Ma, Wei; Liu, Zhaolei; Gao, Yuning
A icle
The ole o ai pollu ion in shaping u ban cul u al
consump ion: An empi ical in es iga ion o PM10 and
mo ie consump ion in Chinese ci ies
Economies
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MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ma, Wei; Liu, Zhaolei; Gao, Yuning (2025) : The ole o ai pollu ion in shaping
u ban cul u al consump ion: An empi ical in es iga ion o PM10 and mo ie consump ion in Chinese
ci ies, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 13, Iss. 7, pp. 1-26,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13070198
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Academic Edi o : Geo ge Halkos
Recei ed: 10 Ap il 2025
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Published: 9 July 2025
Ci a ion: Ma, W., Liu, Z., & Gao, Y.
(2025). The Role o Ai Pollu ion in
Shaping U ban Cul u al Consump ion:
An Empi ical In es iga ion o PM10
and Mo ie Consump ion in Chinese
Ci ies. Economies,13(7), 198.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies13070198
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A icle
The Role o Ai Pollu ion in Shaping U ban Cul u al
Consump ion: An Empi ical In es iga ion o PM10 and Mo ie
Consump ion in Chinese Ci ies
Wei Ma 1, Zhaolei Liu 1and Yuning Gao 2,*
1School o Economics and Managemen , Xinjiang Uni e si y, U umqi 830046, China;
[email p o ec ed] (W.M.); [email p o ec ed] (Z.L.)
2School o Public Policy and Managemen , Tsinghua Uni e si y, Beijing 100084, China
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
This s udy in es iga es he nonlinea e ec s o ai pollu ion on u ban en e ainmen con-
sump ion by analyzing daily PM
10
le els and mo ie box o ice da a ac oss 334 Chinese
ci ies om 2012 o 2022, esul ing in a o al o 1,250,339 obse a ions. U ilizing a wo-way
ixed e ec s model and h eshold eg ession amewo k, we iden i y h ee key indings:
(1) ele a ed
PM
10
concen a ions signi ican ly educe mo ie a endance, wi h a 1-uni in-
c ease dec easing consump ion by 0.0797 uni s; (2) he inhibi o y e ec in ensi ies du ing
weekends and holidays, e lec ing heigh ened sensi i i y o pollu ion du ing leisu e pe iods;
(3) h eshold e ec s eme ge, whe e PM
10
exceeding 0.0229
µ
g/m
3
igge s a sha p decline
in a endance, while empe a u e mode a es his ela ionship, ampli ying pollu ion’s nega-
i e impac . By in eg a ing me eo ological, en i onmen al, and socioeconomic da ase s,
his esea ch e eals subs i u ion pa e ns be ween digi al and o line en e ainmen un-
de pollu ion s ess. The esul s unde sco e he necessi y o egion-speci ic pollu ion
mi iga ion s a egies, cinema in as uc u e upg ades, and dynamic p icing policies o
coun e ac en i onmen al dis up ions. These insigh s ad ance he in e disciplina y nexus
o en i onmen al economics and cul u al consump ion, o e ing ac ionable pa hways o
sus ainable u ban de elopmen .
Keywo ds: cul u al consump ion; clima e in e ac ion; h eshold model; u ban sus ainabili y
1. In oduc ion and Li e a u e Re iew
Inc easing globaliza ion and u baniza ion ha e esul ed in declining ai quali y, which
has become a majo global en i onmen al challenge. And ei e al. (2024) and Yan e al.
(2019) ound ha u ban ai pollu ion no only poses h ea s o ecosys ems and human
heal h bu also has a - eaching impac s on economic ac i i ies and social beha io .
The impac o ai quali y on human heal h is signi ican and mul i ace ed, encompass-
ing bo h acu e and ch onic condi ions. A mosphe ic pollu an s such as PM
2.5
, PM
10
, SO
2
,
NO
2
, CO, and O
3
ha e been linked o a ious heal h p oblems, including ca dio ascula
disease, espi a o y disease, s oke, and lung cance (Mannucci e al.,2015;Maung e al.,
2022;Zhong e al.,2019). Fo ins ance, Yang e al. (2020) ound ha PM
2.5
pollu ion is asso-
cia ed wi h abou 20% o lung cance cases, and long- e m exposu e o high concen a ions
o PM2.5 may educe li e expec ancy.
Beyond heal h e ec s, ai quali y also in luences people’s daily beha io . G. Zhang
e al. (2021) demons a ed ha indi iduals’ e o s o a oid ai pollu ion can cons ain hei
Economies 2025,13, 198 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13070198
Economies 2025,13, 198 2 o 26
consump ion and spending pa e ns. X. Lu e al. (2019) analyzed he ela ionship be ween
PM
2.5
pollu ion and heal h p oblems caused by u ban and u al esiden s’ consump ion in
China, e ealing an in insic associa ion be ween consump ion beha io s and ai pollu ion-
induced heal h issues.
Cul u al consump ion is ano he domain signi ican ly a ec ed by ai quali y. The o ga-
niza ion and pa icipa ion in cul u al e en s o en ely on a o able ai quali y condi ions.
Fo example, a eas wi h high le els o ai pollu ion. Fo example, Robaina e al. (2020)
ound ha Beijing has expe ienced subs an ial declines in cul u al ac i i y pa icipa ion
du ing peak pollu ion pe iods. Fu he mo e, esea ch has highligh ed he subs an ial
impac o ai quali y and clima e change on he mo ie indus y. Jin and Shen (2022) ound
ha clima e condi ions, pa icula ly hea wa es, can lead o educed mo ie a endance.
They also no ed ha ai quali y has a ying e ec s on di e en ypes o ilms. Fo example,
high-quali y o ac ion-o ien ed mo ies a e less suscep ible o empe a u e changes due o
hei unique iewing expe iences. X. He e al. (2022) analyzed mo ie a endance da a om
60 Chinese ci ies be ween 2012 and 2014, e ealing a nega i e co ela ion be ween pollu ion
le els and mo ie a endance. Xi e al. (2023), using high- equency mo ie a endance da a
om 49 majo Chinese ci ies be ween 2015 and 2017, ound ha ex eme empe a u es and
hea y ain all can educe mo ie a endance.
In addi ion o mo ie consump ion, ai pollu ion has been ound o in luence digi al
en e ainmen consump ion pa e ns. Fo example, Shu (2024) examined how in e ne
echnology, pa icula ly s eaming pla o ms, has expanded people’s en e ainmen op ions,
allowing hem o access mo ies and games on hei mobile de ices. This shi educes he
impac o en i onmen al ac o s such as ai quali y on o line mo ie consump ion. When
ai quali y is poo , consume s end o ul ill hei cul u al and en e ainmen needs h ough
i ual expe iences, which may inc ease he usage o s eaming pla o ms (Shu,2024).
In summa y, exis ing s udies ha e ho oughly documen ed he mul i ace ed pa h-
ways h ough which u ban ai pollu ion shapes human well-being and ma ke ou comes.
A he heal h ma gin, a obus body o wo k links PM
2.5
, PM
10
, SO
2
, NO
2
, CO, and O
3
exposu es o bo h acu e and ch onic condi ions— anging om ca dio ascula and es-
pi a o y diseases o s oke and lung cance (Mannucci e al.,2015;Maung e al.,2022;
Zhong e al.,2019
). A he beha io al ma gin, e idence shows ha indi iduals adjus con-
sump ion and leisu e pa e ns o a oid pollu ed en i onmen s, cons aining bo h o line
spending (
G. Zhang e al.,2021
;X. Lu e al.,2019) and pa icipa ion in cul u al e en s
(Robaina e al.,2020), while shi ing owa d digi al al e na i es such as s eaming pla o ms
(Shu,2024). In he en e ainmen sec o , s udies o China’s ilm indus y e eal ha pollu-
ion and wea he shocks exe he e ogeneous e ec s ac oss mo ie-a endance dis ibu ions
and ilm gen es (X. He e al.,2022;Xi e al.,2023;Jin & Shen,2022).
Despi e hese ad ances, h ee c i ical gaps emain. Fi s , mos analyses ocus on
a e age e ec s and o e look how pollu ion’s impac a ies ac oss ci ies wi h di e en
baseline box-o ice pe o mance. Second, causal iden i ica ion o en elies on long- e m
panel o c oss-sec ional a ia ion, lea ing sho - e m endogenei y unadd essed. Thi d, he
po en ial o nonlinea o h eshold esponses—beyond simple linea speci ica ions—has
no been sys ema ically explo ed in a high- equency, mul i-ci y con ex .
