B andão, Leono ; Ma ias, Ma isa
A icle
O ganiza ional and indi idual esou ces as bu e s o wo k- amily
con lic linkages o a ec : An applica ion o he job demands and
esou ces heal h impai men model
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: B andão, Leono ; Ma ias, Ma isa (2024) : O ganiza ional and indi idual esou ces
as bu e s o wo k- amily con lic linkages o a ec : An applica ion o he job demands and
esou ces heal h impai men model, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14,
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Ci a ion: B andão, Leono , and
Ma isa Ma ias. 2024. O ganiza ional
and Indi idual Resou ces as Bu e s
o Wo k–Family Con lic Linkages o
A ec : An Applica ion o he Job
Demands and Resou ces Heal h
Impai men Model. Adminis a i e
Sciences 14: 68. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/admsci14040068
Recei ed: 30 Oc obe 2023
Re ised: 24 Ma ch 2024
Accep ed: 27 Ma ch 2024
Published: 2 Ap il 2024
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adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
O ganiza ional and Indi idual Resou ces as Bu e s o
Wo k–Family Con lic Linkages o A ec : An Applica ion o
he Job Demands and Resou ces Heal h Impai men Model
Leono B andão and Ma isa Ma ias *
Facul y o Psychology and Educa ional Sciences, Uni e si y o Po o, 4200-135 Po o, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Wo k– amily con lic is a phenomenon known o a ec an indi idual’s well-being. Howe e ,
i s a ec i e consequences a e ye o be explo ed. In his s udy, we ocus on unde s anding wo k–
amily con lic a ec i e consequences on posi i e and nega i e a ec . Ou app oach aims o e ine
he Job Demands and Resou ces model (JD-R model) by inco po a ing a ec as a psychological
mechanism in he heal h-impai men p ocess and by explo ing amily-suppo i e o ganiza ional
pe cep ions and psychological de achmen as mode a o s. The inal sample was composed o 195
couples, wi h men’s mean age a ound 46 yea s old (M= 46.85,
SD = 0.34)
and women’s age a ound 44
(M= 44.23,
SD = 0.37).
Men wo ked an a e age o 44.46 h pe week
(SD = 0.83),
while women wo ked
an a e age o 39.79 h pe week (SD = 0.65). The majo i y o couples had ull- ime jobs (77.9% o men
and 73.8% o women), wo ked ixed schedules (55.4% o men and 73.8% o women), we e employed
by o he s (75% o men and 82.8% o women), and wo ked o small companies (54.6% o men and 40%
o women). Conce ning educa ion, mos o he men (81.3%) and women (71.4%) a ended high school
o had less han 12 yea s o educa ion. To es ou mode a ion models, PROCESS e sion 4.1s mac o
o SPSS was used. Addi ional analyses included co ela ions and pai ed mean compa isons. Ou
indings indica e ha wo k– amily con lic co ela es posi i ely wi h nega i e a ec and nega i ely
wi h posi i e a ec . Psychological de achmen mode a ed he e ec o wo k– amily con lic on
nega i e a ec o women, bu did no mode a e he ela ionship wi h posi i e a ec o men o
women. Family-suppo i e o ganiza ional pe cep ions also did no mode a e any o he p oposed
ela ionships. This s udy highligh s how he abili y o de ach and sepa a e amily and p o essional
domains is impo an and suppo s he heal h-impai men p ocess o he Job Demands and Resou ces
model h ough a ec i e expe iences.
Keywo ds:
wo k- amily con lic ; nega i e a ec ; posi i e a ec ; amily-suppo i e o ganiza ional
pe cep ion; psychological de achmen ; JD-R model
1. In oduc ion
Family and wo k cons i u e he mos signi ican ace s o adul li e shaping indi id-
ual well-being and pe sonal de elopmen . In ecen decades, as he domains o wo k
and amily ha e been changing, g owing challenges in managing he demands o wo k
and amily li e ha e a isen (Mauno e al. 2007). The composi ion o he wo k o ce, he
in ensi ica ion o wo k demands, and he widesp ead adop ion o ad anced communi-
ca ion and echnology ools had a signi ican impac on he o e a ching con ex o wo k
(Allen e al. 2015).
The accessibili y and he lexibili y o in o ma ion echnologies, which al-
low o a cons an connec ion be ween employees and hei wo k blu he once well-de ined
bounda ies be ween wo k and amily li e (Boswell and
Olson-Buchanan
2007;Da is e al.
2016;Kossek e al. 2011a).
