Nikiema, Poui kè a Ri a; Dedewanou, Finagnon An oine
A icle
Food insecu i y du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Bu kina
Faso
Economies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Nikiema, Poui kè a Ri a; Dedewanou, Finagnon An oine (2025) : Food insecu i y
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Bu kina Faso, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 13,
Iss. 6, pp. 1-22,
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Academic Edi o : Sanzidu Rahman
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Published: 2 June 2025
Ci a ion: Nikiema, P. R., &
Dedewanou, F. A. (2025). Food
Insecu i y Du ing he COVID-19
Pandemic in Bu kina Faso. Economies,
13(6), 155. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies13060155
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
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A icle
Food Insecu i y Du ing he COVID-19 Pandemic in Bu kina Faso
Poui kè a Ri a Nikiema 1,* and Finagnon An oine Dedewanou 2
1Uni e si y No be Zongo, BP 376 Koudougou, Koudougou 40000, Bu kina Faso
2Ca le on Uni e si y, 1125 Colonel By D , O awa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This pape in es iga es he implica ion o he COVID-19 pandemic on household
ood insecu i y in Bu kina Faso. We used da a om he High-F equency Phone Su ey
collec ed om he pe iod June 2020 o June 2021 by he Wo ld Bank in collabo a ion
wi h he Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics. To assess he pe sis ence o ood inadequacy,
we es ima ed a dynamic linea p obabili y model. Ou esul s e ealed ha emale and
elde ly household membe s we e mo e likely o skip meals du ing he pandemic han
hei espec i e coun e pa s. Fo households ha skipped a meal due o he pandemic,
he likelihood o acing ood insecu i y in he subsequen mon h inc eased by 37 pe cen .
Simila ly, indi iduals who an ou o ood in consecu i e mon hs we e 0.28 imes mo e
likely o expe ience he same si ua ion in he ollowing mon h. While o he shocks can cause
ood insecu i y, he global heal h- ela ed, economic, social, and in o ma ion dimensions
o COVID-19 c ea ed a dis inc i e and mul i ace ed o m o ood sho age ha se s i
apa om many o he ypes o shock. These indings sugges he implemen a ion o
e ec i e p og ams o espond o shocks and he mi iga ion e ec s expe ienced by mos
disad an aged g oups.
Keywo ds: COVID-19; ood insecu i y pe sis ence; Bu kina Faso
JEL Classi ica ion: D10; I12; O55; Q18
1. In oduc ion
The COVID-19 pandemic has led o subs an ial conce ns abou h ea s o ood secu i y
(Ama e e al.,2021;Hi onen e al.,2021;Labo de e al.,2020). In Ap il 2020, he Wo ld
Food P og amme (WFP) p ojec ed ha he numbe o acu ely ood-insecu e people in he
wo ld could double by he end o 2020 wi hou conce ed ac ion (WFP,2020). The Wo ld
Bank’s ecen es ima es show ha , globally, he pandemic pushed 23 million people in o
ex eme po e y in Sub-Saha an A ica in 2020. In addi ion, esea ch on he e ec s o
he COVID-19 pandemic on ood secu i y, ood sys ems, and po e y e ealed ha he
hunge and malnu i ion associa ed wi h he pandemic migh ac ually kill o debili a e
mo e people han he disease i sel , especially in egions o he wo ld wi h weake social
sa e y ne s (Fanzo,2020;HLPE,2020;Uni ed Na ions,2020).
This pape in es iga es he implica ions o he COVID-19 pandemic on household
ood secu i y in Bu kina Faso. Bu kina Faso is an in e es ing case s udy, as he pandemic
con ibu ed o he wo sening o ood insecu i y o h ee main easons. Fi s , ag icul u al
p oduc ion and ood secu i y in Bu kina Faso a e highly dependen on wea he shocks.
