Innes, Melissa L
A icle
Explo ing indi idual o esigh : Implica ions o
o ganiza ional lea ning and inno a ion in i ms
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Innes, Melissa L (2024) : Explo ing indi idual o esigh : Implica ions o
o ganiza ional lea ning and inno a ion in i ms, Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK), ISSN
2444-569X, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 9, Iss. 4, pp. 1-16,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2024.100604
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Explo ing indi idual o esigh : Implica ions o o ganiza ional lea ning and
inno a ion in i ms
Melissa L Innes
*
Uni e si y o he Sunshine Coas , 90 Sippy Downs D i e, Sippy Downs, Queensland, 4556, Aus alia
ARTICLE INFO
JEL Codes:
D23
D83
O15
Keywo ds:
Indi idual o esigh
O ganiza ional lea ning
Inno a ion
Knowledge managemen
ABSTRACT
Co po a e o esigh (CF) is conside ed an o ganiza ional capabili y ha con ibu es o he inno a i eness and
sus ained compe i i e ad an age o i ms, pa icula ly in he p esence o o ganiza ional lea ning (OL). The
business li e a u e posi ions indi iduals as impo an o he CF p ocess bu i p o ides limi ed cla i ica ion abou
how indi iduals do o esigh o , mo e speci ically, how hey expe ience o esigh in o ganiza ions. Emb acing he
esou ce-based iew o he i m, his s udy p o ides unde s anding o how indi iduals use aci knowledge in
indi idual o esigh (IF) and engage in OL mechanisms o con ibu e o inno a i eness. The mic o- ounda ions o
IF a e examined o de e mine how employees expe ience IF in an o ganiza ional con ex . Adop ing a phenom-
enological app oach, 27 in e iews we e conduc ed wi h employees ac oss he inance and insu ance and u ili ies
indus ies, esul ing in a heo e ical amewo k o IF. Examining he li ewo ld o indi iduals as hey expe ience
o esigh e ealed a ich apes y o bo h pe sonal and in a-o ganiza ional social capi al in e ac ions use ul in
demons a ing he ole o IF o inno a ion in i ms. S o y elling, men o ship, and g oup e lec ion, suppo ed by
app op ia e cul u e, leade ship, and human esou ce s a egies, con i m he alue o os e ing IF o encou age
inno a ion. This s udy ad ances o esigh esea ch by b oadening unde s anding o IF om an employee pe -
spec i e—speci ically, how IF is expe ienced and can os e OL and inno a ion ou comes o i ms. Implica ions
o i ms and oppo uni ies o a u u e esea ch agenda a e p oposed.
In oduc ion
Knowledge is one o he mos aluable esou ces o any o ganiza ion.
Combined wi h o esigh , knowledge can esul in o ganiza ional-le el
o esigh compe ence, wi h powe ul ou comes leading o adical in-
no a ions and compe i i e ad an age o i ms (Fe gnani, 2022; Tibe -
ius, Schwa ze & Roig-Dob´
on, 2021). Ye , he e is limi ed unde s anding
o how aci knowledge unique o indi iduals in wo kplaces is used and
sha ed in he o esigh p ocess, and how his in luences inno a i eness.
A g ea e unde s anding o indi idual o esigh (IF), de ined as he
abili y o humans o imagine u u e scena ios by d awing on pas ex-
pe iences, planning u u e ac ions, and assessing hese ac ions o
de e mine u u e success (Innes, 2023), o e s mul iple oppo uni ies o
i ms and u u e esea che s.
Fi s , he alue o co po a e o esigh (CF) p ac ices o o ganiza ions
has been well es ablished (Fe gnani, 2022; Roh beck & Schwa z, 2013),
ye despi e he call o unde s and how o esigh is mani es ed and
expe ienced a he indi idual le el (Hodgkinson & Cla ke, 2007; Ma -
inko i´
c, Al-Tabbaa, Khan & Wu, 2022; Tapinos & Pype , 2018), ew
s udies ha e explo ed his phenomenon, wi h p ocess models ailing o
clea ly de ine he cogni i e abili ies unde aken in he p ocess o o e-
sigh (Ho on, 1999; Vo os, 2003). Second, a g ea e unde s anding is
needed o he bene i s o u u e- hinking o “an abili y o p ojec he sel
o wa d in ime o p e-expe ience an e en ” (A ance & O’Neill, 2001, p.
537) in o ganiza ions. The abili y o people o engage in u u e- hinking
and conside u u e consequences o decisions and ac ions con ibu es o
posi i e beha io al ou comes (P obs , G aso, Es ada & G ee , 2013),
imp o emen s in inno a i e choices, and mo e accu a e
decision-making (Ballance e al., 2022; Eisenba , Lo allo, Ga buio,
C is o a o & Dong, 2023). Finally, se e al cogni ions in ol ed in he
o esigh p ocess, including analysis, ansla ion, in e p e a ion, and
p ospec ion (Slaugh e , 1995; Vo os, 2003), can equi e hi d-pa y
in ol emen because o he cogni i e limi a ions o indi iduals
(Ho on, 1999). Thus, social lea ning, whe e aluable knowledge s ems
om he exchange o aci knowledge be ween employees (Hamel,
1994; Nonaka, 1994), becomes essen ial o he p ocesses o o esigh
and inno a ion (Ganguly, Talukda & Cha e jee, 2019; Ob eno ic, Du,
Godini´
c & Tsoy, 2022).
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed].
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2024.100604
Recei ed 26 July 2024; Accep ed 18 Oc obe 2024
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 9 (2024) 100604
A ailable online 9 No embe 2024
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CC BY-NC-ND license (
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Unde pinned by he esou ce-based iew (Ba ney, 1991), he
knowledge-based iew posi s ha o ganiza ional knowledge is one o
he mos impo an esou ces o an o ganiza ion (An unes & Pinhei o,
2020; G an , 1996). Pe sonal knowledge and expe ience in ol ed in he
IF p ocess is o en aci in na u e (Innes, 2023), meaning ha i is held by
indi iduals. This p esen s challenges o i ms, in e ms o how his
knowledge can be sha ed and os e ed o p oduce key ou comes a in-
di idual and o ganiza ional le els. Fi ms seeking o capi alize on inno-
a i e endea o s mus add ess his challenge because aci knowledge
plays a i al and posi i e ole in a i m’s inno a ions (An unes & Pin-
hei o, 2020; P´
e ez-Lu˜
no, Aleg e & Valle-Cab e a, 2019).
This pape ex ends exis ing o esigh esea ch and p esen s unique
insigh s in o he indi idual wo ld o o esigh o employees. Th ough
he phenomenological explo a ion o IF unde aken ac oss wo in-
dus ies, his pape de ines IF in o ganiza ions and posi ions IF as a
aluable con ibu o o lea ning and inno a i eness in i ms. Respond-
ing o he cen al esea ch ques ion—How do employees expe ience
indi idual o esigh in o ganiza ions and how does his con ibu e o
o ganiza ional lea ning and inno a ion ou comes o i ms?— his s udy
e ealed insigh s used o de elop a heo e ical amewo k o IF. Theo-
e ical con ibu ions o o esigh li e a u e, knowledge managemen
(KM), o ganiza ional lea ning (OL), and inno a ion a e p esen ed, along
wi h p ac ical implica ions o i ms, limi a ions o he s udy, and a
u u e esea ch agenda.
