende equali y. The Indian s udy ecommends he collec ion o disagg ega ed da a in he a ea
o gende s a is ics ollowing an in e sec ional app oach, wi h a pa icula ocus on he dimensions
o eligion, cas e and gende . Fo unde s anding he heal h–clima e nexus om a gende ed
pe spec i e, hey sugges changing he way da a a e collec ed. This would lead o knowledge
bases abou eminisms ha a e local. To achie e his objec i e, local o ganisa ions need o be
s eng hened o collec he da a acco dingly. Also, he Uk ainian s udy o mula es clea
ecommenda ions o in es men s in in as uc u e and he need o hose in es men s o
add ess gende equali y.
All h ee s udies ha e ga he ed da a and e idence on issues ha co e wide geog aphical
scopes and ime pe iods which ha e no been collec ed o analysed in ha way be o e. The
eams ha e conduc ed undamen al esea ch in he social sciences ha could be u he
de eloped and picked up in u u e s udies on (local) eminisms. The s udies on Ghana and India
do no sha e e y op imis ic ou looks o he u u e o gende equali y. In Ghana, ac o s a e
wo ied abou he o e -poli icisa ion o gende issues, pa icula ly in iew o elec ions. In India,
he na ional– eligious agenda o he cu en go e nmen se s a di icul amewo k o mo e
gende equali y ini ia i es. In he Uk ainian case, he s udy sugges s u he in es iga ing how
o ge om eminis pe spec i es o ac ions, pa icula ly agains he backd op o ongoing
de ence, pos -wa eco e y and econcilia ion p ocesses. The s udies ha e u he con ibu ed
o a be e unde s anding o how gende no ms can(no ) change and how de elopmen
coope a ion can suppo hese p ocesses owa ds mo e gende equali y. Wi h ha , he s udies
and hei eminis ideal also e e o deba es in ( he s udy) o de elopmen coope a ion on
ques ions o ai ness, equi y, pa ne o ien a ion as well as (de)coloniali y (e.g. Bhamb a, 2024;
Ziai, 2015).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
28
2.2 Fu he concep ual discussions
Syn hesising he con ibu ions made by he pa ne o ganisa ions h ough he lens o he
de eloped ma ix enables us o u he discuss concep ual aspec s deduced om he case
s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions while e lec ing on ou guiding concep s and
amewo ks. To be e isualise hese e lec ions agains he backg ound o he case s udies
p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions, we p epa ed a igu e (Figu e 2) ha illus a es he
di e en dimensions which ha e been analysed by he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne
o ganisa ions. We delibe a ely did no concep ualised he e ms used in – and e e ed o by –
he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions (see ou me hodological conside a ions
o his syn hesis s udy). We ha e asked he pa ne s o apply he concep s o he ques ions and
issues hey iden i y as ele an . Wi h he syn hesis, we we e able o b ing hese app oaches
oge he and seek o d aw b oade conclusions in his sec ion.
Figu e 2: Local eminis pe spec i es as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende
equali y
Sou ce: Au ho s
Desc ip ion o Figu e 2: Feminis g oups and indi iduals ace signi ican challenges in achie ing
gende - ans o ma i e change due o di e se ba ie s such as pa ia chy, gende no ms,
sys emic-s uc u al condi ions, and poli ical and legal amewo ks. Despi e hese ba ie s, local
eminis pe spec i es ac as ans o ma ion le e s owa ds g ea e gende equali y. They ha e
he po en ial o add ess p e ailing no ms and s uc u es, enhance access o esou ces and
imp o e he poli ical pa icipa ion o women, gi ls and LGBTQIA* communi ies. In e sec ionali y
is an elemen ha no only makes di e en in e sec ing o ms o opp ession o p i ilege isible,
bu also in o ms s a egies and in e en ions o ans o m hem.
“Local eminis pe spec i es” – as one o he cen al e ms ope a ionalised by he case s udies
p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions and e e ed o in his syn hesis s udy – en ails di e en
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
29
concep ualisa ions while ela ing o a ious schola ly deba es. To app oach an unde s anding
o “local”, schola ship om geog aphy is a ele an poin o e e ence, gi en he impo ance o
scale in his discipline. Local and global a e o en seen as “ he wo ex emes o ou scaled li es”
(He od, 2009, p. 217). O he scales be ween o linking hese ex emes can be, among o he s,
na ional, egional o ansna ional. Pa icula ly in human geog aphy, poli ics o scale ha e been
in oduced ela ing o “p ocesses o globaliza ion, localiza ion, ( e) egionaliza ion, [and] he
hollowing-ou o he na ion-s a e” (He od, 2009, p. 218). In addi ion, concep s such as “glocal”
o “glocalisa ion” and “hype local” o “hype localisa ion” ha e been in oduced o e lec on he
in e linkages be ween a local and a global le el, and on con es a ions o wha and who coun s
as local in di e en con ex s. These discussions a e also picked up in he case s udies p epa ed
by he pa ne o ganisa ions and a e u he de eloped. Speci ically agains he backg ound o
he clima e and en i onmen al c ises – e e ed o mos s ongly in he Indian case s udy – he
idea o glocal p oblems and glocal ac ion has been discussed (e.g. Gup a, an de Leeuw, & de
Moel, 2007), while Robe son (2020) assesses a “glocal u n” o globalisa ion analyses. The
no ion o hype local is mos ly deal wi h by schola ship in he ield o media and communica ion
e e ing o he deli e y o hype local con en o small owns and illages (e.g. Radcli e, 2012).
Also, he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions aise ques ions abou who is
conside ed local in which si ua ion, and ha one could always go “mo e” local, in ha sense,
hype local. The designa ion o onesel o o he s as local e lec s he posi ionali y o di e en
speake s o iewe s, based on di e en p ocesses o inclusion and exclusion. Depending on
whe e a pe son o communi y si ua es hemsel es, i s esses di e en dimensions o hei
iden i ies. The con ex e y much de e mines whose pe spec i e is conside ed local.