To add ess hese gaps, his s udy poses he ollowing esea ch ques ion: how does
ai pollu ion—speci ically PM
10
—a ec mo ie a endance, and does his e ec exhibi a
nonlinea h eshold? Addi ionally, how do empe a u e and he a ailabili y o digi al
s eaming pla o ms (e.g., Ne lix) mode a e o subs i u e o o line mo ie consump ion
unde a ying pollu ion condi ions?
This s udy makes ou key con ibu ions. Fi s , by applying h eshold eg ession
o a high- equency panel o 334 Chinese ci ies om 2012 o 2022, i e eals a nonlinea
Economies 2025,13, 198 3 o 26
h eshold e ec : once PM
10
concen a ions exceed 0.0229
µ
g/m
3
, hei inhibi o y im-
pac on mo ie a endance in ensi ies sha ply, challenging he con en ional linea iew.
Second, we documen he mode a ing ole o empe a u e, showing ha high hea am-
pli ies PM
10
’s nega i e e ec on cinema-going, he eby in eg a ing me eo ological s es-
so s in o en i onmen al-economics analysis. Thi d, we compile a no el mul i-sou ce
da ase —me ging daily PM
10
eadings, me eo ological a iables, nigh ime ligh indices,
and box-o ice e enues—o e coming p io spa ial and empo al limi a ions and p o id-
ing a me hodological bluep in o u u e en i onmen al-beha io esea ch. Fou h, we
de i e di e en ia ed policy ecommenda ions based on spa ial and empo al he e ogenei y,
including egion-speci ic ilm-indus y suppo , ai -quali y wa ning sys ems o win e
and holiday peaks, cinema ai -pu i ie manda es, and icke subsidies o encou age o line
a endance despi e digi al-pla o m subs i u ion. Toge he , hese con ibu ions ad ance
heo e ical unde s anding and o e ac ionable insigh s o sus ainable u ban de elopmen
and cul u al policy in he ace o wo sening ai quali y.
2. Theo e ical Analysis and Resea ch Hypo heses
2.1. Linea E ec o Ai Quali y on Mo ie A endance
Fang e al. (2021), using he s imulus–o ganism– esponse (S-O-R) amewo k, ound ha
ai pollu ion, as an exogenous s imulus, a ec s consume s’ in e nal s a es (o ganism), such
as hei emo ional and cogni i e pe cep ions, which, in u n, leads o di e en beha io al
esponses. Unde poo ai quali y, indi iduals expe ience heigh ened isk pe cep ion, eeling
ha hei heal h and sa e y needs a e h ea ened. Consequen ly, hey de elop a nega i e
a i ude owa d lea ing home and educe disc e iona y ac i i ies like going o he cinema
(X. Zhang e al.,2017). In his con ex , he Theo y o Planned Beha io
(J. Li & Han,2025
)
sugges s ha when pe cei ed en i onmen al isk inc eases, subjec i e no ms and pe cei ed
beha io al con ol shi , leading o lowe in en ion and ac ual a endance a mo ie hea e s.
Sho - e m ai pollu ion can p omp people o go ou less and ins ead ocus hei
ec ea ional ac i i ies and spending wi hin he home, guided by a subs i u ion e ec om
Consume Choice Theo y (Ren e al.,2024): hey choose sa e , p i a e al e na i es o e
public enues. Long- e m ai pollu ion u he igge s p o ec i e ac ions (e.g., pu chasing
masks) and educes expendi u e on en e ainmen (X. Zhang e al.,2017). A e ini ial
consump ion decisions ha e been made, indi iduals e alua e al e na i e consump ion
possibili ies, such as s eaming se ices, he eby in luencing inal consump ion.
When he ai pollu ion index exceeds a speci ic h eshold, he pe cei ed se e i y and
suscep ibili y become so high ha people choose o s ay home, educing mo ie a endance.
In addi ion, de e io a ing ai quali y can a ec people’s heal h s a us, inc easing anxie y and
ulne abili y, which u he dec eases willingness o isi public places, including cinemas.
Fu he mo e, he de elopmen o he In e ne and digi al media has signi ican ly expanded
he ange o en e ainmen op ions a ailable (Shu,2024;Lee,2016). Unde he subs i u-
ion mechanism o Beha io al Economics, consume s eadily access mo ies and games on
hei mobile de ices when ou doo condi ions de e io a e, he eby educing he impac o
en i onmen al ac o s, such as ai quali y, on o line mo ie consump ion beha io . Today,
especially when ai quali y is poo , consume s a e mo e inclined o ul ill hei cul u al and
en e ainmen needs h ough i ual expe iences. Thus, we p opose he ollowing hypo hesis:
H1. De e io a ing ai quali y educes people’s mo ie a endance.
2.2. Mode a ing Role o Tempe a u e
Acco ding o expec ed u ili y heo y (Q. He,2024), when making decisions, indi iduals
aim o maximize posi i e u ili y (such as happiness o economic bene i s) and minimize
Economies 2025,13, 198 4 o 26
nega i e u ili y (such as pain o economic losses). In he con ex o mo ie consump ion,
people weigh he p os and cons o going ou o a hea e e sus s aying home. I bo h
empe a u e and ai quali y a e a o able, he expec ed emo ional u ili y o he cinema
expe ience (social enjoymen , escapism) ou weighs he mone a y cos o a icke and he
oppo uni y cos o s aying home, leading indi iduals o choose o go ou o en e ainmen .
Con e sely, i condi ions a e un a o able, an icipa ed disu ili y (heal h isks, discom o )
ou weighs he bene i s, and hey educe mo ie a endance.
Tempe a u e plays a c i ical ole in de e mining he mal com o —a concep om
en i onmen al psychology—which di ec ly in luences he posi i e u ili y de i ed om
ou doo ac i i ies. Unde op imal he mal com o , people pe cei e highe well-being
when lea ing home, ein o cing he decision o a end a mo ie.
Howe e , a lowe empe a u es, wo p ocesses un old. Fi s , cold wea he is ypi-
cally associa ed wi h a mo e s able a mosphe ic bounda y laye and weake wind speeds
(Mah ,2010
), which i s wi hin he a mosphe ic physics heo y o pollu an dispe sion:
lowe wind speeds and a s able bounda y laye hinde he dispe sion o pollu an s, causing
hem o accumula e locally (Samad e al.,2023). Second, du ing cold seasons, people
use hea ing sys ems ha ely on coal, na u al gas, o o he uels; he combus ion p ocess
eleases seconda y pollu an s such as ni ogen oxides and sul u dioxide (Xiao e al.,2015;
Fan e al.,2020). Combining hese wo ac o s, en i onmen al economics heo y sugges s
ha in colde wea he , ambien ai quali y de e io a es mo e se e ely, inc easing he pe -
cei ed heal h isk and p o ec i e beha io —a concep d awn om P o ec ion Mo i a ion
Theo y—whe e indi iduals adop beha io s o educe exposu e o h ea s. The e o e,
people may choose o limi ou doo ac i i ies, including mo iegoing, o a oid ad e se
heal h e ec s. The impac mechanism is illus a ed in Figu e 1. Based on his, he pape
p oposes he ollowing hypo hesis:
Figu e 1. In luence mechanism.
Economies 2025,13, 198 5 o 26
H2. High empe a u es ampli y he nega i e impac o poo ai quali y on people’s mo ie
hea e a endance.
2.3. Th eshold E ec o Ai Quali y on Mo ie A endance
Acco ding o Expec ed U ili y Theo y (J. Zheng & Zhao,2023), when ai quali y
eaches a mild pollu ion le el, people will eel sligh discom o , bu his usually does no
comple ely p e en hem om going o he cinema. Unde bounded a ionali y, indi iduals
make sa is icing choices: mos s ill op o go ou , weighing he pe cei ed bene i s o
social and emo ional u ili y agains he cos o mild discom o . Howe e , a his s age,
acco ding o en i onmen al psychology (H. Shen e al.,2025), consume s may expe ience
physical unease, such as b ea hing di icul ies and d y eyes, which can gene a e a nega i e
a ec i e s a e. Acco ding o Cogni i e App aisal Theo y (Y. Zhu & Wu,2023), indi iduals
assess coping op ions and may iew he cinema as a ela i ely sa e, indoo e uge. In his
con ex , he cinema’s social and hedonic alue (beha io al economics) sligh ly ou weighs
he discom o , esul ing in a modes inc ease in a endance; ye , he o e all impac emains
s a is ically insigni ican .
