Fo uński, Ba osz
A icle
The impac o China's o eign ade on hei Ac ual-Open
Emissions o CO₂ in he yea s 2000-2020 in he con ex o
EU ene gy policy
The Cen al Eu opean Re iew o Economics and Managemen (CEREM)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WSB Me i o Uni e si y in W ocław
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Fo uński, Ba osz (2024) : The impac o China's o eign ade on hei Ac ual-
Open Emissions o CO₂ in he yea s 2000-2020 in he con ex o EU ene gy policy, The Cen al
Eu opean Re iew o Economics and Managemen (CEREM), ISSN 2544-0365, WSB Me i o Uni e si y
in W ocław, W ocław, Vol. 8, Iss. 4, pp. 75-96,
h ps://doi.o g/10.29015/ce em.992
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Vol. 8, No.4, Decembe 2024, 75-96
Co espondence add ess: Ba osz FORTUŃSKI, Opole Uni e si y, Facul y o Economics, ul. Ozimska 46a,
45-058 Opole, Poland. E-mail: [email p o ec ed].
© 2024 WSB MERITO UNIVERSITY WROCŁAW
The impac o China’s o eign ade on hei Ac ual-
Open Emissions o CO2 in he yea s 2000–2020 in
he con ex o EU ene gy policy
Ba osz FORTUŃSKI
Opole Uni e si y, Poland
Recei ed: 09.04.2024, Re ised: 29.10.2024, Accep ed: 01.12.2024
doi: h p://10.29015/ce em.992
Aim: This a icle aims o analyze he impac o China’s ade wi h 78 majo ading pa ne s on Ac ual-
Open Emission o CO2 (EAO) om 2000 o 2020 in ligh o he Eu opean Union's (EU) goal o educe
CO2 emissions by 20% by 2020 compa ed o 1990 le els.
Resea ch Me hods: The esea ch is based on he Ac ual-Open Emission o CO2 model and employs he
ci cula low model o assess he in luence o China's o eign ade on CO2 emissions du ing he yea s
2000–2020.
Findings: The s udy e ealed ha China’s o eign ade signi ican ly in luenced i s CO2 emissions in all
yea s analyzed, wi h posi i e con ibu ions o EAO due o a ade su plus (expo s exceeding impo s).
As he wo ld’s la ges expo e and he second-la ges impo e , China’s ade ac i i y esul ed in
subs an ial CO2 emissions. Fou key indica o s we e iden i ied as in luencing he di e ence be ween
O icial-Close Emission o CO2 (EOC) and EAO: China’s GDP, he pe cen age o expo ed GDP, he
pe cen age o impo ed GDP, and EOC le els. These indings highligh he signi ican ole o ade in
China’s CO2 emissions, which is c i ical in he con ex o EU ini ia i es like “Fi o 55.”
Keywo ds: In e na ional ade, China, CO2 emissions, EU ene gy policy.
JEL: F18, Q54, Q56,
Ba osz FORTUŃSKI
76
1. In oduc ion
The second bigges economy in he wo ld in he yea s 2000–2020 was China
(wo ldda a.in o). They we e in i s place in e ms o GDP PPP om he yea 2014
(Gen le 2016: 87). F om 2000 o 2020, China was among he h ee coun ies wi h he
wo ld’s mos p ominen expo and impo e s (unc ad.o g; wi s.wo ldbank.o g).
China’s ade signi ican ly impac ed he na u al en i onmen , including CO2
emissions. The conside a ions con ained in his s udy esul om he ene gy policy
implemen ed by he EU. One o i s basic assump ions in 2007–2020 was he ule – 3
imes 20%.
EU policy and i s ene gy policy di ec ly e e o sus ainable de elopmen (SD).
G o Ha lem B und land p oposes he basic de ini ion o SD p esen ed in he epo
“Ou Common Fu u e.” SD is de ined he e as: “mee ing he needs o he p esen
wi hou comp omising he abili y o u u e gene a ions o mee hei own needs.”