We sough o iden i y he common pa e ns and di e ences among a ious local eminis
pe spec i es while also acili a ing a con e sa ion wi h eminis schola ship on o eign and
de elopmen policies ollowing eminis agendas. We ame he insigh s p esen ed by he h ee
case s udies om Ghana, India and Uk aine as local and endemic. We we e awa e o he
conno a ion ha his e m ca ies wi h i in e ms o powe asymme ies. We wan ed o con es
hese meanings while ela ing o eminis esea ch, pa icula ly highligh ing he ele ance o local
knowledge(s) and expe iences o b oade knowledge p oduc ion on eminisms (see Nylund e
al., 2023). By ha , we sough o add ess c i iques o “me hodological na ionalism”. Roy (2016),
o ins ance, c i icises ha iewing he local(s) wi hin na ional bounda ies leads o limi a ions
and sugges s ins ead mul i-scala eadings. These mul i-scala eadings allow o mo ing
beyond linea assump ions o a low om global o local si es (Roy, 2016). Agains he
backg ound o he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions and his syn hesis s udy,
we in ended o con ibu e o a be e unde s anding o he ansna ionali y, mul i-di ec ionali y
and in e sec ing scales o eminisms.
Wha eminism is o who o wha claims o be eminis e e s o a “mul iplici y and c oss-bo de
pollina ion o eminis mo emen s” (McCann, Kim, & E gun, 2021, p. 7), which was also picked
up by he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions. Many o hese desc ibed
p ocesses ake place simul aneously wi h deba es in e sec ing, in luencing and clashing wi h
each o he (McCann e al., 2021). Local and ansna ional in luences con ibu ed o hese
Wes e n na a i es on eminisms. The o en e e ed o “ ou wa es o eminism” (Mohajan,
2022) also help o u he discuss he indings o his syn hesis s udy. The e a e di e en
unde s andings abou when speci ic wa es s a ed and ended, bu he i s wa e o eminism is
da ed oughly om mid-19 h cen u y o he mid-20 h cen u y, wi h o ing and equal igh s o
women being he main objec i es.13 The second wa e o eminism s a ed in he 1960s and
ended in he 1990s. I ocused on ep oduc i e igh s, he igh o educa ion as well as wo k and
equal pay. In he hi d wa e, om he 1990s o he 2000s, whi e-middle-class eminism and
uni e sal unde s andings o eminini y we e challenged by b inging in pe spec i es om wo king
13 The i s wa e was mos ly in o med by ac i isms in Eu ope, No h Ame ica, Egyp , I an and India
(Malinowska, 2020, p. 2).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
30
class women, women o colou and non- eminine women’s conce ns. Du ing he hi d wa e, he
amous Fou h Wo ld Con e ence on Women ook place in Beijing in 1995.14 I b ough in
in e sec ional unde s andings o gende inequali ies. The ou h wa e ha s a ed in he 2010s
and s ill endu es s esses mo e in e sec ional app oaches as well as new ci cums ances and
challenges o gende equali y in he digi al space (e.g. #me oo).15 These wa es also played a
ole in he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions by con ex ualising local eminis
pe spec i es ac oss di e en ime pe iods and discu si e ci cums ances. This highligh s he
dynamic ela ionship be ween global and local eminisms, in which global wa es in luenced local
mo emen s, and local pe spec i es, in u n, eshaped global eminis discou se h ough a mul i-
di ec ional low o no ms. In e linked wi h he di e en wa es o eminism, he e a e a ious
schools o eminis hough app oaching eminism and eminis s uggles. These schools
consis ed o libe al eminis s, Ma xis eminis s, pos -mode nis eminis s and pos -colonial
eminis s (Acke ly & T ue, 2020, pp. 2-3). O e he yea s and h oughou he di e en wa es o
eminism, mo e schools o hough eme ged wi h an i-colonial eminis s, Black eminis s,
decolonial eminis s, disabili y eminis s, eco eminis s, psychoanaly ical eminis s, quee
eminis s and adical eminis s (Acke ly & T ue, 2020, pp. 3-4).
Wi h he e m “pe spec i e” complemen ing he concep o local eminis pe spec i es, we
wan ed o s ess ha eminisms all o e he wo ld build a mosaic o di e se pe spec i es. Wi h
his s udy, we a e only able o p o ide ce ain insigh s in o a ew o hese pe spec i es h ough
he s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions on con ex s in Ghana, Uk aine and India as well
as h ough he con ex ualising wo k o his syn hesis s udy. Mo eo e , he e m “pe spec i e” also
highligh s he si ua edness o wha we desc ibe and analyse as well as he meaning we asc ibe
o i as a local eminis pe spec i e in e ms o socio-his o ical, socio-cul u al and geog aphical
con ex s in addi ion o philosophical and ideological amewo ks (Rendell, 2020; Simandan,
2019). Along spa ial and empo al lines, di e en social ac o s nego ia e hei meanings,
whe eas hese ac o s s and in social and powe ela ions o each o he . The case s udies
p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions also highligh ha meanings a e hence always dependen
on hese di e en cha ac e is ics and a e cons an ly (socially) cons uc ed and con es ed.
In he a ea o he s udy o no ms, he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions added
h ee conc e e analyses o how no ms and no m change wo k. Following Ma cus and Somji
(2024, p. 6), gende no ms a e “social no ms ha de ine accep able beha iou , oles, en i le-
men s, and gende exp ession o people” h ough a gende ed pe spec i e.16 Social no ms, in
u n, a e “collec i ely sha ed belie s abou wha o he s ypically do and wha o he s app o e o ,
pe cei e as app op ia e, o expec hem o do” (Ma cus & Somji, 2024, p. 6). Fu he mo e, no ms
“a e embedded in social, poli ical and economic ins i u ions because hey a e so aken- o -
g an ed” and as such hey “uphold pa ia chy, a sys em o gende ed powe ela ions” (Ma cus
14 The di e en wo ld con e ences on women ook place in 1975 in Mexico Ci y, 1980 in Copenhagen,
1985 in Nai obi and 1995 in Beijing. The Beijing Con e ence was qui e in luen ial o women’s igh s
all o e he wo ld and in oduced di e en e iew and app aisal mechanisms wi h he Beijing Pla o m
o Ac ion. E e since he Beijing Con e ence o 1995, e e y i e yea s a e iew and app aisal o he
implemen a ion o he Beijing Pla o m o Ac ion akes place: 2000 “A i e-yea e iew and app aisal”,
in 2005 “A 10 yea and app aisal”, in 2010 he 15-yea e iew, in 2015 he 20-yea e iew and
app aisal, and 2020 he 25-yea e iew and app aisal.