As pollu ion in ensi ies and en e s a se e e s age, he pe cei ed se e i y and p e en i e
app aisal become dominan : heal h isks—especially o espi a o y and ca dio ascula
sys ems—signi ican ly inc ease. Unde Risk Homeos asis Theo y (Y. Zhang & Cai,2024),
indi iduals adjus hei beha io o main ain accep able isk le els, leading o a sha p d op
in willingness o go ou . Acco ding o he Theo y o Planned Beha io (J. Li & Han,2025),
ele a ed pollu ion diminishes pe cei ed beha io al con ol and shi s subjec i e no ms
owa d a oidance o public spaces. A his poin , cinemas—once ega ded as a empo a y
e uge—lose hei appeal, and mo ie a endance declines ma kedly. The e o e, u he
de e io a ion in ai quali y esul s in a signi ican educ ion in cinema consump ion. Based
on his, we p opose he hypo hesis:
H3. The e is a h eshold e ec o ai quali y on mo ie a endance.
3. Da a and Modelling
3.1. Va iables
3.1.1. Explana o y Va iable
Ai pollu ion (PM
10
). This s udy uses PM
10
as he p ima y indica o o ai quali y. The
main eason is ha PM
10
pa icles a e la ge and mo e isible o he human eye, making
hem mo e in ui i ely pe cei able. In con as , PM
2.5
is less isible, and AQI, as a composi e
index, is no di ec ly el in eal- ime by indi iduals. Since going o he cinema is ypically
an impulsi e, sho - e m consump ion beha io , people a e mo e likely o be in luenced
by en i onmen al condi ions hey can di ec ly obse e a he momen o decision-making.
The e o e, PM
10
is be e sui ed o cap u e he pe cei ed ai quali y ha a ec s consume
beha io in his con ex . The e o e, in his s udy, he daily a e age PM
10
concen a ion
o a ce ain p e ec u e-le el ci y is used o measu e he ai quali y o ha ci y on a gi en
day. We collec ed daily PM
10
da a om 2012 o 2022 o 334 ci ies abo e he p e ec u e
le el om he high- esolu ion, high-quali y nea -su ace ai pollu an da ase published
by D . Wei Jing and P o esso Li Zhanqing’s eam on he Na ional Qinghai-Tibe Pla eau
Scien i ic Da a Cen e websi e. The da a a e in uni s o
µ
g/m
3
. We hen ma ched he PM
10
da a o each ci y wi h co esponding cinema consump ion da a, me eo ological da a, and
socio-economic da a o conduc he nex phase o analysis.
Economies 2025,13, 198 6 o 26
3.1.2. Dependen Va iable
The dependen a iable was mo ie consump ion. D awing on he s udy o Xi e al.
(2023), we ob ained daily mo ie box o ice eceip s o China’s 334 p e ec u e-le el and
abo e ci ies om 2012 o 2022 om he Yien da abase (cu en ly he mos p o essional and
au ho i a i e da abase o ilm and ele ision en e ainmen in China) and used hese o
ep esen mo ie a endance.
3.1.3. Con ol Va iables
This pape u ilizes daily minimum and maximum empe a u es, daily a e age wind
speeds, and daily p ecipi a ion da a om 334 ci ies abo e he p e ec u e le el ac oss China
om 2012 o 2022 as con ol a iables o me eo ological ac o s. Me eo ological ac o s
signi ican ly in luence people’s a el beha io . When he empe a u e is oo high o oo
low, wind speed is oo as , o p ecipi a ion inc eases, people’s a el ends o dec ease,
which, in u n, a ec s mo ie consump ion. The e o e, his pape ob ains daily p ecipi a ion
as e da a o he en i e coun y om D . Wei Jing and P o esso Li Zhanqing’s eam,
which was published on he Na ional Tibe an Pla eau Science Da a Cen e websi e. The
esolu ion is 1
◦
, and he da a a e con e ed in o Excel o ma using A cGIS, wi h uni s
in millime e s (mm). Addi ionally, daily wind speed and empe a u e da a om global
s a ions be ween 2012 and 2022 we e ob ained om he Na ional Cen e s o En i onmen al
In o ma ion (NCEI) o he Na ional Oceanic and A mosphe ic Adminis a ion (NOAA) in
he Uni ed S a es. The daily empe a u e da a om all me eo ological obse a ion s a ions
o each yea (2012–2022) we e p ocessed and me ged, ex ac ing da a om s a ions loca ed
wi hin China. This esul ed in daily minimum, maximum, and a e age empe a u e da a
o me eo ological s a ions ac oss China om 2012 o 2022. Fu he mo e, he wind speed
da a we e con e ed om kno s o kilome e s pe hou , yielding daily a e age wind speed
da a o me eo ological s a ions ac oss China om 2012 o 2022.
Socioeconomic Con ol Va iables. This pape uses daily nigh ime ligh da a om
334 p e ec u e-le el ci ies be ween 2012 and 2022 as a ac o in luencing people’s mo ie
consump ion. Nigh ime ligh da a can, o some ex en , measu e he economic ac i i y
le el o a ci y. The b igh e he nigh ime ligh s in a ci y, he mo e ac i e he ci y is a nigh ,
which is associa ed wi h an inc ease in mo ie consump ion. The nigh ime ligh da a come
om NASA in he Uni ed S a es.
3.1.4. Ins umen al Va iable
D awing on he s udy o C. Shen e al. (2024), we used he in e se empe a u e as
an ins umen al a iable o add ess he endogenei y p oblem and o enable us o s udy
he ela ionship be ween ai quali y and mo ie a endance. The le el o ai pollu ion
in luences economic ac i i y. When ai pollu ion is se e e, people end o educe hei
ou ings in an e o o a oid heal h p oblems associa ed wi h exposu e o pollu ed ai ,
which in u n educes economic ac i i y. In he oposphe e, unde no mal condi ions,
empe a u e dec eases wi h inc easing al i ude. Howe e , when he ai nea he g ound
cools mo e apidly han he uppe laye s, esul ing in he uppe ai being wa me han he
ai nea he su ace, an in e sion occu s (Feng e al.,2020). The p esence o an in e sion
laye hampe s he upwa d mo emen o ai , causing pollu an s o emain in place and
esul ing in p olonged pollu ion. Because in e sion phenomena a ec local ai quali y bu
a e un ela ed o people’s mo ie a endance, hey can be used as an ins umen al a iable.
This pape downloads in e sion da a om NASA’s MERRA-2 and ex ac s he nea -
su ace da a om he i s , second, and hi d laye s o he downloaded ne CDF da a. I he
empe a u e o he second and hi d laye s o ai is highe han he empe a u e o he i s
laye on a gi en day, an in e sion exis s. In his pape , da a om he i s and second laye s
Economies 2025,13, 198 7 o 26
a e used. I he empe a u e o he second laye is highe han ha o he i s laye on a
gi en day, he alue is se o 1; o he wise, i is se o 0.
3.2. Da a Sou ces
This pape selec s 334 ci ies abo e he p e ec u e le el as he esea ch subjec s. The
mo ie box o ice da a used in his s udy come om he En G oup da abase (cu en ly
he mos p o essional and au ho i a i e ilm and en e ainmen da abase in China). PM
10
and p ecipi a ion da a a e om he da ase published by D . Wei Jing’s and P o esso
Li Zhanqing’s eam on he Na ional Tibe an Pla eau Science Da a Cen e websi e. The
empe a u e and wind speed da a o he con ol a iables come om he Na ional Cen e s
o En i onmen al In o ma ion (NCEI) unde he Na ional Oceanic and A mosphe ic
Adminis a ion (NOAA) in he Uni ed S a es. Nigh ime ligh and in e sion da a a e
p o ided by NASA. In addi ion, o elimina e ex eme alues, he dependen , independen ,
and con ol a iables a e s anda dized using he Min–Max (MMX) no maliza ion me hod.
A de ailed desc ip ion o he da a used in his pape is p o ided in Table 1.
Table 1. Resul s o desc ip i e s a is ics.