(Czaja, Becla 2002: 308–309; Gó ka e al. 1995: 78; Rao 2000: 85; Adamczyk 2001:
28–29).
We li e in a global wo ld, and he e o e, he ac i i ies o pa icula coun ies ha e
a di ec o indi ec impac on o he s. Ne e heless, i does no mean ha all coun ies
unc ion in he same way and ollow he same ules. Some coun ies con ibu e
signi ican ly o educing global CO2 emissions, bea ing high cos s compa ed o o he s;
none heless, i does no b ing he in ended e ec s o an absolu e educ ion o CO2
emissions. This s udy con i ms he issue, especially ega ding China’s ade wi h 78
coun ies. The s uggle o he EU wi h he issue o CO2 emissions does no a ec
China wi h his p oblem. This s udy will show ha China had, be ween 2000 and
2020, an impac on wo ld CO2 emissions lowe han o icially shown because hey
expo mo e CO2 han impo ed. By his example, i will also be shown ha CO2
emissions a e a global p oblem, and he s uggle o se e al coun ies does no change
much in he uni e sal aspec . Fundamen al ques ions a e as ollows.
How signi ican in luence did China ade on CO2 emission globally? Wha
should he EU do o make i s ene gy policy mo e e icien ? Should no all
coun ies be in ol ed in e o s o educe CO2 emissions? Should solu ions be
unde aken o encou age o he coun ies o ake a simila app oach o he CO2
THE IMPACT OF CHINA’S FOREIGN TRADE ON THEIR ACTUAL-OPEN ….
77
issue? Should he Eu opean Union change i s app oach ega ding CO2 educ ion
and ake in e na ional exchange in o accoun ?
This new app oach should help o answe hese ques ions.
China is one o he wo ld leade s in e ms o he alue o CO2 emissions and
in e na ional exchange. Acco ding o he Economic Complexi y Index (ECI) (The
Obse a o y), i is he wo ld’s second-la ges impo e and expo e and one o he
mos complex economies.
The p ima y pu pose o his pape is o show he impac o o eign ade on
Ac ual-Open Emissions o CO2 (EAO) in China a e conside ing ade wi h he 78
coun ies. I is no abou he alue o O icial-Close Emission o CO2 (EOC) emissions
bu abou i s accu a e olume in ega d o he CO2 ans e bo h in expo and impo
p oduc s. The e should also be se ices ha should ha e been conside ed in his
esea ch.
The su ey is based on a ci cula economic low model p inciple ha shows
money lows h ough he economy. The e a e wo kinds o his model. Closed – inside
he coun y, and Open – including expo and impo ac o s. The same e e s o he
open and closed economy. The O icial-Close Emission o CO2 is simila o he close
ci cula low model concep . Is i he igh app oach o his p oblem? I seems no o
be. We li e in a global wo ld whe e in e na ional ade is one o he economy’s mos
impo an and in luen ial ac o s. This ac o g ea ly in luences CO2 emission because
p oducing goods and se ices accompanies CO2 emission.
2. Me hods
F om 2007, he EU ene gy policy was c ea ed by ules, mechanisms, and
economic and inancial ins umen s (Komunika UE KOM (2007) 1, Dy ek ywa
96/61/WE, Dy ek ywa 2001/80/WE, Dy ek ywa 2003/87/WE, Dy ek ywa
2006/32/WE, Dy ek ywa 2009/28/WE, Komunika UE KOM (2010) 639, Komunika
UE KOM (2008) 781, Komunika UE KOM (2008) 772, Komunika UE KOM (2006)
105, Komunika UE KOM (2008) 13, Komunika UE KOM (2008) 768). I ou lines
he basic di ec ions o de eloping he EU ene gy sec o (Jeżowski 2011). Ene gy
policy came in o o ce in he EU in 2007. The Eu opean ene gy policy aimed o
Ba osz FORTUŃSKI
78
achie e 3 × 20% by 2020. I in ol es he educ ion o CO2 emissions by 20% in 1990,
inc easing pa icipa ion o enewable ene gy sou ces in he ene gy mix o 20%, and
imp o ing ene gy use e iciency by 20% compa ed o 1990.