Ano he no able ans o ma ion ela es o he inc eased p esence o women in he
wo k o ce and he escala ing economic demands o sus aining amily li elihood. Dual-
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14040068 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 2 o 19
ea ne amilies, amilies whe e bo h pa ne s wo k ou side hei homes, ha e become he
no m (And ade 2015). Ne e heless, he ole o he mo he wi hin he amily is s ill ma ked
by adi ional gende iews (Ma ias 2019), wi h women pe o ming he majo i y o he
amily cho es (Pe is a e al. 2016). Consequen ly, achie ing a balance be ween wo k and
amily demands has become a challenge (By on 2005;Kossek e al. 2011a), especially o
women, who a e he ones expec ed o make he mos e o o econcile wo k and amily
(Ma ias and Fon aine 2012,2015).
In he cu en li e a u e, he wo k– amily con lic (WFC) is o en examined as an
ou come s emming om wo kplace demands impac ing he amily domain. Howe e ,
acknowledging he e ol ing landscape o he cu en wo k eali y, he p esen s udy
posi s WFC as an undeniable demand in oday’s wo k con ex . As de ined by G eenhaus
and Beu ell (1985), WFC deno es he o e lap o demands a ising om bo h he wo k
and amily domains, esul ing om simul aneous p essu es in ul illing hei espec i e
esponsibili ies (And ade 2015;Allen and F ench 2023;Bakke e al. 2008;By on 2005;
Boswell and
Olson-Buchanan
2007;Ca lson e al. 2000;Golden 2021;G eenhaus and
Beu ell 1985;Kossek e al. 2011a).
In his s udy, we ocus on dual-ea ne indi iduals and le e age he Job Demands and
Resou ces model (Deme ou i e al. 2001) o shed ligh on he heal h impai men p ocess
p oposed by he model. Ou analysis will del e in o how wo k demands, aced by men
and women, speci ically wo k– amily con lic , impac hei well-being. This in es iga ion
will conside posi i e and nega i e a ec and emphasize he ole o indi idual ac o s—
psychological de achmen , o ganiza ional esou ces, and amily-suppo i e o ganiza ional
pe cep ions. By un a eling gende -speci ic pa hways in he pe cep ion o demands and
esou ces, we aim o deepen he applicabili y o he JD-R model and hus con ibu e o he
exis ing body o li e a u e.
2. Unde pinning Li e a u e and Hypo heses De elopmen
2.1. Job Demands and Resou ces Model
O e he pas ew decades, nume ous concep ual models ha e eme ged o elucida e
he impac o wo k cha ac e is ics on he heal h and well-being o wo ke s (Coope 1998).
One o he ecen app oaches in his ega d is he Job Demands and Resou ces model (JDR
model) de eloped by Deme ou i and collabo a o s (Deme ou i e al. 2001), d awing on
a ious models and heo ies, including Hob oll’s (1989) Resou ce Conse a ion Theo y
(Bakke and Deme ou i 2017). This model emphasizes he impo ance o si ua ional speci-
ici y and p omo es he use o gene al cons uc s o enhance adap abili y ac oss di e se
occupa ional con ex s ( an Veldho en e al. 2005). The JDR model, o iginally o mula ed
o explain bu nou , has e ol ed o e he yea s and now encompasses he examina ion o
a ious ac o s in luencing wo ke well-being (Bakke and Deme ou i 2007,2017).
The co e p emise o his model posi s ha all p o essional ac i i ies en ail dis inc
job cha ac e is ics, which can be ca ego ized in o wo gene al ypes: job demands and job
esou ces (Bakke and Deme ou i 2007,2017). Job demands encompass “ hose physical,
psychological, social o o ganiza ional aspec s o he job ha equi e sus ained physical
and/o psychological (cogni i e and emo ional) e o o skills and a e he e o e associa ed
wi h ce ain physiological and/o psychological cos s” (Bakke and Deme ou i 2007, p. 312).
In con as , job esou ces e e o “ hose physical, psychological, social o o ganiza ional
aspec s o he job ha a e ei he /o unc ional in achie ing wo k goals, educe job demands
and he associa ed physiological and psychological cos s and s imula e pe sonal g ow h,
lea ning and de elopmen ” (Bakke and Deme ou i 2007, p. 312). The second p emise
o he JDR model e ol es a ound he idea ha job demands and esou ces igge wo
dis inc p ocesses: a heal h-impai men p ocess and a mo i a ional p ocess (Bakke and
Deme ou i 2017). This s udy ocuses on he heal h-impai men p ocess, whe e ension
a ises when job demands a e high and esou ces a e limi ed, esul ing in a disp opo iona e
balance be ween he demands aced by wo ke s and he a ailable esou ces. Se e al
s udies sugges ha job demands, including wo k– amily con lic , a e associa ed wi h
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 3 o 19
physical and psychological s ain and a ious heal h issues (Bakke and Deme ou i 2017;
Deme ou i e al. 2001).
