Schweiho , Julia; Lipo e skaja, Anzelika; Jussen-Lenge sdo , Ilka; Mölle , F ede ik
A icle — Published Ve sion
S uck in he middle wi h you: Concep ualizing da a
in e media ies and da a in e media ion se ices
Elec onic Ma ke s
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Schweiho , Julia; Lipo e skaja, Anzelika; Jussen-Lenge sdo , Ilka; Mölle ,
F ede ik (2024) : S uck in he middle wi h you: Concep ualizing da a in e media ies and da a
in e media ion se ices, Elec onic Ma ke s, ISSN 1422-8890, Sp inge , Be lin, Heidelbe g, Vol. 34,
Iss. 1,
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RESEARCH PAPER
S uck in hemiddle wi hyou: Concep ualizing da a in e media ies
andda a in e media ion se ices
JuliaSchweiho 1,2 · AnzelikaLipo e skaja2,3· IlkaJussen‑Lenge sdo 1,3· F ede ikMölle 2,3
Recei ed: 22 Ma ch 2024 / Accep ed: 21 Augus 2024 / Published online: 27 Sep embe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
Da a in e media ion se ices a e a no el class o se ices mi iga ing a ious aspec s o in e -o ganiza ional da a sha ing.
Facili a ing da a in e media ion se ices is a pi o al ac i i y ha le e ages he bene i s o he da a economy. These se ices
a e usually p o ided by so-called da a in e media ies, who o ganize da a sha ing be ween one o mul iple da a p o ide (s)
and da a consume (s). Agains he backg ound o p ominen legisla ion, hese da a in e media ies (e.g., da a ma ke places o
da a us s) ecei e inc easing a en ion in esea ch, p ac ice, and poli ics. Fo ins ance, he Da a Go e nance Ac egula es
da a in e media ion se ices, p omp ing o ganiza ions sha ing da a o comply wi h a ious egula ions, including egis a ion
wi h go e nmen bodies o acqui ing a us ed label. Howe e , o da e, li le esea ch has been done abou he na u e o da a
in e media ion se ices, mo i a ing us o ackle his issue in a wo- old s a egy. Fi s , we de i e a isualiza ion o a da a
in e media y and concep subsuming i s po en ial unc ions. Second, we explo e a che ypical con igu a ions o co-exis ing
se ices o da a in e media ies. Wi h his, we con ibu e o unde s anding he da a in e media ies as a concep and en ich
his unde s anding wi h mo e de ailed se ice con igu a ions.
Keywo ds Da a in e media ies· A che ypes· Da a sha ing· Taxonomy
JEL Classi ica ion A1
In oduc ion
“Da a in e media ies ep esen a new policy le e o
na iga e he challenges o he g owing da a ecosys-
em.” — Flanagan and Wa en (2022)
Sha ing da a is inc easingly ele an o companies, e en
hough hey a e ypically hesi an o sha e hem due o a
ange o obs acles (Fassnach e al., 2023; Le eb e e al.,
2023). Fo ins ance, hose obs acles a e a lack o a ailable
echnological in as uc u e and he challenge o complying
wi h applicable egula ions (Candelon e al., 2024; Ebel
e al., 2021). Conce ns abou sha ing compe i i ely ele an
in o ma ion, iola ing applicable law, o unclea cos s also
s and in con as o he ad an ages, such as be e economic
e iciency h ough he use o sha ed da a (We nick e al.,
2020). Companies bene i om new sou ces o e enue
o da a, access o new da a sou ces and cus ome s, cos
educ ions (Bi kom (Ed.)., 2023), o he “disco e y o
new insigh s,” “ as e , mo e accu a e decision making,”
“inc eased p edic ion accu acy,” “op imized p ocess
e iciency and coo dina ion,” and “inc eased inno a ion”
(Ho man e al., 2019). In addi ion o bene i s o
companies, da a sha ing also o e s ad an ages on a social
le el (Ho man e al., 2019). In pa icula , he COVID-19
pandemic has shown how ele an i can be o sha e da a
(Wo ld Economic Fo um (Ed.)., 2021) o achie e he speed
necessa y o igh a globally sp eading disease. In Ge many,
o example, he e a e al eady se e al da a us ees who
collec heal h da a and make i a ailable o esea ch while
complying wi h p i acy-p ese ing measu es (Ge man
Cen e o Cance Regis y Da a, 2013; T us ed Thi d Pa y
o he Uni e si y Medicine G ei swald, 2024; Wes deu sche
* Julia Schweiho
julia.schweiho @ u-do mund.de
1 TU Do mund Uni e si y, Joseph-Von-F aunho e -S . 2-4,
44227Do mund, Ge many
2 TU B aunschweig, Mühlenp o d s . 23, 38106B unswick,
Ge many
3 F aunho e ISST, Speiche s . 6, 44147Do mund, Ge many
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 2 o 26
Biobank Essen [WBE], 2019). Expedi ing da a-sha ing
ac i i ies is widely pe cei ed as a alue-c ea ing mechanism,
which shi ed om simply sol ing ad hoc exis ing p oblems
o a s a egic ac i i y o alue c ea ion (e.g., Wixom e al.,
2023). These po en ials s e ch nume ous indus ies, such as
ag icul u e (e.g., Wysel e al., 2021), manu ac u ing (e.g.,
Tang e al., 2024), o supply chain managemen (e.g., Culo
e al., 2024) and a e usually associa ed wi h, bu no limi ed
o, sa ing cos s and sa ing ime h ough op imiza ion. The e
a e use cases in he ene gy sec o whe e da a in e media ies
(DIs) use da a o sha e consume s’ ene gy da a wi h inancial
se ice p o ide s (Da a Sha ing Coali ion (Ed.), 2020).
The co e o success ul da a sha ing is he p esence o
us in hose who ecei e o media e he da a (Capgemini
Resea ch Ins i u e (Ed.), 2021; Ebel e al., 2021; Flanagan
& Wa en, 2022). One app oach o ackling hese issues is
o use DIs ha o e da a p o ide s a ange o da a manage-
men se ices pe aining o da a sha ing, such as suppo ing
legal compliance, anonymiza ion, o da a secu i y (Jussen
e al., 2023b). These se ices o e ed by DIs a e da a in e -
media ion se ices (DISs) ha acili a e he many ace s o
in e -o ganiza ional da a sha ing on behal o da a p o ide s
and da a consume s (Ca o ano & Finck, 2023; Schweiho
e al., 2023). DIs p o ide hese DISs and ecei e inc easing
a en ion as hey a e a he hea o he (de eloping) Eu opean
Da a Economy (Join Resea ch Cen e, 2023), p omp ing a
“da a in e media y hype” (Rich e , 2023 p. 458). They p om-
ise a hos o bene i s, such as educing ansac ion cos s and
enabling no el da a-sha ing ansac ions ha we e p e iously
impossible (Ma ens e al., 2020). In p ac ice, DIs a e ins an-
ia ed in a ple ho a o a ian s (e.g., Di u h & Lienemann,
2022; Micheli e al., 2023), and wo p ominen examples a e
da a ma ke places and da a us s p o iding al e na ing com-
plemen a y se ices and unc ions o da a p o ide (s) and
da a consume (s). The da a ma ke place aims o da a mon-
e iza ion, gi ing da a p o ide s, ypically, a o um o o e
hei da a o inancial compensa ion (e.g., Be gman e al.,
2022; Jussen e al., 2024a). Da a us s also o ganize da a
sha ing bu explici ly o e se ices a ound da a pseudonymi-
za ion and anonymiza ion and acili a ing legally complian
da a p o ision and consump ion (e.g., Lipo e skaja e al.,
2024; Radose ic e al., 2023; S achon e al., 2023).
A key mo i a o o esea ch and p ac ice o explo e
DIs is he Da a Go e nance Ac (DGA), which en e ed
in o o ce in 2023 and egula es how DIs need o be ope -
a ionalized. While he DGA is no he sole ounda ion
o his a icle, i spu s he need o o ganiza ions o be
awa e o DIs. The spec um o DISs p o ided by DIs is
no easily dema ca ed since he DGA de ines hem as all
se ices ha “es ablish comme cial ela ionships o he
pu poses o da a sha ing be ween an unde e mined num-
be o da a subjec s and da a holde s on he one hand and
da a use s on he o he , h ough echnical, legal o o he
means, including o he pu pose o exe cising he igh s
o da a subjec s in ela ion o pe sonal da a” (Eu opean
Commission 2022, L152/19), which, seemingly, includes
a wide ange o po en ial DIs. Based on his spec um o
DISs and he po en ial a ian s o DIs, we can posi ion
hem in he con ex o in o ma ion sys ems (IS) esea ch.
DIs a e (a leas ) wo-sided digi al pla o ms ha o ganize
and acili a e in e -o ganiza ional da a sha ing by p o id-
ing DISs be ween da a p o ide s (supply side) and da a
consume s (demand side) (Di u h & Lienemann, 2022).
In hei na u e as digi al pla o ms, hey gene a e and pa -
ially o ches a e pla o m ecosys ems (e.g., Hein e al.,
2020), which, in he con ex o in e -o ganiza ional da a
sha ing, a e seen as da a ecosys ems (Mölle e al., 2024;
Oli ei a & Lóscio, 2018; Oli ei a e al., 2019).