I should also be emphasized ha he indica ed aims a e in e connec ed. The las
wo goals signi ican ly in luence he educ ion o CO2 emissions, which in u n
impac s he changes in o he objec i es o he EU ene gy policy.
The Ac ual-Open Emission o CO2 was de e mined as he CO2 emissions o a
pa icula coun y. I is diminished by emissions in expo ed goods and se ices o he
coun y and magni ied by emissions impo ed in p oduc s and se ices om he
impo ing coun y. I means ha he emissions balance o CO2 should dec ease
Ac ual-Open Emissions o CO2. The ollowing o mulas p esen a me hod used o
calcula e Ac ual-Open Emissions o CO2 o he China:
𝑆𝐵= ( 𝐼𝑚
𝐺𝐷𝑃)%×𝐸𝑂𝐶𝐶 −( 𝐸𝑥
𝐺𝐷𝑃)%×𝐸𝑂𝐶 (1)
𝑬𝑨𝑶 = 𝑬𝑶𝑪 +𝑺𝑩 (2)
SB – The balance o CO2 emissions in he selec ed coun y;
EOC – The O icial-Closed Emissions o CO2 in China;
EOCC – O icial-Closed Emission o CO2 in selec ed coun y;
Ex – Value o he China expo o selec ed coun y;
Im –Value o he China impo om a pa icula coun y;
GDP – The g oss domes ic p oduc o a selec ed coun y;
(Im/GDP)% – pa o he GDP o a speci ic coun y om wi h he China impo ed;
(Ex/GDP)% – pa o China’s GDP which was expo ed o a pa icula coun y;
(Im/GDP)%*EOCC – Quan i y o impo ed CO2 in goods om a speci ic coun y o
China;
(Ex/GDP)%*EOC – Quan i y o expo ed CO2 om China o he pa icula s a e in
expo ed goods;
EAO – Ac ual-Open Emissions o CO2 in China.
To show he EAO in a speci ic coun y, we need he da a o all China ade pa ne s.
In his su ey, we ha e 78 main ade pa ne s o China di ided in o i e con inen s:
A ica, Asia, Eu ope, No h Ame ica, Oceania, and Sou h Ame ica ( able 1). A ica
is ep esen ed by ou coun ies, Asia by 29 coun ies, and Eu ope by 33 coun ies.
Fou coun ies ep esen No h Ame ica, Oceania 2, and Sou h Ame ica by se en
coun ies. These coun ies and China a e among he la ges CO2 emi e s in he wo ld.
THE IMPACT OF CHINA’S FOREIGN TRADE ON THEIR ACTUAL-OPEN ….
79
They we e esponsible o 96–97% o he wo ld’s CO2 emissions om 2000 o 2020.
Due o he mul i ude o da a, he esea ch esul s in his s udy will be limi ed o
indi idual con inen s, wi h an indica ion o he coun ies ha had he mos signi ican
impac on CO2 exchange.