2.2. Wo k–Family Con lic and A ec i e Well-Being
The subs an ial ans o ma ions wi hin he domains o wo k and amily, as no ed by
Kossek e al. (2011a), limi he a ailable ime and ene gy o employees o dedica e o hei
amily li es, ine i ably o igina ing ole con lic .
Thus, his in e - ole con lic mani es s i sel in wo di ec ions: he wo k ole enc oach-
ing on he amily sphe e (WFC) o he amily ole in uding upon he wo k domain (FWC);
howe e , his s udy p ima ily ocuses on he in usion o he wo k sphe e in o he amily
domain. Acco ding o Ams ad e al. (2011), a s ong associa ion exis s be ween WFC and
ou comes ha mani es wi hin he amily con ex and be ween FWC and ou comes ha
mani es wi hin he wo k domain. Howe e , he ela ionship is also ound o be obus
wi h non-speci ic ou comes, such as o e all well-being.
Indeed, nume ous empi ical s udies ha e subs an ia ed he ad e se impac o wo k–
amily con lic on indi iduals’ well-being (And ade 2015;Boswell and
Olson-Buchanan
2007;
Kossek e al. 2011a;Ob eno ic e al. 2020). These e ec s mani es ac oss a spec um o
nega i e emo ional and psychological ou comes, encompassing psychological dis ess,
dep essi e symp oms, clinical diagnosis o mood diso de s, and emo ional exhaus ion
(Ahmad e al. 2021;
Allen e al. 2000;Ams ad e al. 2011;De me s e al. 2016;F one e al.
1996;G eenhaus e al. 2006;Kinnunen e al. 2004;Ne emeye e al. 1996). A ec , as an indica-
o o psychological heal h, encompasses he emo ions we expe ience and exp ess, wi h an
impac on a ious aspec s o ou li es, including goal a ainmen , in e pe sonal in e ac ions,
beha io o ien a ion, and li e sa is ac ion (Da is e al. 2016;Ve zele i e al. 2016).
Acco ding o Eby e al.’s (2010) e iew o empi ical esea ch on he ole o a ec in
wo k– amily in e ac ion, h ee pe spec i es can be highligh ed: one whe e ai -based
a ec , i.e., ce ain ai s, a e seen as p edisposing indi iduals o expe ience mo e in ense
emo ional eac ions o wo k– amily in e ac ions; a second pe spec i e, which examines
s a e-based moods and emo ions in ela ion o wo k and amily li e, inding ha as he
demands o wo k and amily li e inc ease, indi iduals end o expe ience mo e nega i e
a ec i e s a es and ewe posi i e a ec i e s a es; and a hi d pe spec i e ha conside s
s a e-based global a ec i e eac ions, ypically as consequences o wo k– amily expe iences
(e.g., job sa is ac ion, amily sa is ac ion).
A ec i e well-being is unde s ood o encompass bo h posi i e (e.g., en husiasm and
ale ness) and nega i e (e.g., o e all pe cei ed dis ess and ange ; Wa son e al. 1988) a ec .
A ec e e s he e o e o a men al s a e in ol ing e alua i e eelings. I encompasses a
wide ange o disposi ions, moods, emo ions, and gene alized a ec i e eac ions o e en s
and expe iences (Eby e al. 2010).
Wa son and Tellegen’s (1985) wo- ac o model o a ec encompasses posi i e a ec
(PA) and nega i e a ec (NA) as p ima y dimensions desc ibing a ec i e expe iences.
PA e lec s exci emen , ac i i y, and ale ness, while NA ep esen s subjec i e dis ess
and unpleasan in ol emen . Bo h dimensions ha e high ele ance, cap u ing essen ial
quali ies o a ec i e expe iences (Gisle e al. 2018). S udies ha e demons a ed ha NA
is associa ed wi h s ess (Cla k and Wa son 1986), heal h- ela ed complain s (Tessle and
Mechanic 1978), and exposu e o unpleasan si ua ions (Wa e al. 1983). Con e sely, PA
appea s o be linked wi h he equency o pleasan si ua ions and o e all sa is ac ion
(Cla k and Wa son 1986,1988;Wa son 1988).