Gi en he ex e nal p essu e om legisla ion and he po en-
ial o DIs and DISs o esea ch and p ac ice, we ind i
p oblema ic ha he e is no “clea ” unde s anding o wha he
umb ella e ms “da a in e media y” and “da a in e media ion
se ices” include. Fo example, Micheli e al. (2020) iden i y
six ypes o DIs — he da a ma ke place, da a unions, pe -
sonal in o ma ion managemen sys ems, da a coope a i es,
da a us s, and da a sha ing pools. Di u h and Lienemann
(2022) p opose he da a ma ke place, (indus ial) da a pla -
o ms, and da a us s while highligh ing, and we ag ee wi h
ha , ha DIs a e an e ol ing and eme ging ield and clas-
si ica ions a e likely no obus a his poin . To coun e ac
he wide ange o po en ial implemen a ions and he accom-
panying concep ual blu iness, we p opose o complemen
concep ual cla i y and unde s anding o he na u e o DIs. We
do no aim o p o ide ano he classi ica ion o DIs bu ackle
he issue o cla i ying DISs in a wo- old s a egy. Fi s , we
consolida e he ield o DIs by explo ing DISs independen ly
om he speci ic DI implemen a ion. Second, we explo e he
con igu a ions o non-exclusi e (i.e., non-dependen on he
speci ic DI implemen a ion) DISs. To summa ize, we pu sue
he wo ollowing esea ch ques ions:
Resea ch ques ion(RQ1): Wha a e he gene ic se ices
o da a in e media ies?
Resea ch ques ion (RQ2): Wha a e a che ypical con-
igu a ional pa e ns o da a in e media ion se ices?
To achie e ou goal, we ollow he axonomy-building
me hod o Kundisch e al. (2021). Building a axonomy is
use ul o ou pu pose since i accommoda es he dual na u e
o ou esul s. Taxonomies a e equen ly used o span he
comple e playing ield o an objec o in e es (e.g., as design
op ions, Mölle e al., 2021). We combine his by employing
clus e analysis o map ou con igu a ional pa e ns o co-
exis ing DISs. This s a egy is equen ly used in IS esea ch
o explo e eoccu ing con igu a ional pa e ns (e.g., Weking
e al., 2020 o Fische e al., 2020).
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:48 Page 3 o 26 48
We s uc u e he pape as ollows. Following he “In o-
duc ion,” we ou line he undamen als o da a in e medi-
a ies. The “Resea ch design” sec ion explains he esea ch
design, which consis s o a axonomy-building app oach
using bo h li e a u e and empi ical objec s as he unde lying
da a sou ces. In he “Findings: concep ualizing da a in e -
media ion se ices” sec ion, we p esen bo h he gene ic and
idealized unde s anding o DIs and p esen he clus e ed pa -
e ns o DISs. The “Con ibu ions, limi a ions, and ou look”
sec ion concludes ou pape wi h an o e iew o he con i-
bu ions and limi a ions o ou esea ch as well as an ou look
on u he esea ch.
Da a in e media ies
The e m “in e media y” o igina es om he La in wo ds
“in e ” (engl. “be ween”) and “medius” (engl. “middle”),
e e ing o an ac o ha connec s mul iple sides such as da a
p o ide s and da a consume s (Me iam-Webs e , 2024b).
The e m was i s men ioned in he la e eigh een h cen u y
(Me iam-Webs e , 2024b) and appea ed in he li e a u e in
1878, whe e i was quo ed in a medical con ex (see Co old,
1878). The concep o he “digi al” in e media y became
popula wi h he beginning o he digi aliza ion o ma ke s
and so-called elec onic ma ke in e media ies (J. Bailey,
1996; Bha ga a e al., 1999; Ch usciel & Zahedi, 1999;
She e , 1995). Fo ins ance, hese in e media ies p o ide
suppo wi h online shopping, insu ance, o he dis ibu ion
o music (Bouwman e al., 2005; Kim & Talalaye sky, 2005;
Moloney, 2005).
Engaging in da a sha ing poses signi ican ba ie s o
o ganiza ions (e.g., Fassnach e al., 2023; Legen e &
Hame i, 2023). Fo ins ance, Jussen e al. (2023b) epo on
a se o ensions in in e -o ganiza ional da a sha ing, con-
as ing incen i es (e.g., da a mone iza ion) and ba ie s
(e.g., da a alua ion) ha o ganiza ions a e asked o ind
esponses o. These ba ie s a e mani old and span a p ob-
lem space a ound o ganiza ions na iga ing he ea o da a
misapp op ia ion, a lack o echnical and cul u al know-how,
and legal and p i acy conce ns when sha ing da a (Cichy
e al., 2021; Fassnach e al., 2023). DIs a e among he p om-
inen solu ions add essing some o hese issues since hey
a e asked wi h aking o e pa s o he in e -o ganiza ional
da a-sha ing p ocess om o ganiza ions (Schweiho e al.,
2023). Ini ial app oaches by he EU o o e come he ba i-
e s o he use o DIs include he o e o ce i ica ion as a
us wo hy DI (Eu opean Commission, 2024b).
Gi en he ange o po en ial DI ins ances, we discuss he
concep ual unde pinnings and de ini ions p oposed in he
li e a u e. In Table1, we show some p ominen de ini ions
o DIs as examples, which e lec he e sa ili y o he e m
and demons a e i s impo ance in a ious domains. Mos
de ini ions cha ac e ize he DI as a media o , o ganizing
in e -o ganiza ional da a sha ing as ei he “in he middle”
be ween p o ide s and consume s o as all en i ies suppo -
ing da a-sha ing ac i i ies (e.g., Janssen & Singh, 2022).
Fo example, a DI is de ined in he DGA “as neu al hi d
pa ies ha connec indi iduals and companies on one side
wi h da a use s on he o he ” (Eu opean Commission, 2023).
Micheli e al. (2023) p opose a b oade de ini ion, p oposing
DIs as en i ies p o iding s akeholde s access o da a. Ichi-
hashi (2021) discusses DIs as mi iga ing agen s exchanging
Table 1 De ini ions o DIs ( indings om li e a u e, highligh ed by he au ho s)
De ini ion Con ex Au ho
“is a ole ha acili a es he use o da a o o he ac o s.” Da a ecosys ems Oli ei a e al., (2019, p. 609)
“a media o be ween hose who wish o make hei da a a ailable, and hose who seek
o le e age ha da a. The in e media y wo ks o go e n he da a in speci ic ways and
p o ides some deg ee o con idence ega ding how he da a will be used”
Policy Janssen and Singh (2022, p. 2)
“Da a in e media ies o e ing se ices ha connec he di e en ac o s ha e he
po en ial o con ibu e o he e icien pooling o da a as well as o he acili a ion o
bila e al da a sha ing. Specialised da a in e media ies ha a e independen om
bo h da a holde s and da a use s can ha e a acili a ing ole in he eme gence o new
da a-d i en ecosys ems independen om any playe wi h a signi ican deg ee o
ma ke powe .”
EU legisla ion Eu opean Commission (2020, p. 16)
“Da a in e media ies can ake many o ms; bu wha hey sha e is a p ima y pu pose o
acili a ing and managing da a ela ions be ween da a igh s holde s (such as peo-
ple o businesses), depending on he pa ies’ ela ionships, in en ions and esou ces.”
P ac ical epo Flanagan and Wa en (2022, p. 9)
“Da a in e media ies o mo e inclusi e da a go e nance allow a b oade ange o
s akeholde s o access, con ol and sha e da a, and suppo da a subjec s and da a
holde s in deciding he pu poses o which da a is managed, as well as acili a ing
he exe cise by da a subjec s o hei igh s o e pe sonal da a, wi h he likely e ec
o p oducing u he bene i s om he same da a and hus edis ibu ing da a alue
(social, public o p i a e) ac oss mo e ac o s and/ o socie y”
Policy Micheli e al., (2023, p. 11)
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 4 o 26
pe sonal da a be ween consume s and ups eam o ganiza-
ions, like Google and Facebook, o ecei e ewa ds. Open
da a in e media ies a e ano he ype o da a in e media y.
These a e de ined as “ hi d-pa y ac o s who p o ide spe-
cialized esou ces and capabili ies o (i) enhance he supply,
low, and/o use o open da a and/o (ii)s eng hen he ela-
ionships among a ious open da a s akeholde s” (Shaha u-
din e al., 2023, pp. 14–15). Howe e , due o hei ela ion
o open da a, hey do no all unde he DGA.
Figu e1 shows he in e ac ion o a “ adi ional” elec onic
ma ke in e media y (Sa ke e al., 1995). The in e media y
akes on an o ganizing ole and ecei es emune a ion o
he ansac ion, which akes place be ween p o ide and
consume . The igh -hand side shows a model we adap ed
o a da a-sha ing scena io using a DI. In his model, in
addi ion o he ewa ds o he se ices and ansac ions,
he in e media y p o ides da a and se ices in e u n o a
ee. I is he in e media y’s ask o de elop a ela ionship o
us o mo i a e he ac o s o sha e da a. The da a p oduc-
e s and da a consume s do no need o exchange da a ia he
in e media y. The in e media y ensu es ha he app op ia e
ac o s a e ma ched wi h each o he and hen nego ia es he
condi ions o da a sha ing among hemsel es. They make
use o possible u he se ices o he in e media y, such
as he p o ision o an in as uc u e necessa y o he da a
exchange.