Table 1. Coun ies pa icipa ing in he s udy a e di ided in o indi idual con inen s
Con inen
Coun y
Con inen
Coun y
Con inen
Coun y
A ica
Alge ia
Asia
Singapo e
Eu ope
Li huania
A ica
Egyp
Asia
Thailand
Eu ope
Luxembou g
A ica
Mo occo
Asia
Tu kmenis an
Eu ope
La ia
A ica
Sou h A ica
Asia
Tu key
Eu ope
No h Macedonia
Asia
Uni ed A ab Emi a es
Asia
Uzbekis an
Eu ope
Ne he lands
Asia
Aze baijan
Asia
Vie nam
Eu ope
No way
Asia
Bangladesh
Asia
Chinese Taipei
Eu ope
Poland
Asia
China
Eu ope
Aus ia
Eu ope
Po ugal
Asia
Cyp us
Eu ope
Belgium
Eu ope
Romania
Asia
Hong Kong
Eu ope
Bulga ia
Eu ope
Russia
Asia
Indonesia
Eu ope
Bela us
Eu ope
Slo akia
Asia
India
Eu ope
Swi ze land
Eu ope
Slo enia
Asia
I an
Eu ope
Czechia
Eu ope
Sweden
Asia
I aq
Eu ope
Ge many
Eu ope
Uk aine
Asia
Is ael
Eu ope
Denma k
No h Ame ica
Canada
Asia
Japan
Eu ope
Spain
No h Ame ica
Mexico
Asia
Kazakhs an
Eu ope
Es onia
No h Ame ica
T inidad and Tobago
Asia
Sou h Ko ea
Eu ope
Finland
No h Ame ica
Uni ed S a es (US)
Asia
Kuwai
Eu ope
F ance
Oceania
Aus alia
Asia
S i Lanka
Eu ope
Uni ed Kingdom
Oceania
New Zealand
Asia
Malaysia
Eu ope
G eece
Sou h Ame ica
A gen ina
Asia
Oman
Eu ope
C oa ia
Sou h Ame ica
B azil
Asia
Pakis an
Eu ope
Hunga y
Sou h Ame ica
Chile
Asia
Philippines
Eu ope
I eland
Sou h Ame ica
Colombia
Asia
Qa a
Eu ope
Iceland
Sou h Ame ica
Ecuado
Asia
Saudi A abia
Eu ope
I aly
Sou h Ame ica
Pe u
Sou h Ame ica
Venezuela
Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
Ba osz FORTUŃSKI
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3. T ade be ween China and 78 coun ies om 2000 o 2020
China is he second bigges economy in he wo ld. To al expo s o China in yea s
had a g oo ing end un il 2008, 2009–2014, 2016–2018, and 2019–2020 ( igu e 1
and igu e 2). The declines in o al China expo s in a su ey ime we e in he yea s
2009, 2015–2016, and 2019. China’s o al expo s eached 319,71 billion (B) USD in
2000, up o 2491,05 B USD in 2020. I inc eased almos eigh imes in he wen y-one
yea s conside ed in his su ey, and by 21 yea s conside ed in his su ey, China
expo ed a o al o 78 coun ies, 32,35 illion USD.
Be ween 2000 and 2020, China’s expo s o Asia coun ies achie ed alue om
156 B o USD in 2000 o 1168 B o USD in 2020. In he case o No h Ame ican
coun ies, China’s expo s we e be ween 81 B o USD in 2000 and 615 B o USD in
2018. In su ey ime, China’s expo s o Eu ope eached 69 B USD in 2000 and 586
B in 2020. In 2007–2010 and 2019–2020, China’s expo s o Eu opean coun ies
exceeded No h Ame ican coun ies. Be ween 2000 and 2020, China’s expo s o
Sou h Ame ica achie ed a alue o 4 B USD in 2000 and 93 B USD in 2013. F om
2000 o 2020, China’s expo s o Oceania ha e ye o each 65 B USD; hey le el 43
B USD o A ica.
Figu e 1. China expo s o Asia, Eu opa and No h Ame ica in he yea s 2000–2020
in USD billion
Sou ce: own s udy based on The Obse a o y o Economic Complexi y.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Asia Eu ope No h Ame ica
THE IMPACT OF CHINA’S FOREIGN TRADE ON THEIR ACTUAL-OPEN ….
81
China’s expo s o Asia in 2000–2020 cons i u ed be ween 42.8% (2007) – and
49% (2000) o o al China expo s, o No h Ame ica 21.8% (2011) and 27.1% (2002);
in he case o Eu opa, i was 20.5% (2015) and 27.5% (2008). In Sou h Ame ica,
China expo ed 1.2% (2002) and 4.4% (2012, 2013) o o al hei expo s. Oceania
eached a le el o 2.6% and A ica 1.8%. I shows ha in in e na ional ade, con ac s
wi h Asia, No h Ame ica, and Eu ope a e he mos impo an pa ne s o China.