Indeed, a ec is in luen ial o adap i e beha io as i in luences mo i a ional beha io :
posi i e a ec may signal app oach mo i a ion, while nega i e a ec ep esen s wi hd awal
mo i a ion (Wa son e al. 1999). The eeling s a es associa ed wi h posi i e a ec mobilizes
goal-di ec ed beha io and he eeling s a es associa ed wi h nega i e a ec leads o ap-
p ehensi eness and cau iousness. I is he e o e ele an o unde s and how wo k– amily
con lic may be impac ing he expe ience o a ec and wha mode a o s can be ele an o
inc ease posi i e expe iences and dec ease nega i e ones.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 4 o 19
S udies ha e shown a ela ionship be ween WFC and posi i e a ec , indica ing ha
when wo k and amily demands clash, i can impac indi iduals’ posi i e a ec i e expe i-
ences (Da is e al. 2016;Ka e sios 2007). Simila ly, he e is e idence indica ing a connec ion
be ween WFC and nega i e a ec (NA), sugges ing ha his con lic can also in luence
nega i e a ec i e expe iences (Judge e al. 2006). Howe e , hese co ela ions do no con-
sis en ly hold ue ac oss all s udies (e.g., Da is e al. 2016;Ka e sios 2007). This lack o
consis en linkages be ween WFC and a ec i e ou comes unde sco es he need o a mo e
comp ehensi e analysis.
In his wo k, we b ing oge he he JDR model and PA and NA cons uc s o del e in o
he psychological mechanisms inhe en o he heal h-impai men p ocess o he JD-R model
and hus unde s and how indi iduals na iga e and manage hei emo ional expe iences
amids wo k– amily con lic . See concep ual model depic ed in Figu e 1.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 19
mobilizes goal-di ec ed beha io and he eeling s a es associa ed wi h nega i e affec
leads o app ehensi eness and cau iousness. I is he e o e ele an o unde s and how
wo k– amily con lic may be impac ing he expe ience o affec and wha mode a o s can
be ele an o inc ease posi i e expe iences and dec ease nega i e ones.
S udies ha e shown a ela ionship be ween WFC and posi i e affec (PA), indica ing
ha when wo k and amily demands clash, i can impac indi iduals’ posi i e affec i e
expe iences (Da is e al. 2016; Ka e sios 2007). Simila ly, he e is e idence indica ing a
connec ion be ween WFC and nega i e affec (NA), sugges ing ha his con lic can also
in luence nega i e affec i e expe iences (Judge e al. 2006). Howe e , hese co ela ions
do no consis en ly hold ue ac oss all s udies (e.g., Da is e al. 2016; Ka e sios 2007). This
lack o consis en linkages be ween WFC and affec i e ou comes unde sco es he need o
a mo e comp ehensi e analysis.
In his wo k, we b ing oge he he JDR model and PA and NA cons uc s o del e
in o he psychological mechanisms inhe en o he heal h-impai men p ocess o he JD-R
model and hus unde s and how indi iduals na iga e and manage hei emo ional expe-
iences amids wo k– amily con lic . See concep ual model depic ed in Figu e 1.
Figu e 1. Concep ual Model.
Thus, he ollowing hypo heses a e p oposed:
H1: High WFC is associa ed wi h an inc ease in nega i e affec .
H2: High WFC is associa ed wi h a dec ease in posi i e affec .
Fu he mo e, as WFC in ol es engaging wi h a ious s akeholde s ac oss wo k and
amily domains, each go e ned by dis inc ules o emo ional exp ession (Speigh s e al.
2020), indi iduals need o exe con ol o e he emo ions hey expe ience, including de-
e mining which emo ions a ise, when hey occu , and how hey a e exp essed (Aldao e
al. 2010; K a e al. 2024). Thus, by egula ing hei emo ions (G oss 1998), indi iduals
may modi y emo ional igge s o cogni i e p ocesses be o e emo ions a e elici ed o man-
age he emo ional esponse a e i has been igge ed. This way, by comp ehending he
affec i e ami ica ions o expe iences in ol ing wo k– amily con lic and explo ing he
Figu e 1. Concep ual Model.
Thus, he ollowing hypo heses a e p oposed:
H1. High WFC is associa ed wi h an inc ease in nega i e a ec .
H2. High WFC is associa ed wi h a dec ease in posi i e a ec .
Fu he mo e, as WFC in ol es engaging wi h a ious s akeholde s ac oss wo k and
amily domains, each go e ned by dis inc ules o emo ional exp ession (Speigh s e al.