15 The #me oo mo emen s a ed in 2017 wi h se e al women accusing he p oduce Ha ey Weins ein
o sexual ha assmen . The hash ag was o iginally in oduced in 2006 by ac i is Ta ana Bu ke, who
used i o aise awa eness abou he abuse o women o colou .
16 Acco ding o he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, gende no ms ha e an in luence on all a eas o
li e bu a e pa icula ly in luen ial on ques ions o paid and unpaid wo k (In e na ional Labou
O ganiza ion, 2018). The esea ch p ojec “Child Penal y A las”, o ins ance, documen s he e ec o
pa en hood on gende inequali y and shows ha women spend mo e ime on unpaid wo k han men,
which has consequences on employmen a es (Hub o Equal Rep esen a ion in he Economy, 2024).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
31
& Somji, 2024, p. 15).17 As such, gende no ms a e o a long- e m na u e and p esen a ce ain
s ickiness in o ming hei hinde ing cha ac e wi h a iew owa ds gende - ans o ma i e
change. Mo eo e , no ms and p ac ices a e in e linked, as no ms a e ge ing ep oduced and
main ained h ough p ac ices ha “ e lec and espond o pe cei ed social expec a ions”
(Ma cus & Somji, 2024, p. 15). In his way, no ms a e no only ep oduced bu embodied –
esponding o expec a ions is ewa ded while de ia ing om hem is sanc ioned. In iew o his
pe o ma i i y, Bu le (2024, p. 3) desc ibes “gende ” as socio-cul u al o ms o becoming while
aming gende as “co-cons uc ed” (Bu le , 2024, p. 33) due o in e wining ma e ial and social
con ibu ions “in he p oduc ion o he gende ed body” (Bu le , 2024, p. 33). The s udies p esen
examples o local eminis pe spec i es while con ibu ing o and o ming pa o a mo e mul i-
di ec ional and ansna ional pe spec i e o how di e en scales in luence each o he and
in e sec , which also in o ms ou app oach o no ms o his s udy. Following Zwingel (2012) and
Roy (2016), we seek o challenge an unde s anding o a unidi ec ional low o no ms and s ess
a mul idi ec ionali y as well as mul i-scala i y. A all scales – being in e alia, local, global and
ansna ional – ac o s and mo emen s a e in ol ed in no m di usion, in luence each o he and
in e sec (León-Himmels ine e al., 2022), which can also be deduced om he pa ne s’
con ibu ions.
In e sec ionali y ul illed a wo- old unc ion in he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne
o ganisa ions and syn hesised hei di e en con ibu ions o he ield; i se ed as a concep ual
and analy ical ool o make di e en in e sec ing o ms o ma ginalisa ion o p i ilege isible.
Di e en elemen s o an iden i y – being o ins ance, ace, class, gende , sex, e hnici y,
ci izenship(s), (dis)abili y and age – do no s and alone bu in e sec wi h each o he and desc ibe
(in e sec ed) social inequali ies (Cho, C enshaw, & McCall, 2013; Collins, 2015, pp. 2 and 8;
C enshaw, 1991; Hooks, 1981). Pa icula ly in he Indian case s udy, an in e sec ional analysis
helps in be e unde s anding “in e sec ions o global sys ems o domina ion: acism/colonialism,
capi alism and pa ia chy; and hei by-p oduc s: classism, homo- and ansphobia, cis- and
he e osexism, and a ious o ms o acism” (Equinox (Ini ia i e o Racial Jus ice), 2021, p. 6).
A ho ough analysis o he mul i ace ed and in e ela ed o ms o p i ileges and opp ession aced
by indi iduals and g oups in a socie y is impe a i e o unde s anding he sys emic-s uc u al
condi ions as well as he poli ical and legal amewo ks ha ac as ba ie s o gende -
ans o ma i e change. Fu he mo e, he concep o in e sec ionali y is c ucial o iden i ying
e ec i e s a egies and in e en ions ha a e no b oadly gene alised, bu ins ead based on he
local pe spec i e and expe iences, wi h he aim o disman ling hese complex and in e wo en
sys ems.
Gende - ans o ma i e change always en ails a d as ic change om a s a us quo o a ( adical)
new s a us. All h ee case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions ha e analysed he
ci cums ances in hei espec i e con ex s and explo ed en y poin s o ans o ma i e le e s
owa ds mo e gende equali y. When looking o he ield o ans o ma ion s udies, we see a
s ong o ien a ion owa ds in e disciplina i y and mo e ecen con ibu ions in he ield o sus ain-
abili y s udies (Pa e son e al., 2017; Pe ei a e al., 2015; Schneidewind, 2018) ha deal wi h
socie al, ecological and economic ans o ma ions. Gende - ans o ma i e change is one
elemen o hese sus ainabili y ans o ma ions, as hey link o socie al, ecological and economic
issues, espec i ely. Agains his backg ound, ans o ma i e app oaches and eminis
app oaches sha e he unde s anding and ele ance o a p ocess o changing, ans o ming he
s a us quo owa ds mo e social and gende equali y. Following MacA hu e al. (2022), gende -
ans o ma i e change in mo e de ail “aim[s] o eshape gende dynamics by edis ibu ing
esou ces, expec a ions and esponsibili ies be ween women, men, and non-bina y gende
iden i ies, o en ocusing on no ms, powe , and collec i e ac ion” (MacA hu e al., 2022). The
17 Pa ia chy being “a s uc u e o powe ela ions – o explain a sys em o gende ed opp ession ha
does no bene i all men, bu s ill a ou s he male g ip on poli ical leade ship, mo al au ho i y, social
p i ilege and con ol o p ope y and asse s” (Ha pe , Ma cus, Geo ge, & Samman, 2020, p. 10).