Li e a u e e iew
Co po a e o esigh
CF has ecen ly been de ined as “a con inuous p ocess, ha in ol es
CF ini ial condi ions (i.e., mo i a ions), in e nal mechanisms (i.e., ac-
i i ies and ools), bounda y condi ions (i.e., mode a o s and in luencing
ac o s), and ou pu (i.e., CF mul iple ou comes)” (Ma inko i´
c e al.,
2022, p. 291). Fu he , and ele an o he in e nal mechanisms no ed in
his de ini ion, CF has been posi ioned as one o he mic o- ounda ions
o dynamic capabili ies (Schwa z, Roh beck & Wach, 2020), hus
inc easing he need o esea ch ocused on unde s anding he ole o
manage ial cogni ion and o he dynamic manage ial capabili ies a he
indi idual le el in he CF p ocess. The e has been limi ed p og ess hus
a , in unde s anding he ole o indi iduals in CF.
Slaugh e (1995, p. 47) o iginally posi ioned indi iduals as key o he
o esigh p ocess, desc ibing o esigh as a pa o “ he ich wo ld o
unde s anding and pe cep ion made possible by he human b ain/mind
sys ems.” Bu while Slaugh e (1995) acknowledged ha se e al cog-
ni ions we e equi ed in he o esigh p ocess, such as assessing,
de ec ing, and in e p e ing si ua ions, Slaugh e also desc ibed he
me hodology o u u es wo k in e ms o using o malized ools such as
en i onmen al scanning, scena io analysis, and Delphi su ey me hods.
To be e unde s and how indi iduals con ibu e o he o esigh p o-
cess, an explo a ion o indi idual-le el cogni ion and o he o esigh
skills is equi ed. Hel a and Ma in’s (2015) posi ioning o manage ial
cogni ion as a con ibu o o dynamic manage ial capabili ies suppo s
his app oach, hus posi ioning indi idual-le el o esigh as a po en ial
con ibu o o he co e capabili ies o a i m. Following Teece, Pisano
and Shuen (1997) seminal wo k ha es ablished dynamic capabili ies as
a key con ibu o o o ganiza ional compe i i eness, Majo , Asch and
Co dey-Hayes (2001), p. 103) p oposed ha o esigh is a i m’s “co e
compe ence.” Gi en ha one o he key cha ac e is ics o co e compe-
encies is collec i e lea ning in o ganiza ions (Chuang, Chen & Lin,
2016), posi ioning o esigh as a co e compe ence has posi i e impli-
ca ions o in es iga ing IF, due o he emphasis on collec i e lea ning
inhe en in indi idual abili ies. This esea ch esponds o Majo e al.
(2001) call o in es iga e how IF abili y is ans e ed in o i m o esigh
capabili y, leading o a cul u e o o ganiza ional o esigh . Fu he , and
gi en he p e alence o g oups in decision-making in o ganiza ions and
he es ablished ole o bo h indi idual and g oup cogni ion in he
o esigh p ocess (Roh beck, Ba is ella & Huizingh, 2015), his s udy
answe s he call o a clea unde s anding o how indi iduals in o ga-
niza ions expe ience o esigh , ul ima ely con ibu ing o a i m’s o e-
sigh capabili y.
Indi idual o esigh
IF is de ined as “ he abili y o humans o imagine u u e scena ios by
d awing on pas expe iences, planning u u e ac ions, and assessing
hese ac ions o de e mine u u e success” (Innes, 2023). The phenom-
enon o p ojec ing onesel in o he men al pas ( emembe ing) o u u e
(imagining) is acco ded he e m men al ime a el (MTT) (Suddendo
& Co ballis, 1997) and o igina ed om he ea ly wo k o Endel Tul ing
(1972). To acili a e humans’ abili y o emembe and imagine, he
p ocess o MTT in ol es se e al memo y sys ems: hei unc ion essen-
ial in unde s anding o esigh abili y in humans. Wheele , S uss and
Tul ing (1997) explained ha he episodic memo y sys em media es
MTT because i acili a es he ecollec ion o pe sonal happenings and
e en s om a pe son’s pas , as well as he men al p ojec ion o e en s in
a pe son’s u u e. Tul ing (2001) cla i ied ha episodic memo y is a
pas -o ien ed memo y sys em ha enables humans o eexpe ience ou
memo ies. Pu simply, episodic memo y “…allows us o emembe
pe sonally expe ienced e en s, and o a el backwa ds in ime o
e-expe ience hose e en s” (A ance & O’Neill, 2001, p. 533). Howe e ,
in o esigh , episodic memo y depends on seman ic memo y o
emembe and hen imagine u u e scena ios (Tul ing, 2001). Seman ic
memo y is ou “gene al knowledge abou he wo ld, o he so ha is
no mally common o people o a gi en cul u e…” (Suddendo & Co -
ballis, 1997). The alue in unde s anding hese di e en memo y sys-
ems comes in conside ing he ele ance o employee knowledge and
expe ience o IF, in addi ion o he na u e o aci and explici knowledge
in i ms.
Episodic memo ies a e aci in na u e (Eisenha d & San os, 2002)—
ha is, hey a e linked o he indi idual and a e e y di icul and
some imes impossible o a icula e. Al hough aci knowledge is di icul
o access, sha ing his knowledge is deemed c ucial o OL and inno a ion
(An unes & Pinhei o, 2020; Ganguly e al., 2019; Ob eno ic e al.,
2022). This holds implica ions o KM and OL in o ganiza ions, and
poin s o he ad an age o explo ing he IF expe ience in o ganiza ions
o unde s and s a egies ha can be used o ans e knowledge in he IF
p ocess.
Human esou ce (HR) p ac i ione s could play a i al ole in acili-
a ing OL s a egies ha could po en ially d aw on IF insigh s. An unes
and Pinhei o (2020) a gued ha HR p ac ices a e key in c ea ing,
sha ing, and using knowledge ha is gene a ed in o ganiza ions. Gi en
he po en ial ole o IF in knowledge c ea ion and sha ing, i would be
bene icial o unde s and how indi iduals expe ience IF o in e ac as
pa o he IF p ocess o empowe HR p ac i ione s o s a egize o OL
and inno a ion ou comes. Nonaka’s (1994) modes o knowledge c ea-
ion demons a e he oppo uni ies o sha ing po en ially aci IF
knowledge in o ganiza ions. Fo example, i IF knowledge is deemed
aci in na u e, ye bene icial o o he s akeholde s in he o ganiza ion,
ac i i ies associa ed wi h Nonaka’s socializa ion mode, such as
on- he-job aining o men o ing, should be p io i ized, gi en ha hese
ac i i ies success ully acili a e knowledge ans e be ween wo ke s
(Al-Zoubi, Masa’deh & Twaissi, 2022; Fa nese, Ba bie i, Chi umbolo &
Pa io a, 2019; Nonaka, 1994). I his IF knowledge was hen deemed
impo an o he wide o ganiza ion, Nonaka’s in e na ionaliza ion
mode, such as OL s a egies, could be p io i ized o knowledge sha ing,
and so o h (Nonaka, 1994).