The ask o a da a in e media y is o p o ide se ices
o da a sha ing (Ca o ano & Finck, 2023; Eu opean Com-
mission, 2022), so-called DISs. DIs occupy he middle
sea be ween di e en ac o s when i comes o da a sha -
ing (Schweiho e al., 2023). Fo example, he DI can p o-
ide a pla o m (Eisenmann e al., 2011), connec di e en
ac o s (Kioses e al., 2007), o ake on a ious us wo hy
asks in he da a-sha ing p ocess (O o e al., 2019). The
DGA go e ns he esponsibili ies, igh s, and du ies o a DI
(Eu opean Commission, 2022) and de ines DISs as ollows:
“‘da a in e media ion se ice’ means a se ice which aims o
es ablish comme cial ela ionships o he pu poses o da a
sha ing be ween an unde e mined numbe o da a subjec s
and da a holde s on he one hand and da a use s on he o he ,
h ough echnical, legal o o he means, including o he
pu pose o exe cising he igh s o da a subjec s in ela ion
o pe sonal da a” (Eu opean Commission, 2022, L 152/19).
In summa y, he DI ac s as an au ho i y media ing be ween
a ious s akeholde s who wish o sha e da a (Flanagan &
Wa en, 2022; Janssen & Singh, 2022; Oli ei a e al., 2019).
I is subjec o legal equi emen s such as he DGA, which
s ipula es he o m in which he DI may o e i s se ices
(Eu opean Commission, 2022; Rich e , 2023). DIs should
suppo s akeholde s in implemen ing he da a-sha ing p o-
cess (Micheli e al., 2023). Recen p ac ice epo s (e.g., Fla-
nagan and Wa en (2022), Micheli e al. (2023) o Cen e o
Da a E hics and Inno a ion (2021)) on he opic o DI show
ha he phenomenon o “da a in e media ies” is cu en ly
o g ea in e es o p ac i ione s and esea che s. E en i he
DGA se s ou a speci ic di ec ion o in e media ies and many
a icles al eady discuss he DGA in combina ion wi h DIs
(e.g., Ca o ano & Finck, 2023 o Rich e , 2023), we hink i
is necessa y i s o unde s and he s a us quo o DISs and DIs
in o de o gi e sui able implica ions o companies.
Resea ch design
Taxonomy design
We epo he axonomy design p ocedu e using he me hod
o Kundisch e al. (2021), who p opose 18 s eps o ganized
in o six phases (i.e., he DSR phases o Pe e s e al., 2007).
They a e iden i y p oblem and mo i a e (1), de ine objec i es
o a solu ion (2), design and de elopmen (3), demons a ion
(4), e alua ion (5), and communica ion (6). Each consis s o
a se o lowe - h eshold s eps o axonomy design, which we
ou line below. Taxonomies a e a sui able me hod o “concep-
ualize phenomena based on hei dimensions and cha ac e -
is ics” (Kundisch e al., 2021, p. 421), which i s ou esea ch
goal. We chose he me hod o Kundisch e al. (2021) because
i is an upda e o he de ac o s anda d (see also Mölle e al.,
2022) and he p o en me hod o axonomy design in IS
esea ch o Nicke son e al. (2013).
Da a
In e media y
Da a
P o ide
Da a
Consume
Da a
Rewa d
In e media y
P o ide Consume
T ansac ion cos s 1
Fig. 1 The in e ela ionship be ween he ac o s in ol ed in da a sha ing (le , Sa ke e al. (1995); igh , own adap ion on da a sha ing)
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:48 Page 5 o 26 48
Phase 1 (iden i y p oblem and mo i a e) Taxonomy build-
e s a e ad ised o speci y he obse ed phenomenon clea ly
(s ep 1). In ou case, his e e s o DISs, which we ha e
cha ac e ized abo e (see he “Da a in e media ies” sec ion).
S ep 2 ou lines he a ge use g oup(s), which a e esea ch-
e s explo ing di e en ace s o DISs as well as manage s
acing issues in how o use and u ilize DISs. Nex , axon-
omy designe s should o mula e he in ended pu pose o he
axonomy (s ep 3). We pu sue a dual mission in using he
axonomy. Fi s , we aim o span a concep ual playing ield
ou lining comp ehensi e cha ac e is ics o DIs and hei
se ices. The e o e, we a e equi ed o concep ualize an
abs ac ion ha e lec s he sum o all possibili ies o DISs
exis ing in a DI (Webe , 1949). Second, we ackle i using
he axonomy o ex ac a se o a che ypes, ha is, con igu-
a ions o da a in e media ion se ices ha occu oge he
by means o clus e analysis.
Phase 2 (de ine objec i es o a solu ion) The second phase
dema ca es he solu ion space o he axonomy and aims o
cap u e i in a me a-cha ac e is ic, illus a ing he “begin-
ning” and “ he mos comp ehensi e cha ac e is ic ha
will se e as he basis o he choice o cha ac e is ics in
he axonomy” (Nicke son e al., 2013, p. 343). Ou me a-
cha ac e is ic is as ollows: comp ehensi e classi ica ion o
da a in e media ion se ices. In e ms o explica ing ending
condi ions, we ollow s anda d p ac ice and adop subjec-
i e and objec i e ending condi ions p oposed by Nicke -
son e al. (2013). Addi ionally, we se e alua ion goals o
demons a e he impo ance o da a in e media ies in he
axonomy adequa ely.
Phase 3 (design and de elopmen ) In phase 3, we oscilla e
be ween di e en s a egies (empi ical- o-concep ual o
concep ual- o-empi ical) o build he ini ial axonomy and
i s subsequen i e a ions (see Fig.4). Fo his, we ini ially
e iewed he li e a u e (i e a ion 1) and hen analyzed eal-
li e cases (i e a ions 2–4), ex ac ing knowledge abou da a
in e media ies (see Table2). Based on ou indings, we clas-
si ied he se ices.
Li e a u e e iew We ollowed s anda d p ac ice in ax-
onomy design o concep ualize ini ial cha ac e is ics and
me a-dimensions by pe o ming a sys ema ic li e a u e
e iew (Kundisch e al., 2021) (see Fig.2). Subsequen ly, we
pu sued a concep -cen ic li e a u e e iew s a egy (Webs e
& Wa son, 2002). Since we did no cons ain ou DI de ini-
ion o a speci ic ype, such as da a ma ke places, we de ined
keywo ds b oad enough o iden i y a wide co pus o li e a u e.
We sea ched o “in e media y” and omi ed he p e ix “da a”
o be as comp ehensi e as possible and added complemen-
a y keywo ds om ou expe ience ha de ine ypes o DI o
could po en ially be used synonymously, namely “ us ee,”
“ us ed hi d-pa y,” and “ma ke place.” We combined hese
keywo ds wi h bo h “da a sha ing” and “da a exchange” o
accommoda e o he in e changeable na u e o hese e ms
(Jussen e al., 2023a). This s a egy was necessa y because o
he he e ogenei y o e ms used in da a sha ing. Fo example,
Nwa chock A Koul & Mo in (2018) ind ha “The da a sha -
ing p ocess is managed by a da a ma ke place, a us ed
hi d-pa y handling he ma ke pa icipan s’ eques and
managing he ag eemen s be ween hem.1” We sea ched
o li e a u e in es ablished da abases and ocused on pee -
e iewed con e ence p oceedings and jou nals (Le y & Ellis,
2006). Speci ically, we explo ed AISeL (indexes IS con e -
ences and some jou nals), Scopus (ex ensi e da abase index-
ing almos all ele an IS jou nals), IEEE Xplo e (indexing
addi ional li e a u e om adjacen ields, such as enginee ing),
and Web o Science (indexing b oad a ay o li e a u e). We
i s checked he 871 hi s agains ou selec ion c i e ia. These
included ha he language used in he pape was Ge man o
English and ha he abs ac and i le deal wi h DIs. Nex ,
we il e ed he li e a u e and included only hose pape s ha
epo ed o discussed a ype o DI — such as da a ma ke -
places (e.g., Agaha i e al., 2021; Figue edo e al. (2020); o
Demchenko e al. (2019)) o da a us ees (e.g., Azkan e al.,
2022). This allowed us o educe he sample o 256 pape s.
A e elimina ing all duplica es, he 201 pape s emained in
he sample. In he second i e a ion o he li e a u e sea ch, we
checked he con en o he pape s o in es iga e whe he hey
add essed DIs o educe he sample o 60 pape s. In he inal
hi d i e a ion, we examined he pape s o de e mine whe he
hey included he se ice o e ing o DIs o a inal selec ion
o 48 pape s.
Table 2 O e iew o axonomy
design i e a ions I e a ion App oach Me hod Resul
1 Concep ual- o-empi ical Sys ema ic li e a u e e iew Me a-dimensions,
ini ial cha ac e -
is ics
2 Empi ical- o-concep ual Empi ical objec s Taxonomy
3 Empi ical- o-concep ual Empi ical objec s Re ised axonomy
4 Empi ical- o-concep ual Empi ical objec s Final axonomy
1 Highligh ing o ele an e ms by he au ho s (bold).
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 6 o 26
Analysis o he li e a u e ( i s i e a ion o axonomy de elop-
men ) In he i s i e a ion, we used a concep ual app oach
o e alua e he li e a u e and analyze i using a Gioia dia-
g am o explo e which cha ac e is ics and se ices a e a ib-
u ed o DIs. We selec ed Gioia e al.’s (2013) app oach as
i is sui able o he i e a i e agg ega ion o ex ual da a.