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
32
case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions ame gende equali y as he i s necessa y
s ep owa ds gende equi y. Wi h his esea ch, we wan ed o con ibu e o a gende ed
unde s anding o sus ainabili y ans o ma ions by in oducing local eminis pe spec i es as
ans o ma ions le e s owa ds g ea e gende equali y. Hence, local eminis pe spec i es
we e i s ly iden i ied, and hen secondly, hey we e analysed h ough a gende - ans o ma i e
lens. The concep o “le e s” addi ionally en ailed he no ion o a le e aging e ec o a ce ain
measu e, ini ia i e o pe spec i e ha could in luence o he ac o s, ields o issue a eas.
A syn hesis o he con ibu ions made by he pa ne o ganisa ions – by g ouping he insigh s
in o clus e s h ough a clus e ed ma ix – p o ided a concep ual unde s anding o hese esul s.
This p ocess enabled us o iden i y and discuss key concep ual hemes eme ging om he
s udies, while simul aneously allowing o e lec ion on ou guiding concep s and amewo ks.
This sec ion es ablishes a ounda ion o he con ex ualisa ion o local pe spec i es wi hin global
discou ses on ac i ism, esea ch and policy-making in he ealms o eminism and de elopmen .
Th ough his syn hesis, we aimed o b idge he gap be ween heo e ical amewo ks and hei
p ac ical implemen a ion by acili a ing a connec ion be ween local eminis pe spec i es and
global eminis and de elopmen policies. In he concluding sec ion, we d aw b oade
conclusions, p opose ac ionable policy ecommenda ions and ou line a way o wa d ha can
con ibu e o a mo e nuanced app oach o eminis de elopmen and o eign policies ha a e
g ounded in local eali ies while emaining cognisan o global ends.
3 Conclusions
Wi h his syn hesis s udy, we sough o iden i y he common pa e ns and di e ences among
a ious local eminis pe spec i es, while also acili a ing a con e sa ion wi h eminis schola -
ship on o eign and de elopmen policies ollowing eminis agendas. All h ee case s udies
p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions ha e expanded he cu en s a e o he a by con ibu ing
o he schola ship on he espec i e local/na ional con ex s as well as on he speci ic hema ic
oci o local eminisms. The h ee case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions ely o
ha on p ima y da a ha has no been collec ed o analysed in his way be o e. In his las
sec ion, we wan o conclude he syn hesis s udy by discussing i s main indings agains he
backg ound o discou ses in eminis ac i ism, eminis esea ch and de elopmen coope a ion.
Wi h ha , we add ess he esea ch ques ions – p esen ed in he case s udies p epa ed by he
pa ne o ganisa ions and picked up by his syn hesis s udy – abou local eminis pe spec i es
as ans o ma ion le e s o g ea e gende equali y. Fu he mo e, we wan o o mula e policy
ecommenda ions o u u e eminis de elopmen and o eign policy app oaches. Finally, we
p o ide ou looks on in e na ional p ocesses un il 2030 and beyond o show how ini ia i es a
di e en le els can u he con ibu e owa ds mo e gende equali y.
The syn hesis s udy, while e e ing o he case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions
on local eminis pe spec i es, iden i ied common pa e ns in exis ing socio-cul u al no ms and
p ac ices ha p e en he implemen a ion o gende - ans o ma i e policies. In addi ion, he
syn hesis s udy discussed he di e si y o local eminis pe spec i es in he espec i e
local/na ional con ex o he pa ne s. These en ailed al e na i e app oaches o de elopmen
p ocesses ha can a ge p e ailing no ms and p ac ices. The s udy mo eo e e lec ed on how
he di e en local eminis pe spec i es can be used as ans o ma ion le e s owa ds g ea e
gende equali y in he di e en con ex s and beyond. The hind ance aced by local eminis
pe spec i es in in luencing policy, decision-making and socie al/gende no ms due o limi ed
possibili ies and es ic ed oppo uni ies eme ges as a consis en heme ac oss all h ee case
s udies p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions and his syn hesis s udy. The ollowing policy
ecommenda ions deduced om he s udy o local eminis pe spec i es a e p oposed as
ans o ma i e le e s owa ds mo e gende equali y:
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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• In es ing in gende - esponsi e in as uc u e: The Uk ainian s udy o mula es clea
ecommenda ions on he in es men in in as uc u e (childca e acili ies, nu sing ca e
homes, women’s shel e s and gende -based iolence suppo cen es) ha explici ly
add ess gende equali y by conside ing he needs o women and o he ma ginalised
gende s, he eby p omo ing equi able access o esou ces and oppo uni ies.
• Ad ancing esea ch and da a collec ion: The Indian s udy also ecommends he
collec ion and accessibili y o disagg ega ed da a on gende s a is ics h ough an
in e sec ional app oach, wi h a pa icula ocus on he dimensions o eligion, cas e, and
gende . This da a is c ucial o unde s anding he nuanced expe iences o di e en g oups
in o de o in o m a ge ed in e en ions and inc ease awa eness abou gende inequali ies.
In e sec ional app oaches need da a on in e sec ing o ms o disc imina ion.
• P omo ing nuanced in e sec ional unde s andings o eminism(s): The s udies
emphasise in e sec ionali y and inclusi i y and ad oca e o a mo e nuanced unde s anding
o eminism(s) o ailo ed eminis app oaches. This includes ecognising he ole o digi al
ac i ism and he need o sys emic changes o add ess gende -based iolence and enhance
women’s poli ical ep esen a ion. I is also equi ed o explo e he in e sec ions o an i-demo-
c a ic mo emen s and an i-gende campaigns o be e unde s and hei mu ual ein o ce-
men , as his unde s anding is c i ical o designing e ec i e ini ia i es o p omo e gende
equali y.
• Mapping eminis mo emen s and con ibu ions: All h ee s udies exp ess he need o
mo e esea ch on eminis mo emen s and eminis con ibu ions o socie al change, gi en
he limi ed knowledge in h ee hema ic and egional oci chosen by he pa ne s o hei
s udy, namely women and heal h, women and clima e ac ion (in India), eminis pe spec i es
in imes o de ence and eco e y (in Uk aine) and gende - ans o ma i e policies (in Ghana).