Unde s anding he indi idual-le el cogni ion in ol ed in IF will
make a unique con ibu ion o CF esea ch. Ma inko i´
c e al. (2022)
es ablished a gap in CF esea ch, whe e u u e e o s should ocus on he
mic o- ounda ions o a i m’s dynamic capabili ies o be e unde s and
how cogni ion and decision-making con ibu e o CF ac i i ies. This
suppo s ea lie esea ch by Vo os (2003) and Ho on (1999) which
M.L. Innes
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 9 (2024) 100604
2
iden i ied se e al cogni i e p ocesses unde aken by indi iduals
engaged in he o esigh p ocess, including analysis, ansla ion, in e -
p e a ion, and p ospec ion. In e es ingly, manage s o en equi ed a
hi d pa y in his p ocess (Ho on, 1999), highligh ing he alue o
social lea ning in o ganiza ions, whe e aluable knowledge s ems om
he exchange o aci knowledge be ween employees (Nonaka, 1994;
Zollo & Win e , 2002). Seeking u he cla i ica ion on how indi iduals
d aw on ei he o mal o in o mal social ne wo ks in o esigh , and how
hey expe ience o esigh a an indi idual le el, would assis o ganiza-
ions and HR p ac i ione s in designing ele an wo k sys ems and
p ac ices o suppo OL and ela ed phenomena such as IF and
inno a ion.
O ganiza ional lea ning and inno a ion
OL and KM ha e long been associa ed wi h i ms’ inno a ion pe -
o mance. KM bene i s i ms h ough “o ganiza ional lea ning,
imp o ed cus ome in e ac ion, inno a ions, inc eased p o i , enhanced
ope a ional p ocesses, and as e decision-making” (Id ees, Xu, Haide &
Tehseen, 2023, p. 8). Fi ms seeking o de elop a cul u e o OL o suppo
knowledge sha ing mus os e au onomy, open communica ion, in e -
ac i i y, and indi idual conside a eness, and gene a e pe cei ed o ga-
niza ional suppo which leads o inno a i e beha io by employees
(Tsai, 2018). Gi en he p oposed aci na u e o IF knowledge, insigh s
gained om esea ching IF in i ms could play a i al ole in unde -
s anding how IF knowledge is gene a ed, sha ed, and cap u ed h ough
OL p ac ices ha os e a cul u e ha suppo s inno a i e and o e-
sigh ul ou comes.
Along wi h cul u e, leade ship s yle plays a signi ican ole in
os e ing o hinde ing o esigh and inno a ion beha io in i ms (Lei,
Leaungkhamma & Le, 2020; Schwa z e al., 2020). Sco and B uce
(1994) showed many yea s ago ha employees who pe cei e he ela-
ionship wi h hei supe iso as high in us , suppo and au onomy
will eel ha hei o ganiza ion suppo s hem o be inno a i e. Mo e
ecen s udies demons a e he ongoing impo ance o he supe -
iso –employee ela ionship o inno a ion, indica ing ha employees
wi h heal hy supe iso ela ionships eel mo e con iden ha hei
inno a i e beha io will esul in pe o mance gains (Yuan &
Woodman, 2010). These employees a e also mo e likely o be c ea i e
and seek new and imp o ed ways o unde aking hei wo k
(Da ishmo e ali, 2019). Howe e , he dea h o esea ch in es iga ing
leade ship o supe iso y app oaches ha encou age IF beha io in
o ganiza ions highligh s he alue o his s udy in gaining insigh s abou
os e ing a o esigh ul cul u e, leading o bene icial OL and inno a ion
ou comes.
Cu en s a egies ha encou age inno a i e indi idual and g oup
beha io s in o ganiza ions could be mo e e ec i ely aimed owa d
employees’ IF pu sui s. This is pa icula ly impo an gi en he a gu-
men p esen ed by Fe gnani (2022), ha o esigh , as an
o ganiza ional-le el capabili y (Roh beck e al., 2015), is s onge when
a g ea e numbe o employees a di e en le els o he o ganiza ion a e
empowe ed o con ibu e o he o esigh p ocess. In he inno a ion
ealm, Tsai (2018) demons a ed ha knowledge wo ke s’ inno a i e
beha io s (de ined as oppo uni y explo a ion, idea gene a ion, idea
championing, and idea implemen a ion) inc eases wi h
pay- o -pe o mance incen i es ha inco po a e alued social exchange
a ibu es such as ela i e posi ion, con ol, and pe sonal impo ance.
Demons a ing he alue o a suppo i e cul u e, Tsai (2018, p. 1716)
also con i med ha pe cei ed o ganiza ional suppo , de ined as “ he
pe cep ions o employees ha he o ganiza ion alues hei wo k
con ibu ion, ca es o hei well-being, ul ils hei socio-psychological
needs and helps hem o sol e wo k p oblems” has a mo e posi i e e ec
on inno a i e beha io han pe cei ed pay equi y. Wi hou unde -
s anding how employees unde ake o engage wi h IF in o ganiza ions, i
will be di icul o HR p ac i ione s o plan app op ia e s a egies o
pu sue o esigh capabili y.
OL has been shown o c ea e compe i i e ad an age o i ms, wi h
KM and inno a ion ac i i ies s eng hening his ela ionship (Kamya,
N ayi & Ahiauzu, 2011). The posi i e ela ionship be ween knowledge
c ea ion and inno a ion is suppo ed by Rezaei, Allameh and Ansa i
(2018), who a gued ha knowledge c ea ion has a posi i e e ec on OL.
Bu i ms need o con inue o os e a cul u e o inno a ion. Lam,
Nguyen, Le and T an (2021) ound ha an inno a ion cul u e wi h
es ablished mu ual us , collabo a ion, and lea ning, acili a ed by
suppo i e and pa icipa i e leade s will lead o inc eased KM p ac ices
esul ing in enhanced inno a ion capabili y (Lam e al., 2021). This
p esen s se e al oppo uni ies when conside ing he po en ial ole o IF
in knowledge c ea ion and lea ning.
The pe cei ed na u e o an employee’s wo k may a ec hei inno-
a i eness. An employee can be less mo i a ed o apply new ideas when
hey don’ pe cei e ha new ideas a e help ul o hei wo k o belie e
ha o he s will judge hei ideas as in alid (Yuan & Woodman, 2010).
Gi en ha u u e- hinking, a main ea u e o IF, gene a es posi i e
beha io al ou comes (P obs e al., 2013), imp o ed inno a i e choices
and g ea e accu acy in decision-making (Ballance e al., 2022; Eisen-
ba e al., 2023), o ganiza ions would bene i om unde s anding how
o os e a cul u e ha encou ages IF and a pe cep ion o opennes o new
employee ideas o imp o emen s.
O ganiza ions ha os e u u e- hinking concu en ly c ea e
knowledge, inc easing hei compe i i e ad an age (Eisenba e al.,
2023). Fi ms would need o conside he alue o e aining his new IF
co po a e knowledge h ough longe - enu ed employees, gi en ha he
knowledge base o i ms inc eases wi h g ea e e en ion (Du Plessis,
2007). IF in o ganiza ions is a po en ially aluable sou ce o knowledge
c ea ion. As such, and aligned wi h Zheng, Zhang and Du (2011) heo-
e ical model o knowledge-based dynamic capabili ies (KBDC), IF could
be posi ioned as a i al con ibu o o he knowledge-gene a ing capa-
bili y o he i m, o he “abili y o de elop and e ine he ac i i ies and
p ocesses ha acili a e c ea ing/gene a ing new knowledge” (p. 1039).