Finally, we iden i ied i e se ice dimensions consis ing o
15 cha ac e is ics: ansac ion se ices, go e nance se ices,
so e eign y se ices, echnology se ices, and da a se ices.
Table3 shows an example o ou li e a u e coding.
Public da a analysis To en ich ou indings wi h eal-wo ld
insigh s, we analyzed a ious companies ha we iden i ied
as DIs (see Fig.3). We buil a da abase in h ee i e a ions
o selec he ele an companies o ou esea ch. The i s
sample o 116 companies we ound h ough he MyDa a
Ope a o Awa dees (Lang o d e al., 2022; MyDa a, 2023),
he Da a Go e nance Ac (Eu opean Commission, 2023), he
Cen e o Da a E hics and Inno a ion UK (Cen e o Da a
E hics & Inno a ion, 2021), and om p e ious in e iews.
We e iewed all companies based on he ollowing selec ion
c i e ia (SE): (SE1) mus ha e an exis ing websi e; (SE2)
he websi e mus be in Ge man, English, o F ench; (SE3)
he company is a DI based on he de ini ion ou lined in he
DGA. Ou inal selec ion comp ises 86 companies.
Analysis o public da a (second i e a ion o axonomy de el-
opmen ) In he second i e a ion o he axonomy de elop-
men , we analyzed 26 o he selec ed companies. We used
he dimensions om he i s i e a ion ( ansac ion, go e n-
ance, so e eign y, echnology, and da a se ices) as a basis
and ca ego ized he indings in o he dimensions. Th ough
he analysis, we iden i y one u he se ice dimension and
12 addi ional cha ac e is ics.
Analysis o public da a ( hi d i e a ion o axonomy de elop-
men ) In he hi d i e a ion, we e alua ed he companies
o classi y hem acco ding o he p esence o he se ices
based on he esul s o he second i e a ion (1 o ag ee, 0
o disag ee). We checked i he se ices we ound co e ed
Li e a u e e iew
Keywo ds Da abases
(“da a sha ing”OR “da a
exchange”) AND
(“in e media y”OR “da a
ma kplaces”OR “ us ees”OR
“ us ed hi d-pa y”)
AIS eLib a y
Scopus
IEEE Xplo e
Web o Science
Hi s
1s I e a ion
256 Pape s selec ed
201 Pape s wi h
emo ed double
2nd I e a ion
60 Pape s selec ed
3 d I e a ion
48 Pape s selec ed
871 Hi s in o al
Analysis o li e a u e
Analysis o 48 Pape s
Coding p ocesso he li e a u e o
iden i yse icedimensions
Da abase de elopmen
Taxonomy de elopmen
1s i e a ion
o axonomyde elopmen
Fig. 2 Resea ch design, li e a u e e iew
Table 3 Examples o ou li e a u e coding
Example li e a u e s a emen Coding
“The ole o he da a us ee ensu es ha he pla o m can en o ce go e nance mechanisms, such as enabling
da a exchange in compliance wi h he law and managing access igh s.”
Azkan e al., (2022, p. 7)
Go e nance mechanisms
Compliance wi h law
Access managemen
“Howe e , da a ma ke place ope a o s could also o e compu a ional in as uc u e as a se ice o ease he
bu den o da a p o ide s and consume s.”
Agaha i e al., (2021, p. 9)
P o ision o an in as uc u e
“In case o con lic esolu ion, he clea ing house ac s as us ed hi d pa y by e i ying he alidi y and con-
sis ence o he logged da a hashes wi h he da a p o ide ’s loggings.”
Dalmolen e al., (2019, p. 11)
Con lic esolu ion
Ve i ica ion
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:48 Page 7 o 26 48
all he possibili ies o i we should add u he se ices. Fo
his pu pose, we in es iga ed 20 companies. Finally, we add
h ee se ices o he lis : usage policies, pseudonymiza ion,
and ce i ica ion.
Analysis o public da a ( ou h i e a ion o axonomy de el-
opmen ) In he ou h i e a ion, we checked whe he we had
missed any se ices in he p e ious i e a ions. Ou app oach
was like he hi d i e a ion. We analyzed 40 o he companies
and we e unable o iden i y addi ional se ice ca ego ies
ha had no been co e ed be o e. As we ha e no made any
u he changes o he axonomy and all o Nicke son e al.’s
(2013) end condi ions ha e been me , we decided o end
he axonomy de elopmen . Figu e4 shows he axonomy
i e a ions.
Phase 4 (demons a ion) In he demons a ion phase, we
apply h ee companies o ou sea ch p ocess o he esul -
ing axonomy and demons a e hei i . Table4 shows he
companies classi ied in ou axonomy (Ca ena-X (2024),
Bundesd ucke ei GmbH (2024), and Da aGua d (2024)).
Phase 5 (e alua ion) In he e alua ion phase, we con ac ed
he CEO o one o he companies (so i y) ha we iden i ied
in ou sea ch p ocess. In a wo kshop se ing, we p epa ed
a Mi o boa d (Mi o, 2024) and discussed bo h he classi i-
ca ion o so i y in ou axonomy, as well as e alua ed he
esul ing pa e ns (see below).
Clus e ing da a in e media ion se ices
As he se ices a e no exclusi e, we iden i y eoccu -
ing con igu a ions o DISs. These ypical combina ions
a e called “a che ypes” o “pa e ns.” Me iam-Webs e
(2024a) de ines a che ypes as “ he o iginal pa e n o
model o which all hings o he same ype a e ep esen-
a ions o copies” and as a “pe ec example.” To gene -
a e he pa e ns o ypical DISs, we ca ied ou a clus e
analysis o check which se ices equen ly occu in which
combina ions. Following K. D. Bailey (1994, p. 6), clus e
analysis (simila , pa e n analysis) is hema ically based in
psychology as “a quan i a i e me hod o classi ica ion.” In
p epa a ion o he clus e analysis, we coded all he com-
panies ound in he axonomy using an Excel sp eadshee
in which all se ices we e lis ed. I se ices applied, we
ma ked his wi h a 1 in he able; i he se ices did no
apply, we ma ked his wi h a 0. We used RS udio (Ve -
sion R 4.3.1) o he clus e analysis (RS udio Team, 2024)
wi h he package “clus e ” (Maechle e al., 2021) o de i e
a Euclidean dis ance ma ix (Hellb ück, 2011). Fo he
clus e ing me hod, we u ilized agglome a i e hie a chi-
cal clus e ing (AHC), acco ding o Wa d (1963). We use
Wa d’s me hod as i “minimize[s] wi hin-g oup dispe sion
a each bina y usion” and “looks o clus e s in mul i a i-
a e Euclidean space” (Mu agh & Legend e, 2014, p. 275).
When using AHC, he indi idual objec s unde conside a-
ion a e placed in a “bina y, oo ed ee” (Mu agh & Con-
e as, 2017, p. 2). The inal clus e s we e isualized in a
dend og am (Mu agh, 1984). A dend og am is a way o
show how many in e ela ed g oups exis wi hin he da a
isually and o de i e ela ionships as i summa izes “ he
p oximi y and classi ica ion ela ionships” (Mu agh &
Con e as, 2017, p. 3). The dend og am (see Appendix 4)
shows he sec ions in eigh clus e s.