Acco ding o he Food C isis P e en ion Ne wo k (2020), ain all a iabili y educed
ag icul u al p oduc ion by be ween 6% and 15% in 2019. This could ip 10.1% o he
popula ion in o ood insecu i y. In addi ion, in ecen yea s, he coun y has been a ec ed
Economies 2025,13, 155 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13060155
Economies 2025,13, 155 2 o 22
by iolen e o is a acks and egional un es . Second, he Fund o Peace (2020) concluded
ha Bu kina Faso was he ou h mos a ec ed coun y by e o ism in 2019. Te o ism
led o he closu e o mo e han 2000 schools, 600,000 in e nally displaced people, and he
shu down o heal h cen e s. On 31 Decembe 2022, 6253 schools closed, and 1.7 million
people we e displaced in e nally due o insecu i y and iolence. These ecu en and
iolen a acks ha e de e io a ed households’ li elihoods in se e al egions. Finally, he
a ailabili y o a la ge na ionally ep esen a i e panel o households obse ed du ing he
pandemic makes Bu kina Faso an ideal se ing o he ea ly empi ical examina ion o he
impac s o COVID-19.
The e ec s o he pandemic a e expec ed o di e bo h by geog aphy and by ype
o household, wi h p e-exis ing ulne abili ies o ood secu i y likely o be magni ied
(De e eux e al.,2020;Ra allion,2020). The impac s a e expec ed o be mos se e e o
poo e households in bo h u al and u ban a eas (Ra allion,2020). Acco ding o he FAO
(2021), COVID-19 was a con ibu ing ac o o he inc ease in mode a e and se e e ood
insecu i y be ween 2019 and 2020. Indeed, mode a e and se e e ood insecu i y inc eased
om 43 pe cen o 59 pe cen in Bu kina Faso. As he sp ead o he pandemic began
in u ban a eas, go e nmen esponses, including mobili y es ic ions and lockdowns,
would likely be mos in ense in u ban a eas and migh a ec u ban esiden s mo e di ec ly
han u al households in he sho e m. Howe e , he impac o COVID-19 was also
expec ed o a y ac oss li elihood op ions, wi h hose ac i i ies ha equi e ace- o- ace
in e ac ions likely o expe ience a signi ican loss in demand (Abay e al.,2020). Value chain
dis up ions migh ex end deeply in o u al a eas, a ec ing bo h inpu supply and ou pu
demand o a me s and a ec ing he income o hose employed in bo h ups eam and
downs eam ag icul u al alue chains (Amja h-Babu e al.,2020). FAO and WFP (2020)
iden i ied he ollowing i e ways in which ood insecu i y can be a ec ed by COVID-19:
(i) ood access h ough he educed pu chasing powe o households; (ii) he a ailabili y o
ood by educing ag icul u al p oduc ion and dis up ing ood supply chains; (iii) he limi
o go e nmen capaci ies o p o ec ulne able popula ions; (i ) poli ical s abili y; and ( )
con lic dynamics.
Mo e p ecisely, ou s udy answe s he ollowing ques ions:
•Wha is he pe sis ence o ood insecu i y du ing he COVID-19 pandemic pe iods?
•Do he po en ial e ec s a y ac oss households?
•Wha a e he e ec s o he sp ead o he pandemic on ood insecu i y ou comes?
To answe he abo e ques ions, we used he 2020–2021 High-F equency Phone Su ey.
We also in es iga ed o he ac o s a ec ing ood insecu i y indica o s ia dynamic o dina y
leas squa e eg ession.
P e ious s udies on he e ec s o COVID-19 on ood secu i y in Bu kina Faso ocused
on he b oade mac oeconomic na ional le el (Zidouemba e al.,2020) and he u ban
en i onmen (Ouoba & Sawadogo,2022;Sawadogo & Ouoba,2023). Ou s udy ills his
gap by analyzing he e ec s a he mic oeconomic le el and in bo h u al and u ban
en i onmen s. The con ibu ion o his wo k is h ee old. Fi s , he s udy adds o he
g owing li e a u e a emp ing o analyze he impac o COVID-19 a he household and
indi idual le els. Second, in e ms o me hodology, he s udy employed a dynamic model
wi h longi udinal da a. Thi d, he s udy includes a he e ogenei y analysis o help o mula e
policies a ge ing ulne able households and indi iduals.