This s udy p o ides new insigh s ha can help academia and p ac i-
ione s ac oss mul iple indus ies inc ease hei unde s anding and
enhance hei p ac ices ela ed o os e ing IF in i ms.
Explo ing indi idual o esigh in i ms
The li e a u e e eals a dea h o knowledge cen e ed on he indi-
idual expe ience o o esigh in o ganiza ions and how IF could
con ibu e o aluable OL ac i i ies and inno a ion ou comes. Gi en he
posi ioning o CF as a dynamic capabili y o he i m (Schwa z e al.,
2020), and o manage ial cogni ion as a key con ibu o o dynamic
manage ial capabili ies (Hel a & Ma in, 2015), his s udy will p o ide
much needed insigh s ega ding he indi idual expe ience and p ocesses
unde aken in IF a he indi idual le el in o ganiza ions. Fu he , gi en
he impo ance o collec i e lea ning in de eloping co e compe encies in
i ms (Chuang e al., 2016), in es iga ing IF as one o he
mic o- ounda ions o o esigh capabili y will espond o he call by
Majo e al. (2001)) ha g ea e knowledge is needed abou how IF
abili y is ans e ed in o i m o esigh capabili y i we a e o pu sue
o esigh capabili y in i ms.
In es iga ing IF, wi h i s aluable componen o u u e- hinking
(A ance & O’Neill, 2001), p esen s an impo an oppo uni y o unde -
s and he ole o IF in d i ing imp o ed decision-making, bo h in indi-
idual and g oup se ings— esponding o Roh beck e al. (2015)
ecommenda ion o be e unde s and indi idual and g oup cogni ion in
he o esigh p ocess. Inhe en in employee decisions–—and in IF—is
he aci knowledge possessed by employees. G ea e unde s anding o
how employees use hei pe sonal knowledge and expe ience, and how
hey migh sha e hei knowledge du ing IF, is c ucial in es ablishing
s ong OL p ac ices ha suppo knowledge c ea ion, sha ing and
dissemina ion o inno a ion in i ms. HR p ac i ione s would bene i
om hese insigh s when de eloping clea HR s a egies a ge ed a
os e ing o esigh ul and inno a i e o ganiza ional cul u es. In u n,
M.L. Innes
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 9 (2024) 100604
3
supe iso s and leade s would be e unde s and he beha io s ha
encou age inno a i e and o esigh ul decision-making om employees,
and HR policies a ound pe o mance, ecogni ion and ewa d could
suppo i ms’ endea o s o inno a i e ou comes.
To explo e hese many new aspec s o o esigh , each ocused on he
indi idual expe ience o o esigh in i ms, his s udy needs o examine
IF as a new phenomenon. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) posi ed ha
quali a i e esea ch is ideal o explo ing new phenomena because o i s
in e p e i e and na u alis ic app oach. A quali a i e app oach in ol es
in e p e i e p ac ices ha add ess esea ch p oblems h ough hei
applica ion in a na u al se ing—conside ing he people and places
cen al o he s udy— o a i e a a inal in e p e a ion o he p oblem
(C eswell, 2013). He meneu ical phenomenology ocuses on he in e -
p e a ion o ex s o unde s and he li ewo ld o he pa icipan ele an
o he phenomenon and would be ideally sui ed o his s udy. Howe e ,
se e al academics ha e p oposed al e na i e quali a i e app oaches o
emphasize he impo ance o he meneu ics, ideog aphy, and symbolic
in e ac ionism in phenomenology (Ea ough & Smi h, 2008; Smi h,
Flowe s & La kin, 2009), and hese di e ences a e cap u ed in he newe
phenomenological app oach o in e p e a i e phenomenological anal-
ysis (IPA), which was adop ed o his s udy because o he symbolic
in e ac ionism implied om esea ching pa icipan s (employees) in
hei li ewo ld ( hei o ganiza ion).
In e ms o de eloping he esea ch ques ion, an Manen (1990)
explica ed ha he phenomenological esea che “mus ‘pull’ he eade
in o he ques ion in such a way ha he eade canno help bu wonde
abou he na u e o he phenomenon in ha way ha he human sci-
en is does” (p. 44). In i s essence, phenomenological esea ch demands
ha we s ee away om he magne ic pull owa d heo e ical abs ac-
ion in o de o inspi e he eade in o an inquisi i e mindse o “ques-
ion deeply he e y hing ha is being ques ioned by he ques ion” ( an
Manen, 1990, p. 44)—in his case, he phenomenon o IF in o ganiza-
ions and i s ele ance o OL and inno a ion ou comes. The e o e, he
ollowing induc i e quali a i e esea ch ques ion aims o add ess he
oppo uni ies highligh ed in he li e a u e o imp o e unde s anding o
he phenomenon o IF in o ganiza ions and explo e i s implica ions o
OL and inno a ion:
How do employees expe ience indi idual o esigh in o ganiza ions and
how does his con ibu e o o ganiza ional lea ning and inno a ion ou -
comes o i ms?
Me hods
Me hodology
The in en ion o his s udy is o ocus on he li ed expe ience o
indi iduals expe iencing he phenomenon o IF in hei o ganiza ional
con ex . The in e p e i e pa adigm suppo s he implici na u e in which
esea che s seek o unde s and he social wo ld as i is; ha is, o
in e p e he social wo ld subjec i ely, h ough he pe sonal expe ience
o hose expe iencing hei social wo ld (Bu ell & Mo gan, 1992).
The e o e, esea ching IF in o ganiza ions implies an in e p e i e
pa adigm. In e p e i e social science emphasizes he unique expe ience
o humans and aims o cap u e he social na u e o human li e (Neuman,
2007), wi h an emphasis on cap u ing he ole o indi iduals’ subjec i e
expe iences as communica ed h ough ex (i.e., language) (Neuman,
1997). When desc ibing he s uc u e o he in e p e i e pa adigm,
Bu ell and Mo gan (1992) iden i ied he meneu ics and phenomenology
as wo possible app oaches.
He meneu ics in ol es he in e p e a ion and de elopmen o un-
de s anding o ou pu s om he human mind (Bu ell & Mo gan, 1992).
Dil hey (1976, as ci ed in Bu ell & Mo gan, 1992) a gued ha o un-
de s and a phenomenon and gain objec i e knowledge abou ha phe-
nomenon, we mus i s expe ience he phenomenon h ough ecalling
he li ed expe ience o he pa icipan wi h ha phenomenon. In
ela ion o his s udy, gi en he indi idual (idiosync a ic and no
nomo he ic) expe ience in which IF is being explo ed wi hin hei li e-
wo ld, and he emphasis on in e p e i ism, he meneu ical phenome-
nology is a mo e closely aligned epis emological app oach.