Figu e 2. China expo s o A ica, Oceania and Sou h Ame ica in yea s 2000–2020
in USD billion
Sou ce: own s udy based on The Obse a o y o Economic Complexi y.
China’s o al impo s g ew in 2000–2008, 2009–2013, and 2016–2018 ( igu e 3).
In he emaining yea s, he o al China impo s declined, acco ding o a su ey.
China’s impo s eached 160 B USD (2000) o 1499 B USD (2018). I inc eased
almos en imes o e he 21 yea s o he s udied pe iod.
Be ween 2000 and 2020, China’s impo s om Asia inc eased om 99.9 B USD
in 2000 o 778 B USD in 2018. In he case o Eu opean coun ies, he alue o China’s
impo s was be ween 32 B o USD in 2000 and 335 B o USD in 2018. In su ey ime,
China’s impo s om No h Ame ican coun ies achie ed a alue o 19 B o USD in
2000 and 1534 B in 2017. Be ween 2000 and 2020, China’s impo s om Sou h
Ame ica eached 3.6 B USD in 2000 and 119 B USD in 2020. China impo s om
2000–2020 om Oceania achie ed a alue o 4.2 B USD in 2000 and 121 B USD in
2029. China’s impo s om A ican coun ies ne e eached 28 B USD.
0
20
40
60
80
100
A ica Oceania Sou h Ame ica
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82
Figu e 3. China impo s om six con inen s ep esen ed by 78 coun ies in USD
billions in 2000–2020
Sou ce: own s udy based on The Obse a o y o Economic Complexi y.
China impo s om he Asian coun ies in 2000–2020 cons i u ed 63.8% (2005)
– 51% (2019 and 2020) o he o al China impo s. Impo s o China om Eu opean
coun ies in he su ey pe iod we e be ween 17.6% in 2005 and 22.5% in 2019; in he
case o No h Ame ican coun ies, i was 13.3% (2001) and 8.1% (2019). F om Sou h
Ame ican coun ies, i was be ween 2.2% (2000) and 8.1% (2020) o o al China
impo s. China impo s om Aus alia and New Zealand in 2000–2020 cons i u ed
2.4% (2001) – 8.2 (2019) o he o al China impo s. A ica ne e eached a le el
highe han 2.5%. I shows ha China’s con ac s wi h Asia, No h Ame ica, and
Eu ope a e he mos c i ical pa ne s in impo s, simila o China’s expo s.
F om 2000 o 2020, he alue o China’s impo s om Eu ope luc ua ed, bu i
was gene ally upwa d. This ime, China had a posi i e balance in in e na ional ade
wi h all Eu opean con inen s excep he Island, Ge many, and Swi ze land. I means
ha hey impo ed less om hem han hey expo ed o hem. I means ha China is
a i al pa ne o almos all coun ies because hey a e massi e in e na ional
supplie s. I shows ha in global ade, China was an essen ial pa ne o Eu opean
coun ies, especially Eu opean Union coun ies. The EU can in luence China’s CO2
emission policy o be mo e es ic i e. I can be easie o es ablish because he ade
0,000
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
900,000
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
A ica Asia Eu ope
No h Ame ica Oceania Sou h Ame ica
THE IMPACT OF CHINA’S FOREIGN TRADE ON THEIR ACTUAL-OPEN ….
89
China in each su ey yea was lowe han he hei O icial-Close Emission o CO2.
The smalles sp ead be ween he wo o hem was in he yea 2000, and i was 32.06%
o China’s emission o CO2 om he yea 1990. The highes sp ead be ween EOC and
EAO in China was in 2007, 101.52%. The highes EAO in China was in 2020, which
was 380.31% o CO2 om 1990. This da a shows ha China was a subs an ial ne
expo e o CO2 emissions in all su ey yea s.