Va iable Desc ip ion Calcula ion Me hod Mean S d. D. Min Max
BO Mo ie consump ion S anda dized mo ie consump ion 0.00454 0.0150 0 1
PM10 Ai quali y S anda dized ai quali y 0.509 0.500 0 1
Rain P ecipi a ion S anda dized p ecipi a ion amoun 0.139 0.0564 0 1
Nl Economic i ali y S anda dized nigh ime ligh b igh ness alue 0.675 0.157 0 1
H em Max empe a u e S anda dized daily max empe a u e (◦F) 0.708 0.157 0 1
L em Min empe a u e S anda dized daily min empe a u e (◦F) 0.0113 0.0299 0 1
A em A e age empe a u e S anda dized daily a e age empe a u e (◦F) 0.0410 0.0676 0 1
Wind Wind speed S anda dized daily a e age wind speed 0.0280 0.0212 0 1
NW Tempe a u e in e sion =1 i a empe a u e in e sion occu s 0.701 0.150 0 1
3.3. Model Cons uc ion
3.3.1. Baseline Reg ession
To s udy he impac o ai quali y on esiden s’ en e ainmen consump ion, his pape
selec s 334 p e ec u e-le el ci ies in China as he esea ch subjec s, using daily mo ie
consump ion da a om 19 Janua y 2012, o 31 Decembe 2022, combined wi h daily PM
10
da a o o m a panel da ase o he p e ec u e-le el ci ies. An econome ic model is
cons uc ed unde he OLS amewo k as ollows:
BOi =α0+α1PM10i +α2Con oli +µ +δ +εi (1)
In he model,
BOi
ep esen s he mo ie consump ion o ci y
i
on day
, and
PM10i
ep esen s he PM
10
concen a ion in ci y
i
on day
.
Con ol
e e s o a se o con ol
a iables, which mainly include daily wea he da a and annual economic da a a he
p e ec u e-le el ci y. The wea he da a include a e age empe a u e, p ecipi a ion, wind
speed, e c., while he economic da a include nigh ime ligh da a.
µ
ep esen s ime- ixed
e ec s, and
δ
ep esen s ci y- ixed e ec s. We pe o med he Hube –Whi e es and ound
he p- alue o be 0, indica ing he p esence o he e oscedas ici y. To add ess issues o
he e oscedas ici y, clus e analysis is conduc ed a he p e ec u e-le el ci y le el o obus ly
es ima e he s anda d e o s in all models o his pape . We conduc ed he Woold idge
es and ound e idence o au oco ela ion in he model. Consequen ly, we in oduced
ins umen al a iables in o he eg ession and obse ed ha he esul s emained consis en
wi h hose o he baseline eg ession.
Economies 2025,13, 198 8 o 26
3.3.2. Ins umen al Va iable Reg ession
In his s udy, we used es ablished esea ch me hodologies and, in an e o o add ess
endogenei y issues, used a dummy a iable o daily in e sion a he p e ec u e le el
as an ins umen al a iable o ai quali y. I an in e sion occu ed on a gi en day, he
a iable was assigned a alue o 1; o he wise, i was assigned a alue o 0. The impac o
ai pollu ion on mo ie a endance was hen iden i ied using he wo-s age leas squa es
(2SLS) me hod. The eg ession model is as ollows:
PM10i =γ0+γ1NWi +γ2Con olsi +µi+δ +εi (2)
BOi =θ0+θ1
PM10i +θ2Con olsi +µi+δ +εi (3)
In model (2), he i s s age o he ins umen al a iable app oach, he dependen
a iable is he daily PM
10
concen a ion o ci y
i
on day
, which ep esen s he ai pollu ion
le el. The ins umen al a iable,
NWi
, indica es whe he an in e sion phenomenon
occu ed in ci y
i
on day
. Model (3) ep esen s he second s age eg ession, whe e he
dependen a iable is he mo ie consump ion in ci y ion day , and
PM10i
is he co ec ed
PM
10
concen a ion o ci y
i
on day
om model (2). Addi ionally, a se o con ol a iables,
Con oli , is included, which is de ined he same as in model (1).
In Model (2), he i s s age o he ins umen al a iable me hod, he dependen
a iable is he PM
10
concen a ion le el in ci y
i
on day
. The ins umen al a iable
NWi
indica es whe he an in e sion occu ed in ci y
i
on day
. In Model (3), he second s age o
he eg ession model, he dependen a iable is mo ie a endance in ci y ion day , and
PM10i is he PM10 concen a ion le el in ci y ion day as pe Model (1).
3.3.3. Th eshold Model
In his s udy, we used he ollowing panel h eshold model o in es iga e he po en ial
non-linea ela ionship be ween ai quali y and mo ie a endance:
BOi =β0+β1PM10i ·I(q≤τ1)+β2PM10i ·I(τ1<q≤τ2)
+β3PM10i ·I(q>τ2)+β4Con olsi +µi+δ +εi
(4)
whe e
I(·)
deno es an indica o unc ion ha is alloca ed a alue o 1 i he condi ion
speci ied wi hin he pa en heses is sa is ied, and 0 o he wise. He e,
τ
signi ies he h eshold
le el and he o he symbols a e he same as ou lined in ela ion o Model (1).
4. Empi ical Analysis
4.1. Baseline Reg ession
4.1.1. Analysis o Baseline Reg ession Resul s
Table 2(1) p esen s he baseline eg ession esul s wi hou con ol a iables and wi h-
ou ime and ci y ixed e ec s. Table 2(2) shows he eg ession esul s wi hou con ol a i-
ables bu wi h he inclusion o ime and ci y ixed e ec s and ci y clus e ing.
Table 2(3)–(6)
display he eg ession esul s a e adding con ol a iables s ep by s ep, ollowing he
clus e ing a he ci y le el and con olling o ime and ci y e ec s. Thus, he abo e esul s
e i y H1.
We ind ha he e ec o PM
10
on mo ie consump ion is consis en ly signi ican ly
nega i e, indica ing ha ai quali y has a signi ican nega i e impac on mo ie consump ion.
Fi s , ai pollu ion nega i ely a ec s people’s heal h, pa icula ly ha ming he espi a o y
and ca dio ascula sys ems. When pollu ion le els a e high, many people may choose o
s ay indoo s o a oid ha m ul subs ances in he ai , he eby educing ou doo ac i i ies.
While his migh encou age people o spend mo e ime a home, poo ai quali y can
Economies 2025,13, 198 15 o 26
4.5.2. Replacemen o Ins umen al Va iables
To u he con i m he obus ness o he ins umen al a iable eg ession, his pape
eplaces he ins umen al a iable wi h he in e sion empe a u e da a om he i s and
hi d laye s o he a mosphe e. I he empe a u e o he hi d laye is highe han ha o
he i s laye on a gi en day, i is conside ed a empe a u e in e sion, wi h a alue o 1;
o he wise, he alue is 0. The eg ession esul s, shown in column (2) o Table 7, indica e
ha he impac o ai quali y on mo ie consump ion emains signi ican ly nega i e a he
1% le el, u he alida ing he obus ness o he eg ession esul s.
4.5.3. T oubleshoo ing Ex e nal Shocks
The COVID-19 pandemic b ough abou unp eceden ed economic and social changes,
many o which we e a ypical and may di e om beha io pa e ns and economic laws
du ing no mal imes (Dela das e al.,2022). In pa icula , du ing he pandemic, many
indus ies and consump ion pa e ns unde wen d ama ic changes (Don hu & Gus a sson,
2020), such as he closu e o cinemas, shi s in en e ainmen consump ion pa e ns (e.g., a
su ge in s eaming media consump ion), and go e nmen -imposed lockdowns and qua -
an ine measu es. These changes could lead o signi ican di e ences be ween he sample
da a du ing he pandemic and he da a om no mal pe iods. I da a om he pandemic
pe iod a e no excluded, hese abno mal luc ua ions could dis o he esul s o eg ession
analysis and a ec he accu a e de e mina ion o causal ela ionships. The e o e, o ensu e
ha he analysis mo e accu a ely e lec s he economic beha io and ma ke ends du ing
no mal imes, and o a oid unnecessa y impac s om ex e nal shocks du ing excep ional
pe iods, his pape excludes he sample da a om he pandemic pe iod. The yea s 2020 o
2022, when he COVID-19 pandemic was mos se e e, a e conside ed he pandemic pe iod,
and he co esponding samples a e emo ed o eg ession. The eg ession esul s, shown
in column (3) o Table 7, indica e ha a e emo ing he pandemic’s impac , he e ec o ai
quali y on people’s mo ie consump ion emains signi ican ly nega i e, u he alida ing
he obus ness o he eg ession esul s.