We analyzed he esul ing clus e s wi h he en i e eam
o au ho s. To iden i y he op imal numbe o clus e s, we
es ed and analyzed di e en numbe s o clus e s. I is a
ypical p ocedu e when using AHC o s a wi h an ini ial
Fig. 3 Resea ch design, public da a analysis
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 8 o 26
1s I e a ion 2nd I e a ion 3 d I e a ion 4 h I e a ion
App oach
Dimensions
Enable da a &
se iceexchange
Ma chmaking
Suppo in acilia ing
da a sha ing
Resol e con lic s
T ansac ion Se ices
Ma chmaking
Communi y Building
Sys ema ic
Li e a u e Re iew
Ma chmaking
Communi y Building
Ma chmaking
Communi y Building
Ensu e da a quali y
& in eg i y
Da a agg ega ion
Da a Se ices
Da a Quali y
Da a Ve i ica ion
(Pe sonal) Da a
Managemen
Da a S o age
Da a P ocessing
Da a & Se ice
Ca alog
Da a A ailabili y
Da a Sou ce
Da a S anda diza ion
Da a Quali y
Da a Ve i ica ion
(Pe sonal) Da a
Managemen
Da a S o age
Da a P ocessing
Da a & Se ice
Ca alog
Da a A ailabili y
Da a Sou ce
Da a S anda diza ion
Da a Quali y
Da a Ve i ica ion
(Pe sonal) Da a
Managemen
Da a S o age
Da a P ocessing
Da a & Se ice
Ca alog
Da a A ailabili y
Da a Sou ce
Da a S anda diza ion
De ini ion o legal
ag eemen s
Obse ing & audi ing
legal compliance
Moni o in e ac ions
Go e nance Se ices
De ini ion o legal
ag eemen s
Compliance
Moni o ing
Enable Go e nance
De ini ion o legal
ag eemen s
Compliance
Moni o ing
Enable Go e nance
De ini ion o legal
ag eemen s
Compliance
Moni o ing
Enable Go e nance
S anda diza ion
P o ide a da a
in as uc u e
Technology
Se ices
S anda diza ion
Usabili y
In as uc u e
S anda diza ion
Usabili y
In as uc u e
S anda diza ion
Usabili y
In as uc u e
Ensu e da a
so e eign y
Anonymizing &
pseudonymizing da a Anonymiza ion
Ce i ica ion
So e eign y Se ices
Ce i ica ion
Secu i y
P i acy
Enc yp ion
Da a access con ol
Da a Con ol
Consen Managemen
Access Managemen
Iden i y Managemen
Ve i ica ion
Anonymiza ion
Secu i y
P i acy
Enc yp ion
Pseudonomiza ion
Da a Con ol
Consen Managemen
Access Managemen
Iden i y Managemen
Ve i ica ion
UsagePolicies
Ce i ica ion
Anonymiza ion
Secu i y
P i acy
Enc yp ion
Pseudonomiza ion
Da a Con ol
Consen Managemen
Access Managemen
Iden i y Managemen
Ve i ica ion
UsagePolicies
Sum15273030
Legend: New Dimensions/Se ice Cha ac e is ics
Public Da a Analysis Public Da a AnalysisPublic Da a Analysis
Suppo &
Knowledge
Suppo &
Knowledge
Suppo &
Knowledge
Fig. 4 Taxonomy design i e a ions
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:48 Page 15 o 26 48
e icien (Findy, 2024). Ano he o m o iden i y manage-
men is he egis a ion o all use s who wan o pa icipa e,
as is he case wi h he Mobili y Da a Space (2024) o Sma
Connec ed Supplie Ne wo k (2024). DIs such as Comuny
(2024) equi e e i ica ion o pe sonal de ails such as e-mail
add ess, age, o biome ic ac s.
In addi ion o enabling iden i y managemen , he six h
pa e n includes o he se ices: p o iding he in as uc u e,
es ablishing he necessa y s anda ds o da a exchange, egu-
la ing access o he da a, ensu ing go e nance and consen
managemen , and b inging oge he a ious s akeholde s.
Fo ins ance, sha ed s anda ds acili a e he da a exchange
be ween di e en ac o s, and he ask o he in e media y is
o p o ide he necessa y s anda ds (Dalmolen e al., 2019).
The Sma Connec ed Supplie Ne wo k (2024) (sho ,
SCSN) o e s a message s anda d ha all se ice p o ide s
in he SCSN ne wo k mus use.
Pa e n 7: Enable ansac ion
The se en h pa e n deals wi h he implemen a ion o ans-
ac ion se ices in da a sha ing o connec he igh playe s so
ha da a-sha ing ac i i ies can be ca ied ou . The cha ac e -
izing se ices o he pa e n a e:
• Communi y building
• Ma chmaking
DIs suppo da a p o ide s and da a consume s in build-
ing hei ne wo ks o da a sha ing as he building p ocess
o da a ecosys ems o da a spaces. Pe scheid e al., (2020,
p.1) decla e he coo dina ion unc ion o an in e media y o
build use ul ne wo ks o da a-sha ing ac i i ies, and Aga-
ha i e al., (2021, p.9) iden i y one se ice o a DI as he
ma chmaking se ice ha b ings da a p o ide s and da a
consume s oge he . This includes no only he ma chmak-
ing o demand and supply bu also o da a p o ide s and
da a consume s o di e en ma ke s (Agaha i e al., 2021;
Demchenko e al., 2019; Huang e al., 2021; Sch eieck e al.,
2016). S a up Commons (2024) suppo s he o ma ion o
ecosys ems by p o iding knowledge and enabling a global
exchange be ween di e en playe s who sha e hei knowl-
edge. Pe sonium (2020) o e s an in as uc u e ha ena-
bles secu e da a exchange be ween da a s o age de ices and
connec s hem. This allows da a sha ing be ween di e en
g oups o indi iduals and he connec ion o s akeholde s
wi h simila hema ic conce ns, such as doc o s and nu s-
ing s a o eache s, u o s, and s uden s. DIs a e no only
ma ching ac o s who al eady know each o he , hey also
ma ch p e iously unknown pa ies. In addi ion o pe sonal
con ac wi h expe s, BDT (2024) o e s echnical ools such
as cha bo s o gi e s akeholde s access o knowledge a any
ime.
Pa e n 8: Enabling da a sha ing
Pa e n 8 ocuses on he enabling o da a sha ing and es ab-
lishing o da a-sha ing p ocesses. The cha ac e izing se -
ices o he pa e n a e:
• Compliance
• Usabili y
• Usage policies
• Da a quali y
Enabling da a sha ing can be echnical-d i en, like he
p o ision o in as uc u e o connec o s, bu also he gen-
e al suppo in he es ablishmen p ocess. I includes ensu -
ing ha he se ices a e complian wi h applicable egula-
ions, ha access and consen managemen a e egula ed,
ha usage policies o da a a e es ablished, and ha con ol
and secu i y o e he da a a e gua an eed. DIs o his pa -
e n suppo he de elopmen o ecosys ems o he es ablish-
men o ne wo ks o da a sha ing and da a se ices such as
da a p ocessing o da a quali y se ices. DIs like Agda ahub
(2024), Ca ena-X (2024), o so i y (2024) a e pa o he
eigh h pa e n.
To ensu e ha he se ice is adap ed o he condi ions
o he espec i e use , DIs o e usabili y se ices. This
means ha he se ice is no igid and ixed bu ha adjus -
men s can be made, such as scalabili y (e.g., so i y (2024)
o S eam (2024)), in e ope abili y (e.g., so i y (2024) o
Ca ena-X (2024)), o ailo -made solu ions (e.g., Numbe s
(2024) o so i y (2024)). Numbe s (2024) gi es so wa e
de elope s he oppo uni y o build new applica ions o
hei speci ic use. Usage policies de ine in which o m and
unde which condi ions he sha ed da a can be used. These
a e ime condi ions, he numbe o downloads, o he num-
be o use s. Depending on he DIS, he usage policies a e
de ined by he da a p o ide o by he DI i sel . Wi h DIs like
so i y (2024) o Agda ahub (2024), use s o he se ice can
de ine hei da a usage condi ions.
Compliance wi h he applicable laws, such as he Gene al
Da a P o ec ion Regula ion (sho , GDPR) (Eu opean Com-
mission, 2016) o he Da a Go e nance Ac (Eu opean Com-
mission, 2020), is one o he cen al aspec s o sha ing da a.
MyDa aSha e (2023) o OCKTO (2022) ensu e ha hei
cus ome s a e complian wi h he applicable laws. Use s o
My ai da a (2020) send GDPR eques s, and onecub (2024)
gua an ees compliance by wa an ing ha he en i e in a-
s uc u e is aligned wi h he GDPR. I is no only he GDPR
o Da a Go e nance Ac ha is obse ed by DIs.
When ecei ing ex e nal da a, he e a e o en conce ns
ega ding he da a quali y. This is highligh ed by Dem-
chenko e al. (2019) ha he da a mus be o app op ia e
quali y, and Huang e al. (2021) emphasize ha da a qual-
i y inc eases he mo i a ion o pa icipa e in da a sha ing.
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 16 o 26
In p ac ice, we ind a ious o ms o da a quali y se ices
ha a e ela ed o da a e i ica ion. The da a o he Ge man
Cen e o Cance Regis y Da a (2013) is checked o com-
ple eness and plausibili y. O he DIs indica e whe e hei
da a comes om o be anspa en and allow use s o decide
whe he o no hey conside he da a quali y o be app o-
p ia e based on i s o igin (CDQ, 2024; Gebäudeda en.ch,
2024). This anspa ency on da a quali y can be isualized
in he o m o a dashboa d (DATA SENTINEL, 2024).
Demons a ion ande alua ion
Following he me hod o Kundisch e al. (2021), e alua ing
and demons a ing ha he axonomy wo ks a e he penul-
ima e s eps o epo ing he axonomy. In pa icula , we
aim o e alua e he use ulness o he axonomy, bo h o
p esen ing se ice con igu a ions accu a ely as well as o
suppo inno a ion (see Kundisch e al., 2021; Szopinski
e al., 2019). To con igu e he e alua ion, we d ew om
Szopinski e al. (2019) and eached ou o he CEO o a
company in ou sample — so i y — o whom we had access.
So i y is a F aunho e spin-o wi h expe ise in he ield o
so e eign da a sha ing h ough building da a spaces (so -
i y, 2024). They a e in ol ed in he de elopmen o da a
space s anda ds, and hei ision is “ o empowe e o less
and sa e connec ion, collabo a ion, and inno a ion based on
da a o e e yone” (so i y, 2024). The co e o e ing o so i y
is connec ing cus ome s o exis ing da a spaces and build-
ing hei da a space ins ances. This encompasses he p o i-
sion o expe knowledge, easy- o-implemen , s anda dized,
ce i ied solu ions, and so wa e p oduc s o da a spaces.