He meneu ical phenomenology is conce ned wi h esea ch ha is
in e es ed in he li ed expe ience o indi iduals. an Manen (1990)
desc ibed he meneu ical phenomenology as ocusing on he in e p e-
a ion o li e ex s o unde s and he li ewo ld o he pa icipan , ele an
o he phenomenon. He de ined he li ewo ld as “… he wo ld as we
immedia ely expe ience i p e- e lec i ely a he han as we concep u-
alize, ca ego ize, o e lec on i ”; wi h li e ex in li e al e ms meaning
w i en ma e ials ( o example, an in e iew ansc ip o w i en de-
sc ip ions) which p o ide insigh in o he li ed human expe ience o a
phenomenon ( an Manen, 1990, p. 9). Fo his s udy, he li ewo ld o he
pa icipan is he o ganiza ion in which hey wo k, wi h IF being he
phenomenon s udied. The aim o his s udy, he e o e, is o esea ch he
li ed expe ience o employees in o ganiza ions who a e engaging wi h,
o doing, IF, and hen conside he implica ions o hese empi ical
indings o OL and inno a ion in i ms. Thus, he phenomenological
app oach o IPA has been adop ed o his s udy.
P oponen s o he IPA and he meneu ical phenomenological
app oach ha e a gued ha b acke ing ou he esea che ’s expe ience
and unde s anding om he analy ical p ocess is no possible (Finlay,
2012; Rennie, 2000). The ole o he esea che is a unique and
impo an aspec o he IPA app oach; hus, i is ele an o unde s and
he esea che ’s expe ience and ole in he s udy. In his s udy, h ough a
a ie y o esea ch and leade ship posi ions, he esea che ’s skills in
p o essional communica ion, coupled wi h abili ies o empa hize, lis en
ac i ely and p obe e ec i ely du ing in e iews, aided in he collec ion
o ich da a. Sel -awa eness o biases acili a ed an in ended “wi h-
holding” o pe sonal iewpoin s o allow he pa icipan s maximum
oppo uni y o e lec on hei own li ewo ld. A log was main ained o
eco d “hunches, specula ions, [and] hough s abou he ela ions
among ca ego ies”, e med heo e ical memoing (Glase & S auss,
1967, as ci ed in Rennie, 2000). This p ocess was used ollowing each
in e iew, which objec i ied he he meneu ic p ocess h ough which he
esea che a i ed a an unde s anding o IF in o ganiza ions.
Resea ch con ex and case selec ion
This s udy adop ed a pu posi e sampling app oach o judgemen
sampling (Ca ana, Delahaye & Seka an, 2001). Six HR expe s p o ided
insigh s o e eal which wo indus ies and which employees would be
mos app op ia e o he s udy. The esea che app oached o ganiza-
ions in hese indus ies ia email and p o ided employees wi h in o -
ma ion abou he s udy and app op ia e con ac de ails. Pa icipan s
hen con ac ed he esea che i in e es ed in aking pa . The inal
sample comp ised 27 IPA in e iews ac oss manage ial and
non-manage ial posi ions. In e iews las ing be ween 40 and 60 min
each we e held wi h 12 employees om an o ganiza ion wi hin he
inance and insu ance indus y (six emales and six males), and 15
employees om an o ganiza ion wi hin he u ili ies indus y ( h ee e-
males and 12 males) in Aus alia. As he inal sample o 27 is a la ge IPA
sample, Smi h e al. (2009) sugges ed es ablishing ecu en hemes and
iden i ying pe cen ages (e.g., 30%, 75%) o he sample o which he
heme is p esen .
The IPA in e iew p o ocol and p ocess
The in e iew p o ocol was de eloped in alignmen wi h Be an’s
(2014) h ee key in e iew domains o desc ip i e phenomenological
in e iewing: con ex ualiza ion, app ehending he phenomenon, and
cla i ying he phenomenon. Con ex ualiza ion p o ides an oppo uni y
o pa icipan s o begin hei in e iew as close as possible o hei
li ewo ld using desc ip i e/na a i e con ex ques ions (Be an, 2014).
App ehending he phenomenon ocuses he pa icipan ’s expe ience on
M.L. Innes
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 9 (2024) 100604
4
he phenomenon o in e es i sel , and using epea ed desc ip i e ques-
ions is ecommended o o e come he issue ha pa icipan s may
expe ience many “modes o appea ance” o a “ hing o expe ience”
(Sokolowski, 2000, as ci ed in Be an, 2014, p. 140). Finally, o cla i y
he phenomenon, he use o ee imagina i e a ia ion is equi ed,
which an Manen (1990, pp. 106—107) desc ibed how he esea che
de e mines which hemes o a phenomenon a e essen ial, compa ed o
hose which a e “mo e inciden ally ela ed” o ha phenomenon.
P o iding some con ex and p epa a ion o he in e iew is consis en
wi h Smi h e al. (2009) ecommenda ion o socialize pa icipan s by
p o iding hem wi h in o ma ion use ul o hei in e iew p epa a ion
(i.e., expec ed iming, an in e iew schedule, o a summa y o main
p inciples). Be an’s h ee-s age p ocess o mo ing om con ex ualiza-
ion h ough o imagina i e a ia ion cap u es he essence o he Smi h
e al. (2009) discussion a ound hy hm in he IPA in e iew. He e, he
au ho s a emp o p o ide guidance o he esea che on he na u e o
IPA in e iews mo ing om he speci ic o he gene ic. Inco po a ing
hese aspec s in o he in e iew p ocess maximized he oppo uni y o
ga he quali y da a and main ain au hen ici y ( us wo hiness, igo ,
and alidi y) o he phenomenological inqui y, as desc ibed by Guba and
Lincoln (2005).
Da a collec ion
Pa icipan s ecei ed an email one week p io o hei in e iew wi h
in o ma ion abou he IF phenomenon. The objec i e was o build a
sha ed unde s anding o he phenomenon o IF ha would be explo ed
du ing he in e iew. The esea che asked pa icipan s o ecall wo o
h ee key ins ances in hei wo king li e whe e hey ha e been equi ed
o d aw on pe sonal expe ience o make decisions abou hei cu en
ac ions, which ha e hen impac ed on hei u u e job ou comes (i.e.,
using IF). The pu pose o he IPA in e iew is d i en by he esea ch
ques ion. The in e iewe helps he pa icipan o ell hei s o y; he
in e iewe ’s ask is simply o lis en (Smi h e al., 2009). P omp s we e
posi ioned in he p o ocol o o e come case ques ions ha we e oo
gene al o abs ac (Smi h & Shinebou ne, 2012). In e iews we e
conduc ed in p i a e se ings and audio eco ded wi h ull seman ic
eco ds o he in e iew being ansc ibed as a equi emen o IPA da a
analysis (Smi h & Osbo n, 2004; Smi h e al., 2009). T ansc ip ions we e
i s p ocessed h ough O e .ai (a web-based speech o ex ansc ip-
ion echnology so wa e) and hen checked o accu acy and
de-iden i ied.
Da a analysis
The analy ic p ocess o IPA is desc ibed by Reid e al. (2005, as ci ed
in Smi h e al., 2009, p. 79) as:
…a se o common p ocesses (e.g., mo ing om he pa icula o he
sha ed, and om he desc ip i e o he in e p e i e) and p inciples
(e.g., a commi men o an unde s anding o he pa icipan ’s poin o
iew, and a psychological ocus on pe sonal meaning-making in
pa icula con ex s) which a e applied lexibly, acco ding o he
analy ic ask.
Table 1 de ails he IPA analysis p ocess ad oca ed by Smi h e al.
(2009) and he ac i i ies unde aken in his s udy o each s ep o a i e
a he eme gen hemes ha unde pin he esul s o his s udy.