4.5.4. Changing he Sample Size
P o incial capi al ci ies o en exhibi signi ican di e ences om o he ci ies in e ms
o economy, policies, cul u e, and in as uc u e, which may lead o di e en beha io al
pa e ns in some aspec s. Fo example, p o incial capi als gene ally ha e highe income
le els, mo e de eloped public se ices, s onge consump ion capaci y, and mo e con-
cen a ed business and cul u al ac i i ies (Z. Li e al.,2016). These ac o s may cause
he sample om p o incial capi als o di e om ha o o he ci ies in e ms o ce ain
economic beha io s o consump ion pa e ns. To ensu e ha he esea ch esul s a e no
in luenced by hese unique a ibu es o p o incial capi als, and o e i y whe he he
conclusions can be gene alized o a b oade ange o egions wi h di e en cha ac e is ics,
his pape excludes he samples om p o incial capi als o enhance he gene alizabili y
and obus ness o he indings. The eg ession esul s, shown in column (4) o Table 7,
indica e ha a e excluding he samples om p o incial capi als, he impac o ai quali y
on mo ie consump ion emains signi ican ly nega i e, u he alida ing he obus ness o
he eg ession esul s.
4.5.5. Changes in Da a P ocessing
S anda diza ion is ypically used o ans o m a iables in o a o m wi h he same
dimension and scale, bu i may o e look he nonlinea ela ionships be ween a iables o
ail o handle ex eme alues e ec i ely. On he o he hand, applying a log ans o ma ion
(log(x + 1)) can e ec i ely deal wi h ex eme alues in he da a and, in many cases, can
Economies 2025,13, 198 16 o 26
ans o m nonlinea ela ionships be ween a iables in o linea ones, hus making hem
be e sui ed o eg ession models (Mish a & Da a-Gup a,2018). By using his app oach,
he obus ness o he model unde di e en da a ans o ma ions can be es ed, ensu ing
ha he esea ch conclusions do no solely ely on a pa icula da a p ocessing me hod.
I he esul s ob ained a e applying he log ans o ma ion (log(x + 1)) align wi h he
conclusions de i ed om s anda diza ion, i indica es ha he model’s conclusions a e
mo e obus and can adap o di e en da a p ep ocessing me hods. The e o e, he o iginal
s anda dized explana o y and dependen a iables a e eplaced wi h hei log- ans o med
e sions (log(x + 1)) o examine he impac o he da a p ocessing me hod on he esul s.
The eg ession esul s, shown in column (5) o Table 7, indica e ha a e applying he
log ans o ma ion o he explana o y and dependen a iables, he e ec o ai quali y on
mo ie consump ion emains signi ican ly nega i e, u he alida ing he obus ness o he
eg ession esul s.
4.6. Mode a ing E ec
4.6.1. Model Cons uc ion
The a e age empe a u e can mode a e people’s expec a ions ega ding a el in ela-
ion o ai quali y. When ai quali y is poo , bu he a e age empe a u e is sui able, people
may ake p o ec i e measu es and s ill choose o go ou o mo ie consump ion. Howe e ,
when he empe a u e is unsui able, e en i ai quali y is good, people’s willingness o go
ou may dec ease, leading o a educ ion in mo ie consump ion. The e o e, his pape con-
s uc s an in e ac ion e m by mul iplying ai quali y and a e age empe a u e o explo e
he ole o a e age empe a u e in in luencing he e ec o ai quali y on people’s mo ie
consump ion. The ollowing model is cons uc ed:
BOi =η0+η1PM10i +η2PM10i ∗a emi +η3a emi +η4Con oli +µ +δ +εi (6)
The mode a ing a iable
a emi
ep esen s he a e age empe a u e in ci y
i
on day
,
and
PM10i ∗a emi
is he in e ac ion e m be ween ai quali y and a e age empe a u e.
The meanings o he o he e ms a e he same as in Equa ion (1).
4.6.2. Analysis o Reg ession Resul s
The esul s o he mode a ing e ec eg ession a e shown in column (1) o Table 8. The
in e ac ion e m be ween a e age empe a u e and ai quali y is signi ican ly nega i e a he
1% le el, indica ing ha a e age empe a u e s eng hens he nega i e e ec o ai quali y
on people’s mo ie consump ion. Ex eme high- empe a u e wea he may make going
ou side uncom o able, especially wi hou ai condi ioning. In such cases, mo e people
migh choose o engage in indoo en e ainmen a home (Amindelda e al.,2017), such as
wa ching mo ies h ough s eaming pla o ms. Al hough he ai condi ioning sys em in
cinemas migh p o ide empo a y com o , i is less appealing compa ed o being a home,
pa icula ly when ou doo ai quali y is poo , as people a e mo e likely o a oid going
ou side. Ex eme wea he condi ions (especially p olonged high empe a u es) may ha e
a nega i e impac on people’s psychological s a e (C uz e al.,2020;Chique e al.,2021).
Ex ended ho wea he combined wi h ai pollu ion may igge emo ional issues such as
anxie y and dep ession, which could educe people’s in e es in ou doo en e ainmen
ac i i ies, including going o he cinema. On he con a y, people may be mo e inclined o
engage in leisu e ac i i ies a home, such as wa ching s eaming con en .
Economies 2025,13, 198 17 o 26
Table 8. Reg ession esul s o he mo egula o y e ec s.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Va iables Mode a ing E ec Cold Mode a e Ho
pm10 0.0220 *** −0.0029 *** −0.0040 *** −0.0034
(8.7565) (−2.9833) (−3.9582) (−1.5115)
pm10*a em −0.0394 ***
(−10.1021)
a em −0.0030 ***
(−3.1058)
wind −0.0019 *** −0.0032 *** −0.0022 *** −0.0015 ***
(−9.2746) (−7.8527) (−6.5910) (−3.2493)
ain −0.0010 *** −0.0034 ** −0.0012 ** 0.0000
(−3.0110) (−2.2079) (−2.1371) (0.0384)
l em 0.0022 *** 0.0021 *** −0.0010 * 0.0023 **
(4.0880) (3.4249) (−1.9235) (2.4631)
h em 0.0021 *** −0.0016 *** −0.0006 * 0.0017 ***
(3.9244) (−3.3174) (−1.6774) (2.6891)
nl 0.0091 *** 0.0592 *** 0.0053 *** −0.0013
(15.6559) (36.0397) (6.0439) (−1.3844)
Cons an 0.0037 *** 0.0025 *** 0.0054 *** 0.0025 ***
(21.6950) (9.8171) (14.3762) (3.4029)
The p- alue o he di e ence 0.000
Obse a ions 1,250,375 374,957 500,145 374,756
Adjus ed R-squa ed 0.5690 0.5509 0.5667 0.6062
Ci y FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Da e FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
-s a is ics clus e ed a he ci y le el a e shown in pa en heses. *** p< 0.01, ** p< 0.05, * p< 0.1.
4.6.3. Reg essions G ouped Acco ding o Tempe a u e
To in es iga e he a ying esponses o mo ie consump ion o ai quali y unde
di e en empe a u e anges, we ollow he app oach o Eom e al. (2020) and o he s,
di iding he daily a e age empe a u e in o h ee g oups o g ouped eg ession analysis:
he op 30% o a e age empe a u es ep esen “ho ” wea he , he bo om 30% ep esen
“cold” wea he , and he middle 40% ep esen “mode a e” wea he .
The eg ession esul s a e shown in columns (2) and (3) o Table 8. Unde bo h cold
and mode a e empe a u es, ai quali y has a signi ican nega i e e ec on people’s mo ie
consump ion. Howe e , he nega i e e ec is s onge unde cold condi ions han unde
mode a e condi ions. Mo eo e , he p- alue o he di e ence in coe icien s is 0.000,
indica ing ha he e is a signi ican di e ence be ween he coe icien s o he h ee g oups.
In cold wea he , on one hand, low empe a u es a e o en associa ed wi h s able
a mosphe ic s a i ica ion and weake wind speeds, which esul in a longe e en ion
ime o ai pollu an s in he a mosphe e. Lowe empe a u es and weak winds hinde he
dispe sion and dilu ion o ai pollu an s, causing hem o accumula e in localized a eas. On
he o he hand, du ing he cold season, people ypically use hea ing sys ems o main ain
indoo wa m h. These sys ems o en ely on uels such as coal and na u al gas, which
elease ha m ul subs ances like ni ogen oxides and sul u dioxide du ing combus ion. In
colde wea he , people end o inc ease bo h he du a ion and in ensi y o hea ing usage o
s ay wa m, leading o mo e pollu an emissions. The e o e, in cold wea he , ai pollu ion is
mo e se e e, which leads people o educe ou doo ac i i ies and mo ie consump ion due
o conce ns abou heal h isks.