The alue-gene a ing pa ne ship and cus ome ne wo k
comp ises no only indus ial companies such as BMW and
Volkswagen bu also ini ia i es such as he Mobili y Da a
Space and esea ch ins i u es, including he Ge man Ae o-
space Cen e (Ge man, Deu sches Zen um ü Lu - und
Raum ah ; sho , DLR).
This enabled us o acqui e an ou side iew o he axon-
omy and pa e ns om p ac ice. We p epa ed a digi al wo k-
shop in Mi o and asked he expe o apply he axonomy in
wo ways. Fi s (1), o map so i y using he axonomy ( he
abili y o he axonomy o ep esen DISs), and second (2),
o use he axonomy o iden i y po en ial se ice ex ensions
( he abili y o he axonomy o suppo inno a ion). Wo k-
shops a e a sui able me hod o gaining new insigh s o e al-
ua ing exis ing ones (Tho ing e al., 2020). Due o i s expe
knowledge and know-how o he echnical implemen a-
ion o da a sha ing, so i y is a ypical ep esen a i e o he
“Enable Da a Sha ing” pa e n. The wo kshop consis ed o
ou speci ic asks ha we e discussed oge he . Some pa s
needed o be ac i ely comple ed, while o he pa s only had
o be e alua ed and commen ed on. Fi s (1), we ca ego ized
so i y in ou axonomy. The se ices ma ked (in Table6) in
da k g ay a e e y applicable, and he se ices ma ked in
ligh g ay a e sligh ly applicable. Th ough his classi ica-
ion, we ecognized ha no all se ices necessa ily ha e
o be highly p esen . In he second s ep (2), we checked
whe he so i y could be ound in he in ended pa e n. He e,
we desc ibe an elemen o he pa e n as an example and
hen show how so i y implemen s i . The in o ma ion was
aken om he so i y websi e.2As pa o he e alua ion,
we ocused on he aspec o p o iding in as uc u e wi h
addi ional ools, such as iden i y and consen managemen .
So i y (2024) implemen s his h ough a connec o ha uses
au hen ica ion mechanisms. In discussions wi h ou wo k-
shop pa ne , we iden i y a ma ch wi h he eigh h pa e n. To
con i m his ag eemen mo e p ecisely, in a hi d s ep (3),
we de i ed 16 goals om he publicly a ailable da a on he
so i y websi e and compa ed hem wi h he ypical cha ac-
e is ics o he pa e n. Du ing he wo kshop, we e iewed
ou classi ica ion oge he wi h so i y. Ten ma ches wi h he
cha ac e is ics o he eigh h pa e n we e iden i ied.
In he ou h and inal pa o he wo kshop (4), we
de i ed ideas o expanding he se ice con igu a ion based
on he unadd essed goals ha we iden i ied in he hi d
s ep. We we e able o ecei e wo po en ial ex ensions in
he wo kshop. Fi s ly, an ex ension o da a quali y o da a
e i ica ion could be an essen ial op ion. As he da a o -
ma should be he same when exchanging da a, a se ice
should be implemen ed on he p o ide side ha akes ca e
o he con o mi y o he da a. Da a p ocessing is playing
an inc easingly impo an ole, especially in ela ion o he
implemen a ion o a ious use cases, as is he case wi h so -
i y. Table6 shows he esul s o ou e alua ion wi h so i y
inspi ed by Schöbel e al. (2020).
We de i ed h ee key lea nings om he wo kshop in
e ms o con en . Fi s (1), de ini ions and explana ions o
he se ices mus be p o ided in addi ion o he pu e e -
minology o a oid misunde s andings. Fo his eason, we
c ea ed a glossa y ollowing he wo kshop ha explains all
se ices b ie ly (see Appendix 3). Second (2), se ices can
be o e ed in a ious o ms wi hin he company. Thi d (3),
insigh s in o se ice con igu a ions can be gained based on
ou pa e ns.
Discussion
Du ing ou analysis and ex ac ion o he pa e ns, we
accumula ed knowledge abou DISs, which we will discuss
below. Fi s (1), he DGA egula es DISs in he EU, and
o ganiza ions need o iden i y and ca ego ize hei impo -
ance and ele ance in ela ion o hei se ices. While he
2 Websi e o so i y, h ps:// so i y. de/ en/ conne c - o- da a- space- en/
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:48 Page 17 o 26 48
Table 6 The case o so i y: analyzing con o mi y wi h DIS pa e ns
Unde s anding
design
cha ac e is ics
:
so i y’s
classi ica ion
in he
axonomy
(1)
Ve i ica ion o
he so i yand
pa e n 8
con o mi y
(2)
Ma ching goals
Goals o so i y( aken om he so i y websi e)
Goals o
in e media ion
se ices
(3)
Op ion 2: Da a P ocessing
Da a p ocessing is essen ial, especially ega ding
he implemen a ion o da a sha ing in a ious use
cases. The p ocessing o da a, especially he
isualiza ion, can be a bene icial ex ension o he
exis ing business model.
Op ion 1: Da a Quali y (Da a Ve i ica ion)
Da a quali y is an impo an pa o da a sha ing.
One op ion o expanding he business model
based on he pa e n could be o ocus on da a
quali y h ough da a e i ica ion. The same da a
o ma is essen ial and should be implemen ed
on he p o ide side wi h he suppo o a DI.
Business
model
imp o emen
op ions
(4)
Cha ac e is ics
Dimension
Communi y BuildingMa chmaking
T ansac ion
Se ice
De ine legal ag eemen sEnable Go e nanceComplianceMoni o ing
Go e nance
Se ice
Secu i y
Ve i ica ion
Iden i y
Managemen
Access Managemen
Consen
Managemen
Da a
Con ol
So e eign y
Se ices
Ce i ica ion
Usage PoliciesEnc yp ion
Pseudonymiza ionAnonymiza ion
P i acy
S anda diza ionUsabili yIn as uc u e
Technology
Se ices
Da a P ocessing
(Analysis/
Visualiza ion/
Agg ega ion/
Repo ing)
Da a S o age
(Pe sonal) Da a
Managemen
Da a
Ve i ica ion
Da a Quali y
Da a Se ices
Da a S anda diza ion
Da a Sou ce (P o ision/
Gene a ion)
Da a
A ailabili y
Da a & Se ice
Ca alog
Suppo / Knowledge
Enabling
Da a
Sha ing
P o iding a
Da a Sha ing
In as uc u e
wi h all he
necessa y Tools
like Iden i y
Managemen &
Consen
Managemen
“The Connec o ac s as secu e API ga eway o da a
sou ces. You connec a ious IT sys ems o
da abases o he Connec o wi h au hen ica ion
mechanisms and de ine access and usage condi ions
o sha e da a. Di e en o ma s a e no longe an
obs acle since au oma ically con e ed, his enables
s anda dized communica ion. You da a o e ings,
which a e published in a ca alog, au oma ically
become legally binding echnical con ac s wi h
consume s in he Da a Space accep ing you e ms
o use.”
Pa e n 8
Desc ip ion o an
aspec o he pa e n Desc ip ion o he implemen a ion o so i y
Goals o so i y#
Technology alida ed in he indus y1
Expe knowledge2
Conse ing esou ces and educing cos s3
Added alue h ough secu e da a exchange4
Plug-and-play wi hou p og amming5
Scalable solu ion6
Da a emains wi h he da a owne 7
In eg a ion in o he connec o 8
So e eign and secu e da a ans e h ough
s anda dized communica ion p o ocols
9
Es ablishmen o e ms o use10
De elopmen o a da a con ac 11
O e ing a da a ca alog12
O e ing a dashboa d o an o e iew o he
da a used
13
Moni o ing da a ans e and capaci ies14
Wiza d o da a o e s15
In o ma ion on he da a connec ion16
Yes/NoSe ice
Compliance
Iden i y Managemen
Usage Policies
Usabili y
Da a P ocessing
Communi y Building
Da a Con ol
Consen Managemen
Secu i y
Da a Quali y
In as uc u e
Suppo / Knowledge
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 18 o 26
pa e ns a e no speci ically ailo ed o he DGA, he de
ac o eali y o i s exis ence places ou pa e ns as s a ing
poin s o discussions in o ganiza ions. Second (2), some
combina ions o se ices occu mo e equen ly han o h-
e s — bo h in hei dis ibu ion in he sample and in he
spec um o se ices each pa e n co e s. Thi d (3), he e
a e di e en concen a ions o companies in he clus e s.
Some clus e s a e mo e s ongly ep esen ed, while o he
clus e s ha e ewe companies. Fou h (4), ou esea ch
has esul ed in a se o indings ha ha e an impac on
cu en esea ch on da a ecosys ems and he da a economy.