6. Discussion
I is wo h s essing ha he EU’s ac ions in implemen ing he EU ene gy policy
a e limi ed only o he EU a ea. Be ween 2000 and 2020, China, in all su ey yea s,
had a posi i e ade balance wi h A ican, Asian, Eu opean, EU, and No h Ame ican
coun ies. Wi h Oceanian coun ies, China had a posi i e ade balance om 2000 o
2008, and Sou h Ame ican coun ies had a posi i e ade balance om 2000 o 2001.
Th oughou he e iew, he o al China o eign ade balance conside ing i e
con inen s was nega i e in Oceania – 2009–2020 and Sou h Ame ica – 2002–2020.
The o al China balance by 21 yea s o he su ey was 13533 B USD. By hose 21
yea s, he o al posi i e China ade balance was Asia (4478 B o USD), Eu ope (3716
B o USD), No h Ame ica (5560 B o USD), and A ica (294 B o USD). The only
con inen s wi h which China had a nega i e ade balance om 2000 o 2020 we e
Oceania, which was -390 B o USD, and Sou h Ame ica’s -126 B o USD. China’s
ade balance had a emendous impac on EAO in all o he 78 coun ies ha
pa icipa ed in he esea ch.
Wha does in luence on alue o EAO? I is O icial-Close Emission o CO2 o a
pa icula coun y, he % o GDP expo ed goods om he China. I mus be
conside ed also he % o GDP o coun ies om which he China impo ed goods.
This di ec ly esul s in China’s eno mous in luence on CO2 emissions in o he
coun ies.
EU is he wo ld leade in CO2 educ ion. One o i s olls is he EU ene gy policy.
Wha can/should he EU do o make o he coun ies do mo e o educe CO2 emissions?
Wha a e he challenges ha he EU aces? The e a e wo possibili ies. One is doing
no hing, li ing i wi hou changes. The EU will be con en wi h i s ene gy policy, wi h
Ba osz FORTUŃSKI
90
a educ ion o CO2 emissions inside he EU. Howe e , i will change no hing. The EU
will s ill impo CO2 om ou side he EU h ough p oduc s and se ices and con inue
con ibu ing o CO2 emissions ou side he EU. The second op ion is o change i s
app oach o he ene gy policy o be mo e global. The EU should ake in o accoun he
CO2 emissions ha a e impo ed in o he EU. The EU should conside some
ins umen s ha encou age coun ies ou side he EU o do simila ac i i ies o educe
CO2 emissions. Fo example, ecological axes (Fo uński 2012–2023; Bog ocz 2008;
G aczyk, Jakubczyk 2005; Kaczma ski 2010; K yk 2012a, 2012b). The EAO also
indica es he ine ec i eness o in e na ional ag eemen s in educing emissions o
CO2, such as he Kyo o Ag eemen .
The main challenges in he case o he second solu ion a e e alia ion ac i i y
unde aken by he coun ies om which he EU impo s and on each o hese
“ecological axes” o o he ins umen s would be imposed. This will, among o he s,
include ansac ion cos s. The o he challenge will be how o p omo e he educ ion
o CO2 emissions in coun ies ou side he EU. Because China, as we saw in p e ious
da a, impo s om Eu opean coun ies a e much smalle han China’s expo s o hose
coun ies, i will be easie o he EU o dec ease China’s CO2 emissions. This is
because China is mo e in e es ed in no losing he EU as a des ina ion o expo – i
would be mo e cos ly o China han o he EU o es ablish a new o m o CO2 ax.
The app op ia e would be a i s on all kinds o p oduc s and se ices impo ed
om China o he EU. Such a a i om he EU would likely igge a coun e ac ion
om China in he o m o a i s on p oduc s om he EU.