As shown in column (4) o Table 8, unde high- empe a u e condi ions, ai quali y does
no ha e a signi ican e ec on people’s mo ie consump ion. High empe a u es ypically
Economies 2025,13, 198 18 o 26
cause people o a oid going ou side (Ebi e al.,2021), especially du ing ex eme hea o
hea wa es. To escape he in ense hea , many p e e o s ay in ai -condi ioned en i onmen s.
In such cases, al hough he ai quali y may be poo , cinemas, being ai -condi ioned and
com o able places, can o e a ela i ely cool and com o able mo ie-wa ching expe ience.
In ho wea he , cinemas may become mo e a ac i e as a place o escape he hea . The e o e,
e en i ai quali y is poo , high empe a u es may s ill encou age people o go o he cinema
o a oid he combined e ec s o high hea and pollu ion ou side. In con as , he mo i a ion
o going o he cinema may be mo e abou escaping he hea a he han conce ns abou ai
quali y. Howe e , once people ha e chosen an indoo en i onmen o escape he hea , hei
mo ie consump ion beha io (whe he h ough online s eaming pla o ms o in cinemas)
may no be signi ican ly in luenced by ai quali y. In o he wo ds, e en i ai quali y is poo ,
people may s ill choose o wa ch mo ies as a way o cool o and en e ain hemsel es,
especially when cinemas ha e ai condi ioning.
5. He e ogenei y Analysis
5.1. Di e ences in he Nega i e E ec s o Ai Pollu ion a Va ious Times
We expec ha he impac o ai quali y on mo ie consump ion di e s du ing ime
pe iods wi h dis inc cha ac e is ics. Speci ically, when people ha e mo e lexible ime,
ai quali y is likely o ha e a g ea e impac on hei mo ie consump ion. Du ing pe iods
o g ea e ime lexibili y, i ai quali y is poo , people may end o choose ime pe iods
wi h be e ai quali y o mo ie consump ion. To analyze ime he e ogenei y, we use
wo ime- ela ed indica o s: i s , whe he i is a holiday o weekend pe iod; second, we
pe o m he e ogenei y analysis based on seasons, selec ing summe (July, Augus , and
Sep embe ) and win e (No embe , Decembe , and Janua y). In model (1), we conduc
g oup eg essions based on he wo classi ica ion indica o s men ioned abo e. We use he
Chow es o examine he di e ences be ween g oups, ha is, we cons uc an in e ac ion
e m be ween he g ouping a iable and PM
10
, and include i in model (1) o eg ession
analysis, obse ing whe he he coe icien o his in e ac ion e m is signi ican . And he
eg ession esul s a e shown in Table 9.
Columns (1) and (2) o Table 8show he eg ession esul s o non-holidays and
holidays, espec i ely. The impac o ai quali y on mo ie consump ion is nega i e in
bo h cases, bu he nega i e e ec is s onge du ing holiday pe iods han du ing non-
holiday pe iods. We specula e ha his may be due o se e al easons. Du ing holidays,
people gene ally ha e mo e ee ime o ou doo ac i i ies, en e ainmen , and leisu e
(
De Bloom e al.,2017
), and hey end o ha e mo e en e ainmen op ions, which inc eases
he a ailabili y o al e na i e ac i i ies o mo ie wa ching. The e o e, when ai quali y
is poo , especially du ing haze o high-pollu ion wea he , many people may choose o
s ay indoo s, pa icula ly hose wi h espi a o y issues. In such cases, hei willingness
o go ou and wa ch a mo ie signi ican ly dec eases, and hey may op o o he indoo
leisu e ac i i ies a home. Addi ionally, du ing holidays, he e is a signi ican inc ease in
popula ion mo emen (such as isi ing ela i es o a eling), which leads o highe a el
equency and longe a el imes (H. Zhu e al.,2022;Cools e al.,2010). In cases o poo
ai quali y, conges ion and pollu ion wo sen, especially in la ge ci ies, whe e he combined
e ec s o ai pollu ion and a ic p essu e educe people’s willingness o go ou . As a
esul , mo e people may p e e o s ay indoo s, leading o ewe oppo uni ies o go o he
cinema and a educ ion in mo ie consump ion. Mo eo e , he p- alue o he di e ence in
coe icien s is 0.000, indica ing ha he e is a signi ican di e ence be ween he coe icien s
o he wo g oups. The e o e, he nega i e impac o ai quali y on mo ie consump ion is
g ea e du ing holidays han du ing non-holidays.
Economies 2025,13, 198 19 o 26
Table 9. Resul s o empo al he e ogenei y analysis.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Va iables Nonholiday Holiday Summe Win e
pm10 −0.0007 *** −0.0049 *** −0.0049 *** −0.0181 ***
(−2.7504) (−5.2486) (−4.3100) (−16.9174)
wind −0.0002 ** −0.0031 *** −0.0002 −0.0048 ***
(−2.3473) (−10.4004) (−0.8261) (−13.5644)
ain −0.0000 −0.0012 ** −0.0003 −0.0031 ***
(−0.0185) (−2.4919) (−1.2858) (−2.6495)
l em −0.0007 *** 0.0016 *** 0.0010 ** −0.0017 ***
(−5.6749) (3.8300) (2.1370) (−2.9963)
h em 0.0001 −0.0002 0.0003 −0.0015 ***
(0.6258) (−0.5431) (0.8837) (−3.8387)
nl −0.0040 *** 0.0275 *** −0.0043 *** 0.0206 ***
(−16.0334) (32.2484) (−6.7793) (21.9743)
Cons an 0.0025 *** 0.0032 *** 0.0021 *** 0.0059 ***
(43.6259) (16.0926) (6.3261) (23.0534)
The p- alue o he di e ence 0.000 0.000
Obse a ions 778,468 356,913 285,512 281,987
Adjus ed R-squa ed 0.6008 0.6513 0.6282 0.5341
Ci y FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
Da e FE Yes Yes Yes Yes
-s a is ics clus e ed a he ci y le el a e shown in pa en heses. *** p< 0.01, ** p< 0.05.
Columns (3) and (4) o Table 9show he eg ession esul s o summe and win e ,
espec i ely. We ind ha in bo h summe and win e , ai quali y has a nega i e impac on
mo ie consump ion, bu he nega i e impac is g ea e in win e han in summe . On he
one hand, win e empe a u es a e lowe , and many a eas, especially in no he n ci ies, u n
on hei hea ing sys ems. The bu ning o la ge amoun s o hea ing uels, such as coal and
na u al gas, du ing he hea ing p ocess eleases pollu an s, leading o a de e io a ion in ai
quali y. Addi ionally, low empe a u es o en coincide wi h empe a u e in e sion ( he mal
in e sion) in he a mosphe e, which p e en s pollu an s om dispe sing and causes hem
o accumula e, esul ing in e en wo se ai quali y (W. Zhu e al.,2018). The e o e, ai
pollu ion in win e is ypically mo e se e e han in summe , which educes people’s
willingness o go ou . On he o he hand, win e ai pollu ion is usually mo e pe sis en ,
pa icula ly when haze las s o long pe iods and he wea he is cold and humid, wi h
li le wind o clea he pollu an s (Song e al.,2020). As a esul , p olonged pollu ion in
win e leads o wo se ai quali y, which has a g ea e nega i e impac on bo h people’s
psychological and physical heal h. This p olonged exposu e o ai pollu ion can inc ease
people’s heal h awa eness, making hem mo e likely o educe ou doo leisu e ac i i ies.
In con as , while poo ai quali y in summe also causes discom o , he du a ion o
such condi ions is usually sho e and he impac mo e dispe sed. Fu he mo e, he low
empe a u e and d y ai in win e may make people’s espi a o y sys ems mo e ulne able
o pollu an s, wi h mo e se e e i i a ion o he espi a o y sys em, especially o he elde ly,
child en, and hose wi h unde lying condi ions. Poo ai quali y can wo sen symp oms
such as coughing and sho ness o b ea h. In compa ison, in summe , highe empe a u es
allow people o egula e hei body empe a u e h ough swea ing and o he mechanisms
(Wang e al.,2020
), making hem mo e ole an o ai pollu ion. The e o e, in win e , poo
ai quali y poses a g ea e heal h h ea , and consume s may be mo e cau ious, educing
he equency o going ou o wa ch mo ies. Mo eo e , he p- alue o he di e ence in
coe icien s is 0.000, indica ing ha he e is a signi ican di e ence be ween he coe icien s
Economies 2025,13, 198 20 o 26
o he wo g oups. As a esul , he nega i e impac o ai quali y on mo ie consump ion is
g ea e in win e han in summe .