• Facili a ing ad ocacy o ne wo ks ia coope a ion: The Ghanaian s udy s esses he
need o p o ide lexible unding o acili a e ad ocacy, mobilisa ion and ne wo ks ha is no
ied o p ojec s’ speci ic objec i es. The unding should acili a e he de elopmen o
ansna ional ne wo ks and solida i y aimed a p omo ing gende equali y and equi y. The
s udy unde sco es he impo ance o add essing cul u al, s uc u al and sys emic ba ie s o
women’s igh s and ep esen a ion.
• Applying con ex -sensi i e app oaches o eminis agendas: A con incing s a egy o
implemen ing eminis policies, in bo h ex e nal and domes ic a ai s, is o adop con ex
sensi i e app oaches ha assess whe he he coun y is mo e open o eminis agendas o
dialogues on – and coope a ion o – human igh s o poli ical pa icipa ion o all gende s.
O e all, eminis de elopmen and o eign agendas o e o base app oaches mo e on
human igh s and less on economic and geopoli ical conce ns.
Wi h a iew owa ds discou ses in eminis ac i ism, eminis esea ch and de elopmen
coope a ion (e.g. compiled by Cha u edi e al., 2020; León-Himmels ine e al., 2022), his s udy
has con ibu ed by analysing he ole o no ms and eminis mo emen s o no m changes.
Fu he mo e, he call o mo e in e sec ional app oaches o mula ed by he case s udies
p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions and picked up by his syn hesis s udy is e y ocal in
discou ses pushed o wa d by eminis ac i is s and women’s igh s mo emen s globally (Bonu
Rosenk anz, 2024). Addi ionally, he line o a gumen a ound ba ie s and hind ances o
women’s and eminis g oups and indi iduals wo king owa ds mo e gende equali y and
ul ima ely equi y hema ised by eminis ac i is s is a common pa e n in all h ee case s udies
p epa ed by he pa ne o ganisa ions and his syn hesis s udy. Phenomena such as
NGOisa ion, li le co e unding o ad ocacy wo k and ( ansna ional) ne wo ks ha e been
c i icised agains he backg ound o he limi ed in luence o women’s igh s and eminis g oups
globally. These ci cums ances consequen ly hinde local eminis pe spec i es om con ibu ing
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
40
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pe spec i es: How do no ms a el? In e na ional S udies Qua e ly, 56(1), 115-129.
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Zychowicz, J. (2020). Supe luous women: A , eminism, and e olu ion in wen y- i s -cen u y Uk aine.
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IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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Annex
Execu i e summa ies o case s udies p epa ed by he pa ne
o ganisa ions
Execu i e summa y om he Ghanaian case s udy
Ghana is a mul i-pa y, mul i-e hnic and mul i- eligious s a e, which p ac ices legal plu alism – a
sys em which ecognises cus oma y law in addi ion o he cons i u ion. E en hough he
cons i u ion is supe io o he cus oma y law, mos Ghanaians a e subjec o cus oma y law,
which disc imina es agains women. Women’s igh s ac i ism has a long his o y in Ghana
spanning o e a cen u y. While eminis s’ ad ocacy has made g ea gains, Ghana – like many
o he coun ies – is no likely o achie e Sus ainable De elopmen Goal (SDG) 5, which is
gende equali y, by 2030. Gende inequali y pe sis s due o he coexis ence o gende -inequi-
able no ms and he lax en o cemen o he exis ing laws ha p o ec women. Social no ms and
beha iou s con inue o impac oppo uni ies and human po en ial, a ec ing heal h, educa ion
and p oduc i i y.
The e is li le unde s anding o how local Ghanaian eminis s ha e in luenced pas and ecen
ans o ma i e gende policies in Ghana. The goal o his s udy is o unde s and eminism in
Ghana and how eminis s’ expe iences could be ha nessed o achie e mo e gende -
ans o ma i e change. The s udy is pa o he esea ch p ojec “Local Feminis Pe spec i es
as T ans o ma ion Le e s o G ea e Gende Equali y”. In pa ne ship wi h IDOS, he Ge man
Ins i u e o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y, he p ojec explo es he po en ial o local eminis
pe spec i es o ac as le e s o ans o ma i e change o g ea e gende equali y in Ghana,
India and Uk aine. The aim o he s udy in Ghana is o explo e and analyse con empo a y local
eminis pe spec i es (o ganising) in Ghana o demons a e how hey can be used as le e s o
ans o ma i e change o g ea e equali y and sus ainable de elopmen .
The esea ch ques ions ha guided he s udy a e:
i. How do exis ing socio-cul u al no ms and p ac ices and he p e ailing sys emic/s uc u al
condi ions p e en sus ainable, gende - ans o ma i e policies?
ii. How ha e local eminis pe spec i es in luenced pas and ecen gende - ans o ma i e
policies in Ghana?
iii. How can local pe spec i es be used as ans o ma i e le e s o sus ainable de elopmen ?
i . Which al e na i e app oaches o de elopmen p ocesses can local eminis pe spec i es
o e o a ge p e ailing no ms and p ac ices?
The s udy was ully quali a i e and c oss-sec ional in ol ing 35 eminis s and women’s igh s
ad oca es be ween he ages o 37 and 80+ yea s, wi h he majo i y (n=25) ha ing o e 20 yea s
o expe ience and ele an pos g adua e deg ees. The indings o he s udy e y much aligned
wi h he heo e ical amewo k selec ed o he s udy, he gende a wo k amewo k, which
conside s gende inequi y as a phenomenon ha a e ses om o mal o in o mal spaces, as
well as indi idual o sys emic/s uc u al domains.
Ou esul s e eal a my iad o in o mal and exclusiona y cus oma y p ac ices ha in inge on
he undamen al human igh s o Ghanaian women. These p ac ices a e oo ed in he pa ia chal
s uc u es ha no malise male dominance and con ol o e women, shaping socie al a i udes
and beha iou s owa d women’s igh s and au onomy. These exclusiona y cus oma y p ac ices
include he p ac ice o b ide p ice, widowhood i es, child ma iage, emale geni al mu ila ion,
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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and wi ch-hun ing. Apa om he in o mal laws ha disc imina e agains women, he e a e also
gende inequali ies ha mani es in o mal spaces. These o ms o inequali y a e sys emic and
s uc u al in na u e. Ins ances o hese a e he lack o poli ical will and delays in legisla i e
ins umen s; he high u no e o esponsible leade s; a lack o esou ces and s a e in as uc u e
o suppo women a he wo kplace; sexual ha assmen ; labou disc imina ion due o women’s
ep oduc i e oles; he gende wage gap; and gende -blind policies and laws. O he
disc imina o y p ac ices ha a e appa en a he le el o indi idual p ac ices a e hose connec ed
o inadequa e access o esou ces and conscien isa ion.