2020), indi iduals need o exe con ol o e he emo ions hey expe ience, including
de e mining which emo ions a ise, when hey occu , and how hey a e exp essed (Aldao
e al. 2010;K a e al. 2024). Thus, by egula ing hei emo ions (G oss 1998), indi iduals
may modi y emo ional igge s o cogni i e p ocesses be o e emo ions a e elici ed o
manage he emo ional esponse a e i has been igge ed. This way, by comp ehending
he a ec i e ami ica ions o expe iences in ol ing wo k– amily con lic and explo ing
he unde lying mechanisms shaping his ela ionship, we gain deepe insigh s in o he
esul an emo ional esponses. These insigh s, d awing upon amewo ks such as G oss’s
(1998) wo k, shed ligh on he pa h o how indi iduals adap i ely espond o he emo ional
challenges a ising om con lic ing wo k and amily demands.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 5 o 19
2.3. The Mode a ing E ec o Family-Suppo i e O ganiza ional Pe cep ion and Psychological
De achmen
The Job Demands-Resou ces (JD-R) model illumina es how wo k and pe sonal e-
sou ces ac as p o ec i e shields agains he de imen al e ec s o job demands on employee
well-being. This unde sco es he impo ance o conside ing si ua ional and indi idual
cha ac e is ics as po en ial mode a o s in he ela ionship be ween WFC and a ec i e
well-being (Bakke and Deme ou i 2007,2017).
Among he a ious job esou ces discussed in he li e a u e, social suppo s ands ou ,
and mul iple s udies ha e demons a ed i s mode a ing e ec on he associa ion be ween
job demands and s ess (And ade 2015;Bakke e al. 2007;Bakke and Deme ou i 2007,
2017;Eng e al. 2010).
The o ganiza ional suppo heo y in oduces he concep o pe cep ion o o ganiza-
ional suppo , which e lec s employees’ o e all belie in how hei employe s alue and
p io i ize hei well-being and needs, p o iding he necessa y suppo and esou ces o help
hem manage job demands. Ano he speci ic o m o suppo is amily-suppo i e o gani-
za ional pe cep ion (FSOP), which pe ains o how employees pe cei e hei o ganiza ion’s
suppo and sensi i i y ega ding amily- ela ed ma e s, as well as he o ganiza ion’s
e o s o balance and acili a e wo k– amily commi men s and esponsibili ies (Allen 2001).
This suppo includes policies ha p omo e wo k–li e balance, such as lexible wo k a -
angemen s, ma e ni y lea e, and assis ance wi h dependen ca e, among o he s (Chambel
and San os 2009;Kossek e al. 2011b). I is impo an o no e ha he me e exis ence o
measu es aimed a econciling wo k and pe sonal li e is insu icien . Employees mus also
pe cei e hese measu es as use ul, ele an , and well-adjus ed o add ess hei speci ic job
demands. Feeling suppo ed by hei employe s gi es employees he con idence ha hey
will ecei e assis ance when needed.
F ed ickson and Le enson (1998) ha e highligh ed he p ecedence o social suppo in
os e ing posi i e emo ions and i s po en ial o mi iga e he a ec i e consequences o job
demands aced by employees. O e ecen decades, a weal h o e idence has accumula ed
ega ding he signi icance o social suppo in he wo kplace (Ilies e al. 2011), and i s ole
as a mode a o in mi iga ing a ious nega i e e ec s, including nega i e a ec (Geo ge
e al. 1993;Pee e s e al. 1995).
The li e a u e emphasizes how esou ces gained om p o essional pu sui s, such as
social esou ces like FSOP, no only bols e posi i e a ec bu also ampli y pe o mance
in amilial oles (A yee e al. 2005;Chambel and San os 2009;G eenhaus and Powell 2006;
Voydano 2004). As indi iduals dedica e conside able e o o managing wo k demands,
coun e ing hei ad e se e ec s and hal ing esou ce deple ion becomes impe a i e.
Reco e y expe iences a e means o es o ing and eplenishing consumed esou ces
(Deme ou i e al. 2001;Demsky e al. 2014). Among hese expe iences, psychological
de achmen , in eg al o he eco e y p ocess (Sonnen ag and F i z 2007), eme ges as a
key ac o in mode a ing he ela ionship be ween wo k demands and s ess, as no ed
by Sa s om and Ha ig (2013). De aching om wo k has been ound o p edic posi i e
ou comes, such as educed ension and heigh ened well-being (Sonnen ag 2012;Sonnen ag
e al. 2008;Sonnen ag and Baye 2005;Zijls a and Sonnen ag 2006). Psychological de-
achmen allows indi iduals o dis ance hemsel es om he cons an s imula ion o wo k
demands, acili a ing a e u n o a balanced s a e. This enables wo ke s o eel eju ena ed
and egain he capaci y o ul ill hei emaining social oles (Sanz-Ve gel e al. 2011;Gu e al.
2020). High le els o psychological de achmen om wo k a e expec ed o be associa ed
wi h inc eased posi i e a ec , while educed de achmen is linked o heigh ened nega i e
a ec . The e o e, when psychological de achmen is lacking, he ension gene a ed by wo k
demands and si ua ions pe sis s, leading o he accumula ion o s ess and po en ial heal h
issues (Sonnen ag e al. 2008). Con e sely, high psychological de achmen enables e ec i e
eco e y, as wo ke s can ully ocus on eplenishing hei esou ces and engaging in amily
expe iences (Ams ad and Semme 2009;Sonnen ag e al. 2008). I se es as a eco e y
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 6 o 19
s a egy ha can be pe cei ed as a es o a ion s a egy aiding he managemen o demands
and acili a ing well-being (De me s e al. 2016;Gu e al. 2020).