5.2. Di e ences in he Nega i e E ec s o Ai Pollu ion in Va ious Regions
We expec ha he impac o ai quali y on people’s mo ie consump ion a ies ac oss
egions wi h di e en cha ac e is ics. We use h ee egional cha ac e is ic indica o s o
conduc egional he e ogenei y analysis. Fi s , we di ide ci ies in China in o no he n and
sou he n ci ies based on he Qinling-Huaihe line. Second, we ca ego ize ci ies in o coas al
and non-coas al ci ies acco ding o he p o inces hey belong o. Thi d, we di e en ia e
be ween p o incial capi al ci ies and non-p o incial capi al ci ies o he e ogenei y anal-
ysis. In model (1) and i s basic o m, we conduc g oup eg essions based on he abo e
classi ica ion indica o s, and he eg ession esul s a e shown in Table 10.
The eg ession esul s o no he n and sou he n ci ies a e shown in columns (1) and (2)
o Table 10, espec i ely. We ind ha ai quali y nega i ely impac s mo ie consump ion in
bo h no he n and sou he n ci ies, bu he nega i e impac is g ea e in sou he n ci ies han
in no he n ci ies. On he one hand, he clima e in sou he n ci ies is gene ally mo e pleasan
han in no he n ci ies, so ac o s like empe a u e ha e less impac on people’s willingness
o go ou . The e o e, in sou he n ci ies, especially in indus ially in luenced a eas such
as he Pea l Ri e Del a, poo ai quali y becomes a signi ican ac o a ec ing esiden s’
willingness o go ou . In con as , al hough no he n ci ies expe ience se e e ai pollu ion in
win e , his pe iod is ypically domina ed by cold ai , wi h lowe empe a u es and sho e
ou doo ac i i y pe iods. As a esul , while he nega i e impac o poo ai quali y is s ill
p esen , i is less p onounced compa ed o ha in sou he n ci ies (
K. Zheng & Zhang,2023
).
On he o he hand, he causes o ai pollu ion in sou he n ci ies end o be mo e complex. In
addi ion o hea ing and indus ial pollu ion in win e , sou he n ci ies ha e highe humidi y,
and wi h he dense u ban layou , pollu an s a e no easily dispe sed, leading o p olonged
smog and highe le els o ai pollu ion. In no he n ci ies, howe e , s ong cold ai du ing
win e helps dispe se pollu an s (Liu e al.,2020), and he pollu ion ends o be mo e
sho -li ed. Mo eo e , he p- alue o he di e ence in coe icien s is 0.000, indica ing ha
he e is a signi ican di e ence be ween he coe icien s o he wo g oups. The e o e, he
nega i e impac o ai quali y on mo ie consump ion is g ea e in sou he n ci ies han in
no he n ci ies.
The eg ession esul s o coas al and non-coas al ci ies a e shown in columns (3) and
(4) o Table 10, espec i ely. We ind ha ai quali y nega i ely impac s mo ie consump ion
in bo h coas al and non-coas al ci ies, bu he nega i e impac is g ea e in coas al ci ies
han in non-coas al ci ies. We hypo hesize he ollowing easons: Fi s ly, coas al a eas
gene ally ha e a humid clima e, especially in summe and au umn, wi h highe humidi y
le els in he ai (Ramesh e al.,2021). High humidi y makes i mo e di icul o pollu an s
such as PM
2.5
and PM
10
o dispe se and se le, leading o p olonged haze and pollu an
e en ion. The high humidi y en i onmen wo sens he pe cep ion o ai quali y, which
educes esiden s’ willingness o go ou , hus a ec ing hei mo ie consump ion. Secondly,
coas al ci ies a e ypically densely popula ed and highly u banized, leading o g ea e
a ic p essu e (Oz u k,2024). Pollu ion om ehicle emissions, indus ial discha ges,
and o he sou ces is mo e se e e in hese a eas. In such high-densi y, apidly de eloping
en i onmen s, ai pollu ion ends o each highe le els, wi h concen a ions o a mosphe ic
pollu an s o en being highe , di ec ly a ec ing esiden s’ heal h and supp essing hei
willingness o engage in ou doo ac i i ies and en e ainmen . In con as , non-coas al ci ies
gene ally ha e lowe popula ion densi y, ewe pollu ion sou ces, and lowe heal h isks
o esiden s, meaning he nega i e impac o poo ai quali y on mo ie consump ion is less
p onounced. Thi dly, coas al ci ies a e usually China’s economic cen es and ha e a highe
Economies 2025,13, 198 21 o 26
deg ee o in e na ionaliza ion, a ac ing la ge numbe s o o eign-in es ed en e p ises
and expa ia es (Gong,1995). These ci ies a e no only a ec ed by local indus ial and
a ic pollu ion bu also by ansbounda y pollu an s om neighbou ing coun ies o
egions, such as Japan, Sou h Ko ea, and Sou heas Asia. As a esul , ai quali y in coas al
ci ies is o en wo se han in non-coas al ci ies, especially due o seasonal pollu ion and
me eo ological condi ions. This heigh ened pollu ion exace ba es esiden s’ pe cep ion
o poo ai quali y, u he dec easing hei willingness o go ou o en e ainmen and
consump ion. Mo eo e , he p- alue o he di e ence in coe icien s is 0.000, indica ing
ha he e is a signi ican di e ence be ween he coe icien s o he wo g oups.
Table 10. Regional he e ogenei y eg ession esul s.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Va iables No h Sou h Coas al Inland Capi al Non-Capi al
pm10 −0.0022 *** −0.0114 *** −0.0082 *** −0.0012 ** 0.0043 −0.0022 ***
(−3.6707) (−5.7908) (−4.6996) (−2.0798) (0.9315) (−5.8075)
wind −0.0011 *** −0.0037 *** −0.0026 *** −0.0001 −0.0056 *** −0.0011 ***
(−4.5028) (−9.8486) (−6.1621) (−0.4889) (−4.0510) (−8.7808)
ain 0.0001 −0.0013 *** −0.0014 ** −0.0003 −0.0041 * −0.0005 **
(0.1010) (−2.7147) (−2.3087) (−0.7702) (−1.6616) (−2.5015)
l em 0.0025 *** 0.0005 −0.0019 *** 0.0014 *** 0.0001 0.0002
(6.9043) (0.7773) (−2.7861) (4.6165) (0.0269) (1.2929)
mh em −0.0006 ** −0.0014 *** 0.0007 −0.0009 *** −0.0013 −0.0001
(−2.1417) (−3.2341) (1.1806) (−3.7848) (−0.7432) (−0.4154)
nl 0.0410 *** 0.0059 *** 0.0036 *** 0.0372 *** 0.0167 *** 0.0055 ***
(32.5582) (8.1443) (4.4018) (30.5247) (5.0174) (15.3888)
Cons an 0.0011 *** 0.0068 *** 0.0085 *** 0.0020 *** 0.0225 *** 0.0026 ***
(6.2416) (17.4807) (25.0521) (14.6078) (21.3479) (31.6879)
The p- alue o he di e ence 0.000 0.000 0.001
Obse a ions 585,618 645,582 432,622 817,742 114,978 1,135,381
Adjus ed R-squa ed 0.5820 0.5708 0.5902 0.5722 0.6697 0.5523
Ci y FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Da e FE Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
-s a is ics clus e ed a he ci y le el a e shown in pa en heses. *** p< 0.01, ** p< 0.05, * p< 0.1.
The eg ession esul s o capi al ci ies and non-capi al ci ies a e shown in columns
(5) and (6) o Table 10, espec i ely. We ind ha ai quali y nega i ely impac s mo ie
consump ion in non-capi al ci ies, bu in capi al ci ies, he e is no signi ican e ec o ai
quali y on mo ie consump ion. We hypo hesize he ollowing easons: Fi s ly, capi al ci ies
ypically ha e be e anspo a ion and public acili ies. These ci ies a e gene ally mo e
de eloped, and public anspo a ion sys ems (such as subways and buses) a e usually
mo e e icien (Chen e al.,2021), which helps mi iga e he impac o a ic pollu ion on
esiden s. Addi ionally, since cinemas a e o en loca ed in comme cial cen es and busy
a eas, people isi ing cinemas a e usually no exposed o ou doo pollu ion o ex ended
pe iods. The e icien public anspo a ion and u ban planning in capi al ci ies make ai
quali y a less signi ican ac o a ec ing esiden s’ willingness o go ou . Secondly, capi al
ci ies a e usually cul u al and en e ainmen hubs wi h a s ong demand o he mo ie
ma ke (
Ji e al.,2009
). The demand o mo ies is highe , and esiden s a e mo e willing o
consume mo ies. Cinemas in hese ci ies o en o e a wide ange o mo ie op ions, and
icke p ices a e ela i ely a o dable, making mo ie-going a pa o people’s daily li es. In
his con ex , ai quali y may no be he p ima y ac o in luencing mo ie-wa ching beha io ,
as demand o mo ie consump ion d i en by o he social and economic ac o s o en
ou weighs he nega i e impac o ai quali y. Thi dly, in capi al ci ies, mo ie consump ion
is o en no jus o pe sonal en e ainmen , bu also has s ong social and amily elemen s.