Fu he , he s udy e ealed ha eminis s in Ghana u ilise se e al s a egies o imp o e gende
equali y. These include ad ocacy and lobbying; collabo a ion and coali ion-building; enlis ing
non- eminis allies; gene a ion o esea ch and e idence; consul a i e mee ings and dialogues;
suppo o he d a ing and e iew o ins umen s; moni o ing he implemen a ion o exis ing
laws, and he subsequen e iew o passed laws. Some o he landma k achie emen s esul ing
om eminis s’ wo k include he passage o he Domes ic Violence Ac (DV Ac ), he Land Ac ,
and he A i ma i e Ac ion Gende Equi y Ac . Ou esul s showed ha eminis s and women’s
igh s ad oca es we e in gene al sa is ied wi h he e ec i eness o hei ou lined s a egies and
ha hey hoped o main ain hem in he u u e.
Feminis s ha e encoun e ed se e al challenges including declining unding, lack o suppo om
poli ical ac o s, and backlash. To sus ain he wo k o eminis s hey call o he ins i u ionalisa ion
o in e gene a ional dialogues on gende and women’s issues, along wi h he in ensi ica ion o
he ec ui men o non- eminis allies. They belie e ha hese s a egies would ensu e bo h he
con inui y and e ec i eness o he mo emen in d i ing change.
The ollowing policy ecommenda ions a e made based on he insigh s o his s udy:
i. A key challenge epo ed by pa icipan s was he waning unding o eminis s/CSO (ci il
socie y o ganisa ion) ac i i ies. Conside ing ha he ad ocacy ac i i ies o eminis s such as
lobbying, capaci y-building, mee ings and sensi isa ion measu es equi e logis ics, i is
impo an ha he s a e commi s unds o hei ac i i ies in a sus ainable way. The
go e nmen should se up a esea ch und whe e a pe cen age o he coun y’s GDP will be
deposi ed: Feminis s could apply o a ailable unding o conduc esea ch in o women’s
inequali y issues. Findings om hese s udies could in u n in o m policy on women’s
inequali y issues.
ii. Ad ocacy by eminis s in Ghana o local gende - ans o ma i e policies and laws is based
on he ealisa ion o in e na ional human igh s p o isions. The e idence shows ha success
equi es pe sis ence and he cons an allying o eminis s a ound speci ic bills and policies
o e many yea s. Hence, de elopmen pa ne s should suppo he co e unding o women’s
igh s o ganisa ions as well as c ea ing a unding cycle o suppo women’s igh s o ganising
and ac i i ies su ounding speci ic bills o policies. In his way, ene gy and ad ocacy o
speci ic bills/policies will be sus ained.
iii. A majo bo leneck o he imely p ocessing o gende - ela ed policies is he high minis e ial
o a ions in ele an minis ies. I is he e o e impo an o ins i u e a pe manen policy desk
a he Minis y o Gende , Child en and Social P o ec ion. This would ensu e s abili y and
con inui y in he de elopmen o policies du ing changes in minis e s and go e nmen s.
i . Igno ance and a lack o awa eness and capabili ies on he pa o indi iduals ega ding
gende inequi y is widesp ead in Ghana leading o he pe pe a ion o gende inequi ies. I
is ecommended ha “gende ”, as a c oss-cu ing phenomenon, be in oduced in o
educa ional cu icula a a ious le els o educa ion. The eminis s belie e ha ea ly and
imely educa ion on gende will inc ease gende consciousness and equi y among he
younge gene a ion o b eak he cycles o gende -inequi able a i udes and belie s passed
on h ough cus oms and cul u es.
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
46
Feminis s in Ghana ha e made g ea s ides in igh ing o he cause o women. They ha e been
success ul in pushing o he passage o o mal laws and policies ha p o ec he igh s o
women. Howe e , conside ing he pe sis ence o pa ia chal no ms in Ghana, he laws and
policies a e no enough o b ing abou gende - ans o ma i e change in e e yday li es. A
change in gende a i udes equi es a consis en and esilien e o , especially in he a eas o
awa eness c ea ion and empowe men . Ou comes will include an imp o emen in indi idual
knowledge and awa eness o hei cons i u ional igh s and p i ileges, wha cons i u es abuse,
and access o legal and suppo se ices. Meanwhile, he e is a lack o poli ical will on he side
o du y bea e s o adop gende - ans o ma i e policies. This calls o a non-s a e “conscience”
on gende o d i e change by closing he gap be ween o mal laws and policies and he li ed
expe iences o women by inc easing indi idual and g ass oo demand o gende equali y, while
measu es a e aken o deal wi h he sys emic ac o s. The lack o co e unding o eminis and
women’s igh s o ganisa ions o e he decades, he e o e, will a enua e his o he wise g ea
syne gis ic impac o d i ing change h ough he push o o mal laws and policies alongside
sensi isa ion measu es and suppo . Suppo om go e nmen and key de elopmen pa ne s
o ac i i ies in suppo o eminism in Ghana will be c ucial in b inging abou he ans o ma i e
change.
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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Execu i e summa y om he Indian case s udy
A a ime when global amewo ks like he Beijing Decla a ion and Pla o m o Ac ion (Uni ed
Na ions, 1995) and Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) a e calling o a enewed
commi men o gende equali y, India s ands a a c oss oads. The coun y’s eminis discou se
has been shaped by bo h his o ical miles ones, such as he Towa ds Equali y Repo (1974)
which exposed en enched gende dispa i ies, and he ongoing s uggles o g ass oo s women’s
mo emen s con on ing cas e, class and eligious opp essions. Howe e , despi e p og ess in
educa ion, poli ical ep esen a ion and public heal h, India is anked 129 h ou o 146 coun ies
in he Global Gende Gap Repo 2024 (Wo ld Economic Fo um, 2024), e lec ing pe sis en
dispa i ies in economic pa icipa ion, agency and heal h ou comes.