Conside ing he hi d and he i h p emise o he JD-R model, pe sonal esou ces and
wo k esou ces can play a simila ole. Thus, his s udy ega ds FSOP as a wo k esou ce
and PD as a pe sonal esou ce. Consequen ly, we expec he ollowing:
H3.
The pe cep ion o amily suppo by he o ganiza ion (FSOP) will educe he e ec o WFC on
PA and NA.
H4. Psychological De achmen will educe he links om WFC o NA and PA.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Pa icipan s and P ocedu es
This s udy used da a collec ed om a la ge esea ch p ojec dedica ed o he analyses
o wo k– amily bounda y managemen in amilies wi h child en aged be ween 13 and
18 yea s o age. As such, pa icipan s had o ha e a wo king pa ne wi h whom hey
cohabi a e and ha e a leas a child in he de ined age ange. The la ge esea ch p ojec
ob ained a posi i e e iew om he E hics Commi ee o he Facul y o Psychology and
Educa ion Sciences o he Uni e si y o Po o (Re e ence numbe 5-9/2015) and om he
Na ional Da a P o ec ion Commission (Delibe a ion n
º
681/2016). Rec ui men si es we e
a public school and a spo s club. Rec ui men ia he esea che s’ con ac ne wo k was
also conduc ed. Pa icipan s we e app oached ei he di ec ly o h ough hei adolescen
child en. In bo h cases, he in e ac ion s a ed by cla i ying he s udy’s objec i es and he
p ocesses aken o ensu e con iden iali y and anonymi y. I pa icipan s (pa en s) ag eed o
pa icipa e, hey we e ins uc ed o e u n hei illed-in ques ionnai es in a sealed en elope
di ec ly o he in es iga o o o he eache / aine , who la e handed hem o e o he
esea ch eam. A esponse a e o 80.6% was ob ained.
The inal sample includes he same numbe o men and women (n = 390 in o al), wi h
men’s ages a ying om 34 o 62 yea s (M= 46.85, SD = 0.34) and women’s ages a ying
om 31 o 57 yea s (M= 44.23, SD = 0.83). Mos men (81.3%) and women (71.4%) had a
seconda y le el o educa ion o less (i.e., less han 12 yea s o educa ion). Men wo ked
an a e age o 44.46 h pe week (SD = 0.83) and women an a e age o 39.79 h pe week
(SD = 0.65).
Pa icipan s we e mos ly wo king ull- ime (men—79.9%; women—73.8%), on
ixed schedules (men—55.4%; women—56.9%), we e employed by o he s (75% o men and
82.8% o women) and wo ked o small companies (54.6% o men and 40% o women).
3.2. Measu es
3.2.1. Wo k–Family Con lic (WFC)
The Po uguese e sion o he Wo k–Family Con lic Scale was used, add essing bo h
di ec ions o con lic , om wo k o amily and om amily o wo k (Viei a e al. 2014). The
scale was composed o 7 i ems assessed on a 5-poin Like - ype Scale (1 = o ally disag ee,
5 = o ally ag ee). The eliabili y coe icien s we e e y good (men’s C onbach’s
α
= 0.89;
women’s α= 0.87).