Fo S eps One and Two, no es we e de eloped as he esea che
p og essed, o o m pa o he e lexi e memoing p ocess (Glase &
S auss, 1967, as ci ed in Rennie, 2000). Ini ial no ing (Smi h e al.,
2009) was unde aken and al hough i was an ex emely ime-in ensi e
and de ailed me hod, i enabled he esea che o ge as close as possible
o he pa icipan s’ expe iences a an explo a o y le el. Each ansc ip
was examined om h ee di e en pe spec i es: desc ip i e (no mal
on ), linguis ic (i alics on ) and concep ual (unde lined on ), and
commen s we e added o each (see example in Table 2).
Table 1
IPA analysis p ocess.
IPA analysis p ocess Analy ical Ac i i ies o his s udy
S ep One: Reading and e- eading
S ep Two^: Ini ial no ing
^S eps 1 and 2 me ge ollowing he
ini ial ansc ip eading, such ha
eading, and no e- aking will occu
a he same ime h ough he
analysis
The esea che imme sed hemsel es in he
o iginal da a, beginning wi h he i s
o iginal ansc ip
In e iews we e eco ded, esea che
lis ened o he eco ding o he in e iew
while eading ansc ip and imagining
oice o pa icipan o u u e eadings
The esea che ead and e- ead he
ansc ip o o ien o a slowe p ocess o
ocusing on he pa icipan as he ocus o
analysis
Immedia ely ollowing each in e iew, he
esea che unde ook e lexi e memoing
(jou naling) o con ibu e o he objec i e
na u e o he w i e-up o esul s. This
aligned wi h Smi h e al. (2009)
ecommenda ion ha he esea che
eco ds hei own obse a ions abou he
in e iew ecollec ion, and eco d he mos
s iking obse a ions in a jou nal o
b acke hem o while o ien ing o he
pa icipan expe ience du ing his ini ial
s age
The esea che main ained an open mind
and no ed any hing o in e es wi hin he
ansc ip ( his p ocess became S ep Two,
ini ial no ing)
This s ep ep esen ed a ee ex ual
analysis (i.e., he e is no equi emen a
his s age o di ide ex in o meaning uni s)
Ini ial no ing was unde aken obse ing
he ollowing app oach:
Desc ip i e commen s: p oduc ion o a
comp ehensi e and de ailed se o no es
and commen s on he da a ( i s le el
anno a ion)
Linguis ic commen s: Focusing on
language use o no e when language use
and con en a e clea ly in e ela ed ( o
example use o epe i ion, change in one)
(second le el anno a ion)
Concep ual commen s: Shi ing in ocus
owa ds he pa icipan ’s o e a ching
unde s anding o issues hey a e
discussing. This is a ime-consuming
p ocess o concep ually in e p e ing he
da a h ough discussion, e lec ion,
ial-and-e o and e inemen o ideas
( hi d le el anno a ion).
As pa o S ep 2, Theo e ical memoing
(Glase and S auss in Rennie, 2000) was
unde aken o each indi idual ansc ip
whe e a log was kep o eco d “hunches,
specula ions, [and] hough s abou he
ela ions among ca ego ies.” This
app oach in ol ed he esea che
add essing he double he meneu ic p ocess
by de eloping heo e ical memos a e
e isi ing each ansc ip case.
S ep Th ee: De eloping eme gen
hemes
Using la ge da a se comp ising o iginal
ansc ip s and no es, he esea che
educes he olume o de ail (i.e.,
ansc ip and o iginal no es) whils
main aining complexi y, in e ms o
mapping he in e ela ionships,
connec ions and pa e ns be ween
explo a o y no es
Focusing on disc e e chunks o ansc ip
he esea che analyzed explo a o y
commen s
The o iginal whole o he in e iew
became a se o pa s (which comes
oge he in a new whole a he end o he
analysis in he w i e up)
(con inued on nex page)
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5
In S ep Th ee, he esea che p oceeded wi h de eloping eme gen
hemes. This equi ed ca e ul obse a ion o he ini ial no ing commen s
o ensu e au hen ici y and in eg i y in s aying as close as possible o he
pa icipan ’s li ewo ld while de eloping s a emen s o ph ases ha a e
“ e ealing abou he phenomenon o expe ience being desc ibed” ( an
Table 1 (con inued)
IPA analysis p ocess Analy ical Ac i i ies o his s udy
Eme gen hemes e lec ed he
pa icipan s’ o iginal wo ds and hough s
and he esea che ’s in e p e a ion.
S ep Fou : Sea ching o connec ions
ac oss eme gen hemes
T ansc ip s we e ans e ed in o NVi o
whe e Eme gen Themes (codes in NVi o)
we e de eloped and obse ed om one
case o he nex
Resea che de eloped NVi o p ojec maps
o each case iden i ying connec ions
ac oss eme gen hemes wi hin each case
a i ing a case-speci ic concep ual maps
Wo king wi h he se s o hemes
de eloped, he esea che de eloped a
sunbu s cha o each case
Resea che wo ked on how hemes i
oge he (i.e., clus e ing ela ed hemes)
de eloping ables ep esen ing an
eme gen heme (o se o hemes)
As pe Smi h e al. (2009) some hemes
we e disca ded (no all need be
inco po a ed), dependen on RQ, he
esea che ’s inno a ion and o ganiza ion
o analysis
In sea ching o pa e ns and connec ions
be ween eme gen hemes, he esea che
included abs ac ion, subsump ion,
pola iza ion, and con ex ualiza ion o he
hemes o a i e a supe o dina e hemes
( e e o Smi h e al. (2009) o u he
explana ion o hese sugges ions)
S ep Fi e: Mo ing o he nex case In s udies wi h mul iple cases, Smi h e al.
(2009) sugges he esea che mo es o he
nex case and epea he p ocess, ea ing
each case on i s own e ms
Resea che epea ed he p ocess,
b acke ing ideas ha eme ged om he
analysis o each case as hey p og essed he
analysis (wi h e lexi e memoing)
The e is acknowledgmen ha du ing he
epea ed analyses o cases, he esea che
will be in luenced by wha hey ound in
ea lie cases. Howe e , an impo an skill
in IPA is o allow new hemes o eme ge
wi h each case
Following he de elopmen and analysis o
eme gen hemes, he esea che e u ned
o he ini ial sc ip o each case (now
being awa e o he inal se o eme gen
hemes), and wi hou e e ing o he da a
om NVi o, 1) de eloped inal e lexi e
memo no es o each case (in Excel), 2)
iden i ied he op h ee o i e eme gen
hemes ele an o each case (in Excel),
and 3) compa ed hese wi h he esul s
om NVi o o check eliabili y o he
p ocess, and alidi y o he eme gen
hemes
Al hough sligh a ia ions exis ed, his was
deemed highly app op ia e, gi en he
quali a i e na u e o he da a, and he
conside a ion o smalle , o less equen ly
coded hemes ha may be key o he case
and eme ged om he da a
This p ocess in o med he de elopmen o
supe o dina e hemes obse ed ac oss
e e y case (see S ep 6).
S ep Six: Looking o pa e ns ac oss
cases
Resea che b ough oge he eme gen
hemes om S eps 4 and 5, seeking
connec ions be ween cases and hemes
Ques ions in his s ep include: Wha
connec ions a e he e ac oss cases? How do
hemes in one case illumina e a di e en
case? Which hemes a e he mos po en ?