D awing on insigh s om c i ical eminis heo y and di e se women’s and social mo emen s,
his p ojec explo es he ans o ma i e po en ial o local eminis pe spec i es in add essing
sys emic gende inequali ies in India. The s udy selec ed wo hemes: women’s heal h and
clima e ac ion (gi en hei in e connec edness and impac on mul iple dimensions o human
de elopmen ) o unde s and how communi y-based o ganisa ions (CBOs) wo king on women’s
issues ha e challenged pa ia chal no ms and buil agency and decision-making capaci ies o
hei communi ies, pa icula ly women. The s udy also analyses a ious s a egies adop ed by
hese o ganisa ions in o med by he li ed eali ies o women, o add ess he in e sec ionali y
be ween opp essions ha shape women’s expe iences in bo h heal h and clima e ac ion.
Using a quali a i e, mul i-me hod app oach, his s udy in eg a es p ima y and seconda y da a
sou ces o ensu e dep h and comp ehensi eness. A ho ough li e a u e e iew in o med he
esea ch amewo k, analysing global and na ional policy documen s, gende - ela ed
in e en ions and in e sec ional analyses. P ima y da a collec ion encompassed 31 key
in o man in e iews (KIIs), comp ising 12 discussions wi h expe s in gende , heal h and clima e
ac ion and 19 in e iews wi h ep esen a i es o g ass oo s o ganisa ions. Addi ionally,
a s akeholde dialogue wi h 40 pa icipan s was o ganised o gain insigh s in o he discou se o
eminisms in India and abou hei con ibu ion owa ds challenging sys emic inequali ies. The
e en included NGOs, CBOs, eminis collec i es and academia who p o ided insigh s in o
localised knowledge c ea ion on gende , he o ma ion o g ass oo s women’s leade ship and
he de elopmen o inno a i e s a egies o add ess he in e sec ionali y be ween opp essions
women ace.
Key indings
Local eminis p axis: The eminis landscape in India is cha ac e ised by i s di e si y, shaped
by a mul iplici y o eminisms ha e lec he li ed eali ies o a he e ogeneous socie y. Indian
eminisms a e deeply oo ed in local con ex s, add essing he in e sec ions o cas e, class,
sexuali y, eligion, disabili y and en i onmen . The dis inc s ands o eminisms (such as Dali
eminism, quee eminism, eco- eminism, sex wo ke ’s mo emen and o he s) collec i ely o m
a plu alis ic and adap i e amewo k ha add ess he coun y’s sociocul u al and poli ical
complexi ies.
Women’s mo emen s in India ha e played a ans o ma i e ole in challenging pa ia chal
s uc u es (a he le el o household, communi y and s a e) and ampli ying ma ginalised oices.
O ganisa ions like Khaba Laha iya (News Wa e), a women-led u al media collec i e,
challenge adi ional media pa adigms by enabling u al women o na a e hei own s o ies and
build agency. By eclaiming na a i es, using digi al echnology and os e ing communi y-d i en
solu ions, such o ganisa ions en ich eminis ad ocacy amewo ks wi h locally oo ed insigh s.
The o ma ion o women’s g oups, women’s ne wo ks and alliances wi h o he social mo emen s
(including Dali , quee and sex wo ke s) ha e en iched and expanded local eminis
pe spec i es in he coun y. The ins i u ionalisa ion o eminism in India’s highe educa ion has
c ea ed a discu si e space o engaging wi h a ious o ms o inequali ies, especially gende .
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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Women and heal h inequali ies: The in e sec ion o cas e, class, sexuali y and disabili y
signi ican ly ampli ies heal h inequi ies o women in India, c ea ing sys emic ba ie s ha
ex end beyond access o heal hca e se ices. Despi e policy ad ancemen s, deeply ing ained
gende no ms, socie al biases and s uc u al inequali ies con inue o cons ain women’s
decision-making powe and igh o hei body, pa icula ly in a eas like ep oduc i e, sexual,
men al and mens ual heal h. These compounded challenges demand an in e sec ional
app oach o heal h equi y. In addi ion, women a e s ill conside ed as a homogeneous en i y in
heal h policy and p og ammes. This na ow app oach o women’s heal h dismisses he
he e ogeneous iden i y o women (shaped by class, cas e, eligion and o he o ms o social
ma ke s). The e is an u gen need o adop a mul i-dimensional app oach while designing
policies and p og ammes o women’s heal h ha add ess sys emic disc imina ion and social
no ms alongside se ice deli e y.
O ganisa ions like MASUM (Mahila Sa angeen U ka sh Mandal) exempli y pa icipa o y heal h
educa ion models, conduc ing mens ual hygiene wo kshops ha empowe women o ad oca e
o hei own heal h needs. CBOs, such as he Du ba Mahila Samanwaya Commi ee (DMSC)
(a sex wo ke s’ collec i e), add ess no jus heal h bu si ua e heal h wi hin socie al dynamics
in luencing heal h-seeking beha iou and access o heal hca e. Go e nmen in e en ions in he
o m o sel -help g oups (SHGs) and Acc edi ed Social Heal h Ac i is s (ASHAs) ha e also
eme ged as good models o comba heal h inequi ies, b idging gaps in u al heal hca e deli e y
and imp o ing immunisa ion co e age, ma e nal ca e and access o heal h in o ma ion.
While India’s heal h policies, such as he Na ional Heal h Mission, ha e made s ides in se ice
deli e y, hey o en adop a na ow echnoc a ic ocus ha p io i ises measu able ou comes
h ough beha iou al in e en ions o e s uc u al and cul u al dimensions o heal h equi y. To
achie e ans o ma i e heal h ou comes, policy amewo ks mus embed gende -sensi i e and
in e sec ional app oaches ha ecognise heal h as a collec i e and social conce n a he han
an indi idual issue. Addi ionally, g ea e collabo a ions be ween CBOs wo king on gende and
go e nmen al ini ia i es a e essen ial o ca alysing social change.