3.2.2. Family-Suppo i e O ganiza ional Pe cep ion (FSOP)
This a iable was app oached by using he Family-Suppo i e O ganiza ion Pe cep-
ion Scale (Allen 2001), ansla ed o Po uguese by Chambel and San os (2009). This
measu e is composed o 14 i ems assessed on a 5-poin Like ype Scale (1 = o ally dis-
ag ee, 5 = o ally ag ee). Ele en i ems we e ecoded so ha highe sco es co espond o
a mo e posi i e pe cep ion o he o ganiza ion’s suppo o amily. I em 13 (“P o iding
employees wi h lexibili y in ca ying ou hei wo k is seen as a s a egic ac ion in doing
business.”) was excluded o help achie e an accep able eliabili y coe icien o bo h men’s
and women’s epo s: men’s C onbach’s α= 0.69; women’s C onbach’s α= 0.69.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 7 o 19
3.2.3. Posi i e and Nega i e A ec
The Posi i e A ec and Nega i e A ec Schedule (PANAS-X) was used (Wa son and
Cla k 1994) in acco dance wi h he educed e sion p oposed by Schoebi and collabo a o s
(Schoebi e al. 2012). Thus, 8 i ems apping bo h nega i e and posi i e eelings and emo ions
we e used, and pa icipan s we e asked o a e hei ypically a ec i e s a e a e wo k on a
5-poin Like scale (1 = e y sligh ly o no a all, 5 = ex emely). A p incipal componen
analysis wi h a imax o a ion was pe o med o men and o women o ensu e ha he
i ems we e o ganized in o ac o s (KMO = 0.76, X
2
(28) = 522.76, p< 0.001;
KMO = 0.83,
X
2
(28) = 684.77, p< 0.001). All i ems had communali ies highe han 0.50 and ac o
loadings highe han 0.40 on hei espec i e ac o . One dimension agg ega ed 5 i ems
apping nega i e a ec (sca ed/shaky, ne ous, ang y, i i able, sad/downhea ed, om
he basic nega i e emo ion scale), wi h a o al explained a iance o 35% o men and 42%
o women. The second dimension combined 3 i ems (happy, joy ul, and con iden om
he basic posi i e emo ion scale) in o a posi i e a ec ac o , explaining 27% and 29% o
men and women sha ed a iance, espec i ely. Reliabili y coe icien s we e high o bo h
alences and o bo h gende s: PA
α
= 0.79 (men) and 0.83 (women); NA
α
= 0.82 (men)
and 0.88 (women).
3.2.4. Psychological De achmen
We used he subscale o psychological de achmen om wo k om he mul idimen-
sional Reco e y Expe ience Ques ionnai e by Sonnen ag and F i z (2007), ansla ed in o
Po uguese by Gonçal es (2015). The subscale is composed o ou i ems answe ed on a
5-poin Like scale (1 = o ally disag ee, 5 = o ally ag ee) and cap u es he indi idual’s
abili y o men ally disconnec om wo k du ing hei ee ime and o abs ain om wo k-
ela ed ac i i ies. High eliabili y coe icien s we e ound o bo h men (
α
= 0.85) and
women (α= 0.82).
3.3. Da a Analysis
IBM SPSS (S a is ical Package o Social Sciences) e sion 28.1 was used o inpu missing
alues and o pe o m Pea son’s Co ela ions and pai ed samples -Tes o compa ing
means ac oss men’s and women’s a iables. The numbe o missing alues anged om 1
o 16, and hus, ewe han 5% o missing alues we e ound. Li le’s es (Li le 1988) is
a aluable ool o e alua ing he na u e o missing da a wi hin a da ase , dis inguishing
be ween missing comple ely a andom (MCAR) and missing no a andom (MNAR)
pa e ns. In his s udy, Li le’s es was employed o asce ain he unde lying s uc u e o
missing alues. The esul s o Li le’s es (Li le 1988) indica ed ha he missing alues
exhibi ed a pa e n consis en wi h missing a andom (MAR) condi ions, wi h a signi icance
le el exceeding 0.05, g an ing mo e con idence o he use o da a impu a ion.
Because he scale used o add ess posi i e and nega i e a ec was no p e iously
alida ed wi h Po uguese pa icipan s, we pe o med an explo a o y ac o analysis wi h
a imax o a ion o es ablish he exis ence o wo la en a ec ac o s. In line wi h Cos ello
and Osbo ne’s (2005) sugges ions, i ems we e expec ed o ha e communali ies highe han
0.400 and sa u a ion in he in ended ac o supe io o 0.400. Kaise –Meye –Olkin (KMO)
es was used o de e mine i he da a we e sui ed o ac o analysis.
Fu he mo e, as Mul iple Linea Reg essions a e sensi i e o he exis ence o ou lie s,
an inspec ion ende ed 8 se e e ou lie s who we e excluded. P edic o a iables (WFC,
FSOP, and PD) we e cen e ed be o e he in e ac ion e m was calcula ed o a oid mul i-
collinea i y, and he independence o e o s was e i ied by he Du bin–Wa son es . The
a iable hou s pe week (HW) was included as a co a ia e in all models. A no mal dis i-
bu ion o he esiduals was ensu ed by using he boo s ap p ocedu e. The assump ion o
homoscedas ici y was ensu ed by asking o he es ima ion using he HC4 es ima o as
a ailable in PROCESS, 4.1s mac o e sion model 2 (Hayes 2013). The boo s apped esam-
pling p ocedu e by andomly d awing 5000 samples and calcula ing he 95% bias-co ec ed
boo s apped con idence in e als allowed us o ob ain mo e obus es ima es (Hayes 2013).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 8 o 19
Since all s udy a iables we e es ed using sel - epo s, we pe o med a ac o analysis o
es o he h ea o common me hod bias wi h Ha man’s single- ac o es (Podsako e al.