Ano he p oblem is de e mining he e e ence pe iod o which he olume o CO2
emissions in China should be e e ed. Se ing his o 1990 seems un ealis ic. In his
con ex , i should be no ed ha China’s o icial CO2 emissions inc eased h oughou
he pe iod unde e iew. The same applies o he educ ion in CO2 emissions. In he
i o 55 documen s, he e is alk o a 55% educ ion in CO2 emissions by 2030
(compa ed o 1990) and achie ing clima e neu ali y by 2050.
Abou China, he e is no men ion o any educ ion in emissions, whe he
compa ed o 1990, 2000, o e en 2010. i also seems ha no add essing he issue o
he expo and impo o CO2 emissions and i s limi a ion by he EU on non-EU
coun ies is decei ing EU ci izens. The EU spends as amoun s o money on clima e
THE IMPACT OF CHINA’S FOREIGN TRADE ON THEIR ACTUAL-OPEN ….
91
ans o ma ion. People bea he cos s associa ed wi h his daily in he o m o highe
elec ici y bills and loss o jobs in emission sec o s. O he coun ies ou side he EU
do no bea such expenses, which is un ai .
Ano he p oblem is ha he EU is esponsible o a small pe cen age o global
CO2 emissions – abou 8%. This means ha i he EU does no engage o he coun ies
in simila ac ions, pa icula ly he la ges CO2 emi e s, which a e also i s la ges
ading pa ne s, clima e p o ec ion ac ions will no b ing bene i s a he global le el.
7 Summa y
The Eu opean Union is ega ded as he leade in he igh agains global wa ming,
a ba le o clean ene gy, and a educ ion o CO2 emissions. Un o una ely, i s ac ions
a e isola ed, which leads o he si ua ion ha e en such a la ge economy as he EU,
which is s ongly economically ela ed o o he coun ies h ough ade, can only
change a li le wi hin his issue. The EU and China a e leade s in wo ld ade. The EU
could use i s posi ion in in e na ional ade o achie e i s own ene gy policy goals –
educing CO2 emissions.
T ade ela es o a balance o CO2 hidden in goods impo ed o and expo ed om
China. I a ec s he EAO in all 78 coun ies om his su ey. The impac o China’s
in e na ional ade was e y high, and o mos o he yea s, con inen s nega i ely
impac ed o he coun ies. This means ha China mainly expo ed CO2 o hose
coun ies. I was also he case o UE coun ies. The impac o he ade on CO2
emission was huge because o he subs an ial in e na ional ade in goods and se ices
be ween China and he EU.
The e ec i eness o i s membe s implemen ing he EU ene gy policy is limi ed
only o he EU’s e i o y. I can esul in he EU ene gy policy no being ega ded as
a SD policy and being ela ed o high cos s. I he EU is in e es ed in educing CO2
emissions, i mus conside i . Because o hose high cos s, EU coun ies y o educe
hem by impo ing pa s, componen s, and p oduc s om cheape coun ies, which
e y o en ha e highe emissions o CO2. I is usually because, in hose coun ies,
en i onmen al law is mo e elaxed han in he EU.
Ba osz FORTUŃSKI
92
This si ua ion b ings some challenges ahead o he EU, especially in hei ene gy
policy in he CO2 aspec . The su ey has shown ha he EU should conside changes
in i s ene gy policy. This policy should ake in o accoun an elemen o CO2 emission
mo e globally. The esul s o he esea ch indica e ha CO2 emission is a global
p oblem. I equi es he EU o conside in oducing a new ins umen ha would
incen i ize coun ies ou side he EU o ake e ec i e ac ion o educe CO2 emissions.
A new ins umen , an eco-ene gy ax, could be in oduced o ha pu pose. The EU
would apply i o all ade pa ne s, indi idual coun ies, o g oups o coun ies.
Addi ionally, his ax would conce n he olume o pa icula coun ies expo ing o
he EU (Bielecki e al. 2016: 43–46). Fo una ely, EU will ha e some new ca bon ax
sho ly (Salzman 2023; Ca bon Bo de Adjus men Mechanism). Un o una ely, his
kind o ac ion could b ing con ac ions.
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