Many people go o cinemas wi h amily o iends, and e en when ai quali y is poo , hey
Economies 2025,13, 198 22 o 26
s ill op o his o m o social en e ainmen . Especially on weekends o public holidays,
wa ching mo ies has become a common amily and social ac i i y, which is less likely o
be in e up ed by ai quali y conce ns. Fou hly, capi al ci ies a e gene ally mo e digi ally
ad anced (Du e al.,2024). Wi h he de elopmen o digi al ma ke ing, mo ie p omo ion
has inc easingly mo ed online h ough pla o ms like social media and ideo s eaming
si es, which can boos mo ie exposu e and audience expec a ions, educing he di ec
impac o ai quali y on mo ie-going decisions (Liao & Huang,2021;A & Felisiya,2024).
In con as , non-capi al ci ies end o ha e poo e in as uc u e, lowe social and mo ie
consump ion demands. Mo eo e , he p- alue o he di e ence in coe icien s is 0.000,
indica ing ha he e is a signi ican di e ence be ween he coe icien s o he wo g oups.
And hus, ai quali y has a mo e signi ican nega i e impac on mo ie consump ion.
6. Conclusions
This s udy uses da a om 334 ci ies a o abo e he p e ec u e le el in China om 2012
o 2022, wi h in e sed empe a u e as an ins umen al a iable. I employs he wo-way
ixed-e ec s ins umen al a iable app oach and h eshold eg ession me hod o explo e
he impac o ai quali y on people’s mo ie consump ion. The indings e eal ha an
inc ease in a ci y’s PM
10
concen a ion leads o a dec ease in mo ie consump ion in ha ci y.
Mo eo e , he supp essi e e ec o PM
10
on mo ie consump ion a ies ac oss di e en
ime pe iods and egions. Du ing holidays and weekends, he supp essi e e ec o PM
10
on
mo ie consump ion is g ea e compa ed o non-holiday pe iods. In win e , he supp essi e
e ec o PM
10
on mo ie consump ion is s onge han in summe . Fu he mo e, in sou he n
ci ies and coas al ci ies, he supp essi e e ec o PM
10
on mo ie consump ion is mo e
p onounced. In capi al ci ies, howe e , no signi ican e ec o PM
10
on mo ie consump ion
is obse ed. Addi ionally, we conduc a h eshold e ec es using PM
10
as he h eshold
a iable. We ind ha as PM
10
concen a ion inc eases, people ini ially inc ease hei mo ie
consump ion. Howe e , when he PM
10
concen a ion exceeds a ce ain le el, u he
inc eases in PM
10
lead o a educ ion in mo ie consump ion. Finally, a e age empe a u e
enhances he supp essi e e ec o ai quali y on mo ie consump ion.
Based on he abo e conclusions, his s udy p oposes he ollowing ecommenda ions:
Fi s , s eng hen ai quali y egula ion and imp o emen . Policy sugges ion: The
go e nmen should in ensi y i s e o s in egula ing ai pollu ion by implemen ing s ic e
emission s anda ds and enhancing con ol o e majo pollu ion sou ces such as indus y
and anspo a ion. A he same ime, i should inc ease in es men in he esea ch and
de elopmen o clean ene gy and en i onmen al p o ec ion echnologies, and p o ide
policy suppo o encou age en e p ises and indi iduals o adop low-ca bon, eco- iendly
p oduc ion and li ing p ac ices, he eby educing he emission o ai pollu an s.
Second, op imize he supply o he mo ie ma ke du ing holidays. Du ing pe iods
when ai quali y is poo , such as holidays and weekends, he mo ie indus y should elease
mo e high-quali y ilms ha ca e o iewe s’ as es and inc ease he di e si y o a ailable
ilms o a ac people o hea e s. Addi ionally, a ious p omo ional ac i i ies, such as
o e ing discoun ed icke s and mo ie packages, should be conduc ed o educe he cos o
mo iegoing o audiences and inc ease hei willingness o go o he mo ies.
Thi d, imp o e he mo iegoing expe ience. Ci ies wi h highe o e all de elopmen
should in es mo e in he cons uc ion and eno a ion o cinemas, enhancing bo h he
ha dwa e acili ies and se ice le els. Fo example, imp o ing ai quali y in hea e s by
ins alling ai pu i ie s and c ea ing a mo e com o able and heal hy iewing en i onmen ,
while also p o iding mo e use - iendly se ices such as com o able sea ing and supe io
sound sys ems, can signi ican ly enhance he mo iegoing expe ience o audiences.
Economies 2025,13, 198 23 o 26
Fou h, adop di e en ia ed measu es o di e en egions. Based on he ai quali y
condi ions and consump ion cha ac e is ics o esiden s in a ious egions, di e en ia ed
policies and measu es should be implemen ed. Fo ins ance, in sou he n and coas al
ci ies whe e ai quali y is poo e , mo e suppo should be p o ided o he mo ie indus y,
including policy incen i es and inancial assis ance, o p omo e he de elopmen o he ilm
sec o . In con as , in no he n and non-coas al ci ies whe e ai quali y is ela i ely be e ,
he ocus should be on s eng hening he egula ion o he mo ie ma ke , s anda dizing
ma ke o de , and imp o ing he o e all quali y o he mo ie indus y.
Fi h, s eng hen public awa eness campaigns and public pa icipa ion. The go e n-
men and ele an depa men s should s eng hen en i onmen al awa eness campaigns
o aise he public’s consciousness o en i onmen al p o ec ion and inc ease hei pa ic-
ipa ion. Th ough a ious channels and me hods, he public should be educa ed on he
haza ds o ai pollu ion and i s p e en ion, and encou aged o pa icipa e in en i onmen al
p o ec ion ac ions, such as educing p i a e ca usage and conse ing ene gy, in o de o
educe he emission o ai pollu an s om he sou ce.
Six h, p omo e in eg a ion o digi al and physical cinema expe iences. In ligh o
he shi in consume beha io —pa icula ly du ing pe iods o poo ai quali y o public
heal h conce ns— he e is signi ican po en ial o le e age digi al s eaming pla o ms as
a complemen a y mechanism o suppo he ilm indus y. Policymake s and indus y
s akeholde s should encou age pa ne ships be ween cinemas and majo s eaming se ices
(e.g., iQIYI, Tencen Video, Ne lix) o o e hyb id dis ibu ion models. Fo example, selec
ilms could be eleased simul aneously o sequen ially in hea e s and online, allowing
consume s in a eas wi h poo ai quali y o pa icipa e in new ilm eleases wi hou needing
o a el. This app oach could help s abilize indus y e enues du ing pe iods o low
in-pe son a endance while expanding access o ulne able g oups. A he same ime, by
bundling in- hea e expe iences wi h digi al bene i s (e.g., digi al ouche s, bonus con en ),
he indus y could s eng hen i s esilience and enhance audience engagemen ac oss bo h
physical and digi al pla o ms.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, W.M., Z.L. and Y.G.; me hodology, W.M. and Z.L.; so -
wa e, Z.L.; alida ion, Y.G.; o mal analysis, W.M. and Z.L.; esou ces, W.M.; da a cu a ion, Z.L.;
w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, W.M., Z.L. and Y.G.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, W.M. and Y.G.;
isualiza ion, Y.G.; supe ision, W.M. and Y.G. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was no equi ed as his s udy analyzed only
agg ega ed, publicly a ailable indus y da a om he En G oup Film & Tele ision pla o m.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da ase s gene a ed and analyzed du ing he cu en s udy a e no
publicly a ailable due o ongoing esea ch and analysis. Howe e , he da ase s a e a ailable om he
co esponding au ho upon easonable eques .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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