2003). The esul s indica e ha mo e han one ac o had an eigen alue g ea e han 1, and
he e o e, he h ea o common me hod bias is unlikely. P e en i e ac ions o common
me hod bias we e also conside ed and included clea ins uc ions and a pilo o he su ey
o p e en misin e p e a ions o scale i ems, use o a ying scale esponse op ions and
gua an eed anonymi y o pa icipan s.
4. Resul s
4.1. Desc ip i e Resul s
As shown in Tables 1and 2, a simila pa e n o co ela ions ac oss s udy a iables
was ound o men and women. Rega ding bo h gende s, WFC epo s a e nega i ely
co ela ed o FSOP and PA and posi i ely co ela ed o NA. Bo h gende s’ FSOP epo s a e
nega i ely co ela ed o NA. Rega ding PA, he pa e n is di e en ; men’s FSOP does no
co ela e wi h PA, bu women’s FSOP has a posi i e co ela ion. Women’s PD is nega i ely
linked o NA, bu men’s PD is no associa ed wi h any o he a iable o he s udy. Repo s
on NA and PA a e nega i ely co ela ed o bo h gende s. Rega ding co a ia es, HW was
ound o ha e a nega i e co ela ion wi h PA and a posi i e co ela ion wi h WFC bu only
in he case o men.
Table 1. Mean and s anda d de ia ion by a iable acco ding o gende .
Men Women
Va iable M SD M SD
WFC 3.06 0.90 3.01 0.84
FSOP 3.07 0.44 3.23 0.46
PD 2.81 0.90 2.90 0.88
NA 1.61 0.62 1.75 0.70
PA 3.42 0.64 3.28 0.67
No e: WFC = wo k– amily con lic ; FSOP = amily-suppo i e o ganiza ional pe cep ion; PD = psychological
de achmen ; NA = nega i e a ec ; PA = posi i e a ec .
Table 2. Co ela ions o s udy a iables disagg ega ed by gende .
Va iable HW WFC FSOP PD NA PA
HW - 0.004 −0.041 −0.053 0.066 0.003
WFC 0.183 * - −0.301 ** −0.035 0.476 ** −0.309 **
FSOP −0.019 −248 ** - 0.064 −0.177 * 0.148 *
PD −0.061 −0.107 −0.098 - −0.212 ** 0.017
NA −0.002 0.460 ** −0.146 * −0.114 - −0.291 **
PA −0.175 * −294 ** 0.051 −0.018 −313 ** -
No e: The esul s o he emale sample a e shown abo e he diagonal. The esul s o he male sample a e
shown below he diagonal. WFC = wo k– amily con lic ; FSOP = amily-suppo i e o ganiza ional pe cep ion;
PD = psychological
de achmen ; NA = nega i e a ec ; PA = posi i e a ec . HW = hou s pe week. ** p< 0.01.
*p< 0.05.
The a iables we e also compa ed be ween gende s, and we ound signi ican di e -
ences in FSOP ( (202) =
−
3.85, p< 0.001, d=
−
0.27), PA ( (202) = 2.64, p= 0.01, d= 0.19),
and NA ( (202) =
−
2.77, p= 0.001, d=
−
0.19). No gende di e ences we e ound o WFC
( (202) = 0.29, p= 0.77, d= 0.02) o PD ( (202) =
−
0.95, p= 0.34, d=
−
0.07). In pa icula ,
women pe cei e mo e o ganiza ional amily suppo (women: M= 3.23, SD = 0.46; men:
M= 3.07;
SD = 0.44), mo e NA (women: M= 1.78, SD = 0.76; men: M= 1.62, SD = 0.65) and
less PA (women: M= 3.23, SD = 0.72; men: M= 3.40, SD = 0.67).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 68 15 o 19
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.M. and L.B.; me hodology, M.M. and L.B.; da a analy-
ses, L.B.; alida ion, M.M.; da a cu a ion, M.M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, L.B.; w i ing—
e iew and edi ing, M.M. and L.B.; supe ision and p ojec adminis a ion, M.M. All au ho s ha e
ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
Ma isa Ma ias pa icipa ion in his wo k is unded by he Cen e o Psychology a he
Uni e si y o Po o, Founda ion o Science and Technology Po ugal (FCT UIDB/00050/2020).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen :
All subjec s ga e hei in o med consen o inclusion be o e
hey pa icipa ed in he s udy. The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion o
Helsinki, and he p o ocol was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o Psychology and Educa ion
Sciences o he Uni e si y o Po o (Re e ence numbe 5-9/2015) and by he Na ional Da a P o ec ion
Commission (Delibe a ion nº681/2016).
In o med Consen S a emen :
In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a suppo ing his pape can be eques ed om he con ac au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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