Using Excel and he hemes eme ging
ac oss cases, his led o he de elopmen o
supe o dina e hemes which we e sha ed
Table 1 (con inued)
IPA analysis p ocess Analy ical Ac i i ies o his s udy
ac oss cases
This s ep iden i ied ways in which
pa icipan s ep esen ed unique
idiosync a ic ins ances and sha ed highe
o de supe o dina e hemes wi hin he
g oup
The ou come o his s ep was a able
summa izing eme gen hemes as nes ed
wi hin supe o dina e hemes, illus a ing
conside a ion o hemes om each case.
Table 2
Example o Hugh’s ini ial no ing p ocess.
In e iew ansc ip exce p Ini ial no ing example
I’m cons an ly assessing he asks ha he
si ua ion is, and hen making su e ha
I’m dealing wi h he highes p io i ies.
And hen coming back down and
checking on he nex lowe ones and
some o ha ’s men al, and some o ha
we, you know, we ha e an inciden
managemen oom ha is se up and
designed o help us acili a e ha
hinking. So, we w i e ou ac ions up on
he boa d. We a e, you know, we know,
we’ e go he ime o ou nex
sequence o be issued ou o people,
we’ e go key s eps.
Re e ing o cogni i e p ocess:
P io i izing o asks and ensu ing no
asks ha e been neglec ed. Bo h men al
( aci ) cogni ion bu also explici
knowledge-sha ing in o mal
mechanisms such as on a boa d.
“Cons an ly assessing” migh indica e i ’s
an i e a i e p ocess— he in e nal
cogni ions.
Role o aci e sus explici KM and
gene a ion o ideas, and acili a ion o
explici means o p ocessing
in o ma ion h ough o mal wo k
s uc u es ( ooms/ eams/boa ds)
Table 3
Example o Hugh’s ini ial no ing p ocess wi h eme gen hemes.
In e iew ansc ip
exce p
Ini ial no ing example IPA eme gen
hemes
1. I’m cons an ly
assessing he asks
ha he
Re e ing o cogni i e p ocess:
P io i izing o asks and ensu ing
no asks ha e been neglec ed.
Bo h men al ( aci ) cogni ion bu
also explici knowledge-sha ing
in o mal mechanisms such as on
a boa d.
“Cons an ly assessing” migh
indica e i ’s an i e a i e
p ocess— he in e nal cogni ions.
Role o aci e sus explici KM
and gene a ion o ideas and
acili a ion o
Assessing o
p io i izing
si ua ion
Cogni ion
Using o mal
wo k s uc u es
2. si ua ion is, and hen
making su e ha I’m
3. dealing wi h he
highes p io i ies.
And hen
4. coming back down
and checking on he
nex
5. lowe ones and some
o ha ’s men al, and
6. some o ha we, you
know, we ha e an
7. inciden managemen
oom ha is se up
and
explici means o p ocessing
in o ma ion h ough o mal wo k
s uc u es ( ooms/ eams/boa ds)
8. designed o help us
acili a e ha
hinking. So
9. we w i e ou ac ions
up on he boa d. We
a e,
10. you know, we know,
we’ e go he ime o
ou
11. nex sequence o be
issued ou o people,
12. we’ e go key s eps.
M.L. Innes
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 9 (2024) 100604
6
Manen, 1990, p. 93). In Table 3, eme gen hemes a e no ed in bold on ,
in he igh -hand column, ollowing he de elopmen o he ini ial no es
as demons a ed ea lie .
Hugh’s example (see Table 3) shows he eme gence o h ee codes,
de e mined as ollows. Fo he “Assessing o p io i izing si ua ion”
heme, he desc ip i e commen s ega ding he p io i iza ion o asks
we e closely e lec ed by Hugh’s desc ip ion o his quo e “dealing wi h
he highes p io i ies” on line h ee, and hen his “checking on he nex
lowe ones” on lines ou and i e. Fo he “Cogni ion” heme, he lin-
guis ic commen o “cons an ly assessing” on line one ep esen s Hugh’s
in e nal hinking. Finally, he heme “Using o mal wo k s uc u es” was
e lec ed in Hugh’s commen s abou he “inciden managemen oom”
on line se en and he ac ion aken o “w i e ou ac ions up on he boa d”
in line nine, which was cap u ed in bo h he desc ip i e and concep ual
no ing commen s. The p ocess o de eloping eme gen hemes was
acili a ed by he ans e o da a o he quali a i e so wa e, NVi o.
In S ep Fou he esea che sea ched o connec ions ac oss eme gen
hemes using se e al coding s a egies (e.g., abs ac ion, subsump ion)
(Smi h e al., 2009), and p epa ed concep ual maps o each case. P io
o S ep Fi e ( epea ing p e ious s eps) and o ensu e obus ness, he
esea che in oduced a p ocess applied o all 27 cases: (1) e- eading
he pos -in e iew e lexi e memos, (2) e- eading he ansc ip s, (3)
w i ing new e lexi e memos e lec ing new knowledge he esea che
possessed, (4) obse ing supe o dina e hemes om ansc ip s, (5)
c ea ing a lis o key hemes ( eco ded in Excel), (6) compa ing he
hemes wi h hose in he hie a chical da a p oduced om NVi o ( o
check o consis ency— he esul s we e ex emely encou aging), (7)
de eloping a “sen en ious” s a emen o each case ( an Manen, 1990),
and inally (8) obse ing and eco ding any highe o de quali ies o
concep s eme ging om cases o be analyzed in S ep Six.
In he inal s ep, supe o dina e hemes we e ecognized om ac oss
cases. Each supe o dina e hem inco po a ed key hemes om p e ious
s eps o he analysis, which eme ged h ough asking p oposed ques ions
aligned wi h Smi h e al. (2009), p. 101) IPA p ocess. Ques ions
included, o example, “Wha connec ions a e he e ac oss cases?,”
“How does a heme in one case help illumina e a di e en case?,” and
“Which hemes a e he mos po en ?”. The de ailed p ocess unde aken
in S ep Fi e o pull ou key hemes and suppo ansc ip exce p s made
he ask o ensu ing idiosync a ic ep esen a ion s aigh o wa d,
anspa en , and highly alid, s aying close o he li ewo ld o
pa icipan s.
Sec ion 6 de ails he indings and a discussion inco po a ing di ec
quo es om pa icipan s.
Findings and discussion
The IPA analysis and eme gen hemes esul ed in he de elopmen
o a heo e ical amewo k o IF (see Fig. 1). Responding o he esea ch
ques ion—How do employees expe ience indi idual o esigh in o ga-
niza ions and how does his con ibu e o o ganiza ional lea ning and
inno a ion ou comes o i ms?— ou majo elemen s, along wi h
ela ed supe o dina e hemes, eme ged ha encapsula e he IF expe i-
ence in o ganiza ions (see Table 4). Findings a e ocused on IF, OL and
inno a ion implica ions. Table 5 p esen s ex ual examples aken om
he da a and ep esen a i e o key eme gen hemes.