Women and clima e ac ion: Clima e c ises disp opo iona ely impac women, pa icula ly hose
in u al and economically ma ginalised communi ies. Women’s oles as p ima y ca egi e s and
con ibu o s o ag icul u e ampli y hei exposu e o clima e- ela ed isks. As key p o ide s o
wa e , uel and ood o hei households, women ace inc eased bu dens due o esou ce
deple ion caused by d ough s, e a ic ain all and land deg ada ion. T adi ional gende no ms
u he elega e women o unpaid o low-wage labou , limi ing hei access o adap i e
echnologies, esou ces and decision-making oppo uni ies. Despi e hei heigh ened
ulne abili y o clima e haza ds, women emain unde ep esen ed in clima e policies and
go e nance s uc u es, highligh ing he c i ical need o inclusi e, gende -sensi i e app oaches
ha cen e women’s expe iences and leade ship.
Communi y ini ia i es demons a e he ans o ma i e po en ial o women-led clima e ac ion,
os e ing esilience and d i ing sus ainable de elopmen . Fo example, sola echnician aining
p og ammes empowe u al women o assemble and ins all sola ene gy sys ems,
simul aneously add essing ene gy needs and p o iding sus ainable li elihoods. In U a akhand,
women a me s ha e championed he cul i a ion o clima e- esilien c ops like mille s, enhancing
ood secu i y while p omo ing sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices. Communi y-led wa e
managemen p ojec s, such as he es o a ion o adi ional wa e sou ces, ha e also enabled
women o mi iga e he impac s o wa e sca ci y and d ough s. These localised in e en ions
highligh how empowe ing women as ac i e pa icipan s in clima e solu ions no only add esses
hei ulne abili ies, bu also posi ions hem as agen s o ans o ma i e change.
India’s clima e policies, including he Na ional Ac ion Plan on Clima e Change (NAPCC) and
S a e Ac ion Plans on Clima e Change (SAPCC), la gely adop a gende -neu al app oach,
ailing o add ess he di e en ia ed impac s o clima e change on women. While hese policies
IDOS Discussion Pape 9/2025
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ecognise women’s ulne abili ies in p inciple, hey o en exclude women as ac i e con ibu o s
o clima e adap a ion and mi iga ion e o s. To add ess hese gaps, policy e o ms mus
in eg a e in e sec ional analyses, p io i ise women’s leade ship in clima e go e nance and
alloca e esou ces o gende - esponsi e ac ions.
Lea nings and ecommenda ions
In eg a ing in e sec ionali y in policies and p og ammes: To add ess sys emic inequi ies in
heal h and clima e ac ion, c oss-sec o al policy e o ms mus in eg a e in e sec ional
amewo ks ha acknowledge o e lapping opp essions o gende , cas e, class and disabili y.
Embedding in e sec ionali y in p og ammes ensu es ha ma ginalised g oups ecei e ailo ed
suppo o o e come ba ie s and pa icipa e in ans o ma i e change. Gende - esponsi e
go e nance should ac i ely include women, pa icula ly om ma ginalised communi ies, in
decision-making p ocesses ac oss sec o s. Since he las wo decades, “in e sec ionali y”19 has
been a pa o he discou se o global and local eminisms; howe e , a simila app oach has
nei he been a policy p io i y no has i been adop ed while designing in e en ions o achie ing
gende equali y.
Communi y-led app oaches and collabo a ions wi h communi y membe s: Fo os e ing
owne ship and long- e m impac , in e en ions mus be co-c ea ed and led by he communi y o
e lec he li ed eali ies o hose mos a ec ed by sys emic inequi ies (e.g., he dic iona y o
iolence by Ni an a , women’s ede a ions, and heal h in e en ions led by DMSC). Engaging
women as pa ne s – no jus bene icia ies – in designing ini ia i es, such as clima e- esilien
ag icul u al p ac ices o communi y heal h plans, ensu es ha p og ammes a e con ex -speci ic
and cul u ally ele an . In es ing in s eng hening leade ship o g ass oo s women h ough
aining p og ammes will enhance hei decision-making capaci ies, inancial li e acy and
ad ocacy skills. These compe encies will help hem o m ne wo ks and ampli y hei in luence
in bo h communi y and policy se ings.
Fo making policy con ex ual, in e sec ional and in e sec o al, i is essen ial o include
communi y ep esen a i es wi hin he p ocess o planning. All go e nmen ini ia i es should be
designed in collabo a ion wi h he communi y o add ess bo h beha iou al and s uc u al
changes.
Inno a ion o p ocess and p oduc : Inno a ions mus p io i ise echnologies and in es men
s a egies ha align wi h he needs o ma ginalised women. Heal h- ech and clima e- ech
inno a ions, such as mobile-based heal h pla o ms and sola ene gy aining p og ammes, can
add ess sys emic ba ie s while c ea ing sus ainable li elihoods. These echnologies mus be
designed wi h accessibili y in mind, pa icula ly o women wi h limi ed li e acy o digi al skills.
Dono collabo a ion is c ucial, bu he unding model needs o be e amped. The unding model
equi es a shi om sho - e m, ou come-d i en unding o a long- e m in es men ha
p io i ises communi y engagemen , esilience-building and capaci y de elopmen
Finally, capaci y building and awa eness e o s mus ocus on social no ms, especially
pa ia chal no ms and hei ha m ul impac s wi hin communi ies and households, as well as he
consequen ial ocus on beha iou al shi s, using inno a i e pedagogies ha connec wi h li ed
eali ies. The con en o lea ning should demys i y gende - ela ed my hs and adop an equi y
19 The e m “in e sec ionali y” was coined in 1989 by Kimbe lé Williams C enshaw. In e sec ionali y
ocuses on unco e ing and unde s anding he expe iences and challenges aced by indi iduals who
occupy mul iple and in e sec ing g oup iden i ies. The cen al ideas o in e sec ionali y ha e long
his o ic oo s – black ac i is s and eminis s, as well as pos -colonial, quee and o he schola s ha e
all p oduced wo k ha e eals he in e dependen complex social no ms and sys ems ha shape
human li es.