Da a in e media ion se ices and heDGA
Ou esea ch p o ides an o e iew o po en ial DISs
g ounded in he li e a u e co pus and he examina ion
o eal-wo ld cases. While we canno answe which DIS
alls unde he DGA, o ganiza ions should e lec on he
se ices hey o e and assess whe he hey all unde he
DGA o p e en po en ial sanc ions i hey do no comply,
e en unknowingly. Gi en ha his pape does no p o ide
legal consul ancy o expe ise, we lea e i o he p ac i-
ione s o d aw om ou amewo k and in es iga e hei
compliance wi h he DGA. Ins ead, we would like o show
ha he e is a ange o di e en se ices ha could all
unde he DGA due o he b oad de ini ion o DISs. This
includes no only he se ices o e ed by la ge co po a ions
bu also smalle companies. I co e ed by he DGA, he
DI mus ollow speci ic c i e ia in i s ac i i ies (Eu opean
Commission, 2023):
• No mone a iza ion o he da a
• Ensu e neu ali y
• A oid con lic s o in e es
• S uc u al sepa a ion be ween he da a in e media ion
se ice and o he se ices p o ided
• No dependence be ween comme cial e ms (incl. p ic-
ing) o he p o ision o usage o o he se ices
• Usage o da a and me ada a acqui ed only o imp o e
he da a in e media ion se ices
Ou analysis shows i depends on he o he unde lying
condi ions unde which he se ices a e p o ided. Se ices
ha di ec ly a ec he da a, e.g., p o ision o u he p o-
cessing o he da a, such as de-iden i ica ion o analysis
o he da a, a e mo e a ec ed by he DGA han gene al
so e eign y se ices o se ices ha a ec he ne wo k.
He e, companies mus p ecisely de ine he ex en o which
hey will con inue o use he p o ided da a and ensu e
ha his da a is no subsequen ly mone ized. In gene al,
a clea sepa a ion mus be c ea ed be ween DIS and he
company’s o he ac i i ies. Aspec s o he DGA, such as
a oiding con lic s o in e es and main aining neu ali y,
a e no ela ed o he se ices o e ed bu a e he esponsi-
bili y o he company o e ing hem. Fo companies, his
means ha hey mus be awa e o he es ic ions o he
DGA and adap hei se ices o he new ci cums ances.
Ano he majo ques ion ha a ises is how o implemen
he DGA in p ac ice. The equi emen o companies o be
ce i ied means ha lean p ocesses mus be c ea ed ha
make i easy o unde s and how o become a ce i ied DI.
Since he DGA en y in o o ce in Sep embe 2023, only
wo DIs ha e been ce i ied o da e (May 2024) (Eu opean
Commission, 2024b).
This means ha exis ing se ice o e ings mus be
checked o con o mi y, bu also ha he po en ial o new
se ice oppo uni ies mus be ecognized. The numbe o
DIs egis e ed wi h he EU ose om wo o eigh be ween
May and June (Eu opean Commission, 2024b). Rela i ely
speaking, his numbe seems small a i s and aises he
ques ion as o why so ew companies a e cu en ly egis-
e ed. Is i due o conce ns abou o e ly s ic moni o ing
by he EU, o do companies no ye ecognize hemsel es
as DIs ha all unde he DGA? Is he e a lack o guidelines
o suppo companies in he p ocess? The EU is now also
calling on companies o comply wi h he DGA (Eu opean
Commission, 2024a). This is consis en wi h he ac ha
ela i ely ew companies ha e been egis e ed as DIs o da e.
Dis ibu ion o hepa e ns
The pa e ns di e in he composi ion o he se ices and
in he in ensi y o how he se ices a e ep esen ed wi hin
he clus e . The e a e se ice clus e s ha ocus on o e -
ing a small selec ion o se ices, such as he p o ision o
in as uc u e (see Fig.7 in blue), and se ice pa e ns ha
p o ide a wide ange o di e en se ices (see Fig.7E o !
Re e ence sou ce no ound. in g een). We show ha he e
is a b oad spec um o se ice dis ibu ions and ha a ian s
o specializa ion o a gene al se ice o e ing a e possible.
We isualize hese wo pa e ns o c ea e awa eness o he
dis inc cha ac e is ics o he pa e ns and he spec um in
be ween. Pa e n 3 has he lowes numbe o ypical se ices,
and pa e n 5 has he mos se ices (based on ou analysis,
see Fig.5). Pa e n 3 ep esen s a DI ha p o ides he in a-
s uc u e equi ed o da a sha ing. This essen ially includes
he echnical p o ision o he in as uc u e componen s, as
well as he egula ion o who can access he in as uc u e
and whe he i is complian wi h he applicable egula ions.
Pa e n 5 o e s a wide a ie y o se ices. We decided o
compa e hese wo pa e ns since hey exposi he mos sig-
ni ican di e ences in hei design (see Fig.7). All isual-
ized pa e ns a e in he appendix (see Appendix 6).
Compa ing he se ice pa e ns esul s in a ca ego iza-
ion based on hei design. Fo his, we so ed he pa e ns
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:48 Page 19 o 26 48
acco ding o he densi y o se ices and hema ic ocus. Fo
he la e , we di e en ia ed be ween da a-as-a-se ice and
enabling-da a-sha ing-as-a-se ice. In es iga ing he dis-
ibu ion esul ed in a wo-by- wo ma ix (see Fig.8). The
dis inc ion o he pa e ns in he isualiza ion is a quali a i e
sepa a ion o isualiza ion pu poses ha is no based on
a de e mina e scale. The aim is o isualize how close he
pa e ns a e in ela ion o hei nea es neighbo s, i.e., simi-
la pa e ns, and how hey con as in di e ence wi h hose
“ u he away.” Pa e ns 3, 6, and 7 p ima ily concen a e
on p o iding echnology componen s (e.g., in as uc u e o
iden i y managemen ) and he de elopmen o o e a ching
da a-sha ing ne wo ks. Typically, o he da a- ela ed se ices
a e no in ol ed. Pa e ns 1, 2, 4, and 5 emphasize he p o i-
sion o da a ca alogs and o he da a- ela ed se ices, such
as (pe sonal) da a managemen se ices and da a p ocess-
ing. Since in as uc u e and suppo se ices a e manda-
o y o DIs (see abo e), hey a e also included in hei se -
ice con igu a ion. Pa e n 8, in his ca ego iza ion, is he
“ou lie ” as i is posi ioned be ween he clus e s explained
abo e. Subsequen ly, o ganiza ions in his clus e p ima -
ily o e da a sha ing enabling p ocesses and indi idual
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Ma chmaking
Communi y Building
Moni o ing
Compliance
Enable Go e nance
De ini ion o legal ag eemen s
Da a Con ol
Consen Managemen
Access Managemen
Iden i y Managemen
Ve i ica ion
Secu i y
P i acy
Anonymiza ion
Pseudonomyza ion
Enc yp ionUsage Policies
Ce i ica ion
In as uc u e
Usabili y
S anda disa ion
Da a Quali y
Da a Ve i ica ion
(Pe sonal) Da a Managemen
Da a S o age
Da a P ocessing
Da a & Se ice Ca alog
Da a A ailabili y
Da a Sou ce
Da a S anda diza ion
35
Fig. 7 Visualiza ion and compa ison o pa e ns 3 and 5
Fig. 8 Compa ison o he pa -
e n
Limi ed numbe
o se ices
La ge numbe o
se ices
Pa e n 1
Pa e n 2
Pa e n 3
Pa e n 4 Pa e n 5
Pa e n 6
Pa e n 7
Pa e n 8
Focus on da a
Focus on enabling
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 20 o 26
da a- ela ed se ices such as da a quali y and da a p ocess-
ing as complemen s.
Gi en his dis ibu ion, we p opose a ew easons o
explain his dis ibu ion. Based on ou sample and obse a-
ions, we ind ha , po en ially:
• As specialis s, he companies ocus on a speci ic se ice
o speci ic se ice combina ions (e.g., Gebäudeda en.ch
(2024) and DIABETES.SERVICES (2024) om pa e n
3).
• S a ups o pionee s ini ially s a wi h a small ange o
se ices and only g adually plan o expand hei ange o
se ices (e.g., so i y (2024) and Ca ena-X (2024) om
pa e n 8).
• Es ablished companies al eady o e a wide ange o
se ices (e.g., CDQ (2024) and Bundesd ucke ei GmbH
(2024) om pa e n 5).
Gi en he apid de elopmen o DIs and he e ol ing
landscape, he classi ica ion should no be s a ic. Ou e alu-
a ion wi h so i y has shown ha he company, which was
ounded as a s a -up, is s ill ac i ely wo king on cons an ly
expanding i s ange o se ices. This is no an isola ed case.
Pionee s like Ca ena-X’s ligh house p ojec s a e cons an ly
being de eloped and expanded.
Specimen ineach clus e
The numbe o companies a ies signi ican ly be ween
he pa e ns. Some pa e ns a e smalle wi h less han en
companies, and o he pa e ns a e la ge wi h mo e han en
companies. Figu e9 shows he dis ibu ion o he companies
in he pa e ns. The median a e age numbe o companies
in he clus e s is 10.75. Pa e ns 3, 5, and 6 a e abo e he
median, and pa e ns 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8 ha e ewe companies
han he median. While he numbe o se ices was p e i-
ously clea ly indica ed by wo hema ic ocuses (da a-d i en
and enabling-d i en), no hema ic eason is ini ially appa en
he e. A close analysis o he se ice pa e ns shows ha
pa e ns 3 and 6 end o o e speci ic bu equen ly equi ed
se ices. These include iden i y se ices and he p o ision
o in as uc u e. These se ices a e o en equi ed o da a-
sha ing p ocesses. Pa e ns 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8 end o ha e
mo e speci ic se ice combina ions. This explains he lowe
numbe o companies wi hin he pa e ns, as specializa ion
quickly excludes o he pa e ns.