Indi idual o esigh : he pe son
The IPA analysis e ealed h ee supe o dina e hemes o The Pe son
elemen o IF: (1a) pe sonal knowledge and expe ience, (1b) in ui ion, and
(1c) indi idual skills and disposi ion. Pe sonal knowledge and expe ience
was a sha ed heme o all 27 pa icipan s, e lec ing he ole o pe sonal
knowledge in he IF p ocess. Gi en IF’s eliance on pe sonal knowledge,
mos pa icipan s e e ed o ele an pas expe ience and/o lessons
Fig. 1. A heo e ical amewo k o indi idual o esigh .
M.L. Innes
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 9 (2024) 100604
7
lea ned. Lea ning ou comes we e e iden when pa icipan s made e -
e ences o pas lea ning ha assis ed hem o make be e decisions o
a o able wo k ou comes: “I ’s ying o p edic … he ou come o ha
change, so ha you can…p oac i ely lea n om you pas mis akes,
a he han making hose same mis akes o e and o e again” (Alan).
Fu u e- hinking and e lec ion (es ablished as supe o dina e hemes o IF
elemen The P ocess) eme ged as closely associa ed wi h pe sonal expe-
ience and knowledge, whe e pa icipan s unde ook a p ocess o e lec-
ion o lea n om hei expe ience. This is ele an o inno a ion as
employees who pa ake in u u e- hinking make mo e accu a e decisions,
and choose mo e p omising inno a i e ideas (Eisenba e al., 2023).
Geo ey explained:
I emembe we decided his was he igh way o [go, bu wonde ed]
a e we jus now abou o make he same mis ake again? [we] deba ed
[why] i did no wo k las ime… e lec ing back and il e ing hose
scena ios h ough p e ious expe iences [enables you] o be able o
p ojec hings o wa d.
Rele an o inno a ion, Gill e e ed o he po en ial limi a ions o
c ea i i y when using pas expe ience in a wo k scena io: “So when you
only ake om pas expe ience, I hink i can hinde he o he op ions o
oppo uni ies ha he e a e.” This highligh s ha o ganiza ions should
ensu e ha lea ning mechanisms (e.g., scena io-planning o isioning)
a e in place o encou age e lec ion and knowledge-c ea ion o -sha ing
o o e come a lack o di e si y o c ea i e hinking when applying pas
expe ience.
The eme gen heme o exis ing knowledge cap u ed se e al insigh s
ela ed o OL. New insigh s ega ding employee expe ience wi h IF and
co po a e knowledge we e ound. Howa d desc ibed an inciden
equi ing he combined knowledge o his eam, highligh ing he bene i
o e aining co po a e knowledge and con eying us a ion wi h exis -
ing wo k o ce planning s a egies:
…i his had o been a b and new [ eam], we would ha e eally
s uggled o iden i y hose op ions so quickly…co po a e knowledge
was in aluable he e…as much as co po a e en i ies lo e…ha ing
people come in—and b ing in esh ideas—and ha ’s impo an and
he e needs o be a blend o ha . I ’s also impo an o e ain ha
co po a e knowledge…and so we ely on he collec i e wisdom o
he g oup.
Howa d’s commen emphasizes he cen al ole o e ec i e KM
p ac ices ha os e collabo a i e lea ning in he wo kplace. Despi e
e e ences by pa icipan s ha highligh he impo ance o hem o
OL mechanisms ha suppo hei wo k, some pa icipan s aised he
issue o a nega i e cul u e ha hinde ed inno a i e hinking asso-
cia ed wi h o esigh : “… people a e punished o passing on ele an
in o ma ion based on o esigh ” (Janelle). This issue is e isi ed in
The Con ex sec ion o he analysis.
When discussing IF, 20 o he 27 (75%) pa icipan s e e ed o
in ui ion. One o he memo able obse a ions made by Bonnie ela ed o
Table 4
Key elemen s and con ibu o s o IF expe ience in o ganiza ions.
Elemen o IF Key dimensions (Supe o dina e Themes)
1. The Pe son 1a. Pe sonal knowledge and expe ience
1b. In ui ion
1c. Indi idual skills and disposi ion
2. The P ocess 2a. Lea ning collabo a i ely
2b. De eloping unde s anding
2c. Cogni ion, e lec ion, and u u e- hinking
3. The
Ou comes
3a. O ganiza ion policies and p ocedu es
3b. Decision-making
3c. Taking ac ion
4. The Con ex 4a. O ganiza ional cul u e, inco po a ing
15 eme gen sub- hemes (e.g., us , leade ship s yle, job ole/
design)
Table 5
Mas e able o selec ed hemes demons a ing da a suppo ing IPA analysis.
Elemen s o IF &
Supe o dina e
Themes
Rela ed Eme gen
Themes
Rep esen a i e Quo es
1. THE PERSON
1a. Pe sonal
Knowledge and
Expe ience
Pe sonal lea ning
om pas expe ience
Alan: you can y and p oac i ely
lea n om you pas mis akes
Bonnie: wizened up o, you
know…ha e ob iously gone
h ough many expe iences
Ma : pas expe ience, is i
some hing ha you’ e amilia
wi h? Ha e you el like his
be o e? And you’ e linking up o
ha …
Alis ai : You’ e so o been
a ound he indus y long enough
whe e–you’ e go a easonably
good app ecia ion.
1b. In ui ion In ui ion By on: I’ e had ha impending
eeling be o e [] looking and
lis ening [] ge ing ha sense in
you gu and in you head ha
some hing isn’ qui e igh .
Geo ey: Jus us ing you gu []
being aised by pa en s ha
empowe ed me o us my gu []
empowe ed me o make decisions
Howa d: I could unde s and why
some people would do ha . Bu
when i ’s high s akes, you can’
ely on in ui ion.
1c. Indi idual Skills
and Disposi ion
Pe sonal abili y o
assess o p io i ize a
si ua ion
Impac o leng h o
se ice
Alan: you can h ow ou jus
many di e en op ions. And hen
you can s a hinking abou he
p os and cons o each o hose
op ions.
B ad: So, I’ e eally go o
unde s and he now, and wha ’s
happening and so o pu
e e y hing in i s place
Hugh: I’m cons an ly assessing
he asks ha he si ua ion is–and
hen making su e ha I’m
dealing wi h he highes
p io i ies.
Amanda: hey us ed ha you
can do i [] you’ e jus showing
hem why hey shouldn’ us
you [] you’ e jus being so
doub ul o you sel
Edwa d: olde blokes [] been
he e a long ime p obably don’
like o sha e ha in o ma ion []
hey jus eel like i I ell
somebody–I’ll lose my job
Gill: you can ake somebody
who’s b and new in o he
business [] hey don’ eally ha e
he same pa e n ecogni ion ha
we ha e
Ronnie: wi h an old cul u e []
people he e [] ha e been
ins i u ionalized [] hey don’
ha e o use o esigh –because
hei job is o go om A o B
2. THE PROCESS
2a. Lea ning
Collabo a i ely
Sha ing knowledge
De eloping o he s
Vincen : And you come ou wi h
you idea and I [] shu you down
[] ha ’s jus no p oac i e [] i ’s
go o be so o an open []
discussion o ela ionship
B ad: on a big shee o b own
pape –a ool–we’ll map
e e y hing ou s ep by s ep by
s ep–e e yone ge s a chance o
speak
Sa ah: So, and hen i ’s kind o a
(con inued on nex page)
M.L. Innes
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 9 (2024) 100604
8
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