DISs, da a ecosys ems, and heda a economy
in heEU
Exis ing esea ch on da a ecosys ems spu ed a ich li e -
a u e on he ounda ional iangle o da a p o ide s, da a
consume s, and da a in e media ies (Oli ei a & Lóscio,
2018). Some esea ch has p o ided in-dep h con ex ualiza-
ion wi h a speci ic ype o da a in as uc u e, such as da a
spaces (e.g., O o & Ja ke, 2019) o da a ma ke places (e.g.,
Be gman e al., 2022). Ou wo k con inues and complemen s
his esea ch and ocuses on he se ices o e ed by he DI.
We show ha he e is cu en ly a wide ange o possible se -
ices ha DIs can o e which p o ides an o e iew o how
he ma ke is cu en ly posi ioned wi h DIs. This also allows
conclusions o be d awn abou he iden i ica ion o po en ial
gaps and how exis ing business models can be expanded o
co e he wides possible ange o needs. In u he esea ch,
hese pa e ns can be mi o ed agains he legal si ua ion in
o de o check whe he he exis ing DIs and DISs also play
he ole ha hey should ideally play in he da a economy
in he sense o he EU. Due o a la ge numbe o po en ial
se ices and i s unique posi ion in he ecosys em as a media-
o , “da a in e media ion se ices a e expec ed o play a key
ole in he da a economy” (Eu opean Commission 2022, L
152/10) as ( egula ed) digi al pla o ms specialized in da a
sha ing. This is especially ele an agains he backg ound o
he con inuously de eloping da a economy. DIs (as in ended
by he DGA) a e poised o p o ide neu al and us ed da a
in e media ion se ices ha enable mo e (po en ial) da a
consume s access o da a (Ca o ano & Finck, 2023). Sub-
sequen ly, DIs hold a c i ical posi ion a he hea o he
da a economy, as hey could accele a e and acili a e he
access and ( e-)use o i s ounda ional esou ce — da a (e.g.,
Micheli e al., 2020). Resul ing, ou wo k suppo s o ganiza-
ions in managing he “hype” a ound DIs, which ine i ably
will mean ha ge ing accus omed o DISs and DIs is no
op ional bu manda o y. Pa icipa ing o alue and consid-
e ing legal compliance wi h he DGA makes i essen ial o
companies o conside i hey could all unde he DGA. Fo
ins ance, some o he mos p ominen ba ie s o engaging in
Pa e n 1
7%
Pa e n 2
11%
Pa e n 3
13%
Pa e n 4
10%
Pa e n 5
29%
Pa e n 6
17%
Pa e n 7
6%
Pa e n 8
7%
Fig. 9 Compa ison o he coun o he companies in he pa e ns
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:48 Page 21 o 26 48
da a sha ing a e us and echnology (e.g., Ebel e al., 2021).
Bo h could be media ed o a leas lessened when choosing
he igh DI p o iding i ing DISs.
Con ibu ions, limi a ions, andou look
The pape has mul iple con ibu ions. Fo he li e a u e on
da a ecosys ems (e.g., Oli ei a & Lóscio, 2018), we con ib-
u e an o e iew o a speci ic ole in da a ecosys ems — he
da a in e media y — and p o ide an abs ac ed, idealized
ype ha subsumes all ele an se ices based on ou analy-
sis. The unde lying con ibu ion is he sha ed unde s anding
o wha is possible o DIs and he mo e de ailed conside a-
ion o DISs. The dual na u e summa izes and de ails ou
unde s anding o da a in e media ies simul aneously. While
p io esea ch ou lined di e en ypes o da a in e media ies
(e.g., Di u h & Lienemann, 2022; Jussen e al., 2024a), ou
wo k ex ends his by p oposing a comp ehensi e se o DISs
ha a e decoupled om speci ic DI ins ances. The e m DI
has been used in many ways in he li e a u e o da e. The
p esen ed de ini ions show ha DIs a e ele an o a wide
a ie y o s akeholde g oups. We o e a specialized iew
o he possible se ices o DIs ha can bene i all in e es ed
s akeholde s, ega dless o he indus y. DIS is s ill a e y
new opic in he IS domain. The e a e al eady some ini ial
pape s ha look in o DIs, bu o en wi h a s ong ocus on
legal issues (e.g., Ca o ano & Finck, 2023; Vogel, 2022; o
Rich e , 2023).
Ou e alua ion wi h so i y indica es con ibu ions o
manage s. We p o ide an assessmen ool o DIs and
DISs, gi ing hem he oppo uni y o add o hei business
model o iden i y ex ensions o exis ing se ices. We o e
ini ial app oaches ha show he ex en o which da a p o-
ide s and da a consume s bene i om DIs. Fo example,
ini ial bounda ies can be o e come by compensa ing o he
lack o know-how among he playe s in DIs and hus ena-
bling secu e da a sha ing. Signi ican ly, he DGA se s he
equi emen s o DIs and o ces o ganiza ions o deal wi h
hese egula ions, especially conside ing he b oad de ini-
ion i p oposes. While ou pape na u ally does no gi e
legal ad ice, i can help assess manage s whe he hey migh
all unde he DGA and subsequen ly ha e o ul ill a hos
o equi emen s. In pa icula , we p o ide a mo e de ailed
iew o speci ic se ices (e.g., echnology) and subsequen ly
make his assessmen possible.
Fo policymake s, we o e insigh s in o p ac ice and
esea ch. This can help gain an unde s anding o how DIS
p ac ice is cu en ly s uc u ed and iden i y possible gaps
whe e companies need suppo wi h implemen a ion. We
o e a s a ing poin ha policymake s can use o suppo
companies (e.g., new esea ch p ojec s o wo kshops). Ou
a che ypes help policymake s o unde s and wha is pos-
sible in p ac ice and wi h which unc ions. Based on hese
indings, egula ions can be adap ed o aligned, o exam-
ple, pa icula ly ega ding he possibili y o companies being
ce i ied as DIs by he EU.
Ou esea ch has se e al limi a ions. The axonomy is
based on a sys ema ic e iew o he academic li e a u e and
a sample o DISs (i.e., companies). While we aimed o ol-
low sys ema ic p ocedu es and le e aged he eam o au ho s
o mi iga e issues o in e p e a ion and da a selec ion, some
limi a ions na u ally emain. Fo one, we aimed o collec
a comp ehensi e sample o he li e a u e explo ing DISs,
bu we canno gua an ee ha we ha e o e looked indi idual
a icles. Addi ionally, we d ew he li e a u e om s anda d
da a bases in IS esea ch (see he esea ch design), which
could be ex ended by using addi ional da a bases and com-
plemen a y sea ch e ms. Ou sample o companies can only
co e a subsec ion o he o al (po en ial) DIs on he ma ke .
Subsequen ly, we had o “make a cu ” a some poin and
iden i y a sui able sample o ou esea ch, which we had o
assess based on ou (i.e., he eam o au ho s) unde s anding
o wha a DIS is. To ensu e he mos neu al analysis pos-
sible, we conduc ed he li e a u e e iew wi h wo au ho s
and discussed he esul s wi h a eam o h ee au ho s. Due
o he g owing in e es in DIs, we expec a sha p inc ease in
he amoun o ele an li e a u e and DIs on he ma ke . To
sum i up, ou esea ch only shows a snapsho o ime a a
poin in which he DI concep is eme ging (e.g., due o he
DGA). Building on ou indings wi h a simila s udy in he
nea u u e could p o ide a aluable upda e. Two au ho s
ca ied ou he analysis o he companies, and he esul s
we e discussed and de e mined by a eam o all au ho s. The
same applies o he clus e analysis. Fu he mo e, we a e no
expe s in legal ma e s and canno make any legally binding
s a emen s abou he ex en o which he se ices we men-
ioned a e in luenced by he DGA, which is s ill possible. In
he u u e, we need in e disciplina y esea ch con ibu ions
om legal expe s o be able o make legally binding s a e-
men s abou he o e ed se ices.
Ou esea ch o e s some s a ing poin s o u he
esea ch. The da abase can be expanded o include mo e
in-dep h insigh s h ough wo kshops o in e iews wi h
expe s om esea ch and p ac ice, enabling a mo e con-
c e e and de ailed desc ip ion o he indi idual se ices.
Fu u e esea ch con ibu ions should ocus on he design o
he necessa y business models o DIs. Now, ou esea ch
only ep esen s a pa o a DI business model. Fu he
esea ch could, e.g., ocus on he mone iza ion o se ices.
Ul ima ely, i is he ask o an in e media y o o e come ba -
ie s o da a sha ing (see Jussen e al., 2023b). To achie e
his goal, i is he ask o he esea ch communi y o iden i y
he necessa y mechanisms and make hem usable o he
indus y.
Elec onic Ma ke s (2024) 34:4848 Page 22 o 26
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen-
a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s12525- 024- 00729-9.
Acknowledgmen This esea ch and de elopmen p ojec is unded
by he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch (BMBF)
wi hin he Incen i es and Economics o Da a Sha ing Funding Ac ion
(IEDS004). The au ho is esponsible o he con en o his publica ion.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek
DEAL.
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