The emainde o his pape is o ganized as ollows. In he nex sec ion, we p esen an
empi ical li e a u e e iew and heo e ical amewo k. We discuss he COVID-19 si ua ion
in Bu kina Faso in Sec ion 3. Sec ion 4desc ibes he da a ound and documen s he ood
insecu i y p o ile. We p esen empi ical esul s in Sec ion 5and a discussion su ounding
ou esul s in Sec ion 6. The pape is hen concluded in Sec ion 7.
Economies 2025,13, 155 3 o 22
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Empi ical Re iew
Se e al empi ical s udies ha e documen ed he impac s o he COVID-19 pandemic
on ood insecu i y (Akim e al.,2024;Ouoba & Sawadogo,2022;Sya iq e al.,2022;Labo de
e al.,2021;Ama e e al.,2021;Adjognon e al.,2021;De e eux e al.,2020). Th ee main
channels ha e been iden i ied o highligh hese impac s:
•Income losses and shocks in demand;
•Food supply chain dis up ions;
•
Policy esponses: hoa ding a he coun y le el ( ood expo bans) and iscal s imulus.
Income losses and shocks in demand ha e con ibu ed signi ican ly o he educ ion
in ood secu i y du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. Wi h espec o ood access dis up ions,
p e en i e esponses c ea ed employmen shocks h ough employmen losses. E idence
om low- and middle-income coun ies shows o e all income losses due o s ay-a -home
policies (Bo an e al.,2020;Ceballos e al.,2020;Hamadani e al.,2020;Kansiime e al.,2021;
Koos e al.,2020;Labo de e al.,2021;Mahmud & Riley,2021). Labo de e al. (2021) assessed
he impac o COVID-19 on po e y and ood insecu i y in Asia and A ica, Sou h o he
Saha a, using IFPRI’s global gene al equilib ium model. They ound ha he inc eases in
po e y a e concen a ed in Sou h Asia and Sub-Saha an A ica, wi h ha de impac s in
u ban a eas han in u al a eas. The COVID-19- ela ed lockdown measu es explain mos
o he dec ease in ou pu , whe eas declines in sa ings so en he ad e se impac s on ood
consump ion. Using phone-based su eys in Mali, Adjognon e al. (2021) epo ed high
le els o ood insecu i y and sho alls in labo ma ke pa icipa ion in u ban a eas. In
Nige ia, ood insecu i y and sho alls in labo ma ke pa icipa ion we e also exace ba ed
by COVID-19 cases and some con ainmen measu es such as lockdowns (Ama e e al.,
2021). The link be ween mo e s ingen es ic ions, ood insecu i y, and o - a m income
educ ion was also es ablished using a obus s a is ical analysis o compa e he a eas o
Nige ia ha expe ienced di e en ial es ic ions (Ama e e al.,2021). Mo eo e , se e al
ecen empi ical s udies ha e documen ed he impac o he ex e nali y o in ec ion (i.e.,
he unin ended impac o an indi idual’s in ec ion on he heal h and economic ou comes
o o he s) on income (see Alinsa o,2021;Be hune & Ko inek,2020;Eichenbaum e al.,2021;
Wel ens,2020 o a e iew). Indeed, he sp ead o COVID-19 could ha e led o a dec ease in
economic p oduc i i y, which, in u n, could ha e esul ed in low incomes o indi iduals.
Du ing he COVID-19 ou b eak, some people ook ime o o ca e o hemsel es o hei
amily membe s o o a oid becoming in ec ed. This could ha e led o educed p oduc i i y
in he wo kplace and, in u n, a decline in income o indi iduals and businesses.
Food supply chain dis up ions: S ock-ou s a ec online ma ke s due o educed a m
deli e ies (Mahajan & Toma ,2021), and he p ices o g ains became uns able, al hough
minimum suppo p ices shielded p oduce s om e y low p ices (Va shney e al.,2020).
Despi e go e nmen suppo mechanisms, such as minimum p ices, some p oduc s (e.g.,
ege ables) s ill su e ed p ice d ops (Ali & Khan,2020). COVID-19 has dis up ed no only
ood ma ke s bu also he o e all na ional and in e na ional supply chains (Aday & Aday,
2020;Ayanlade & Radeny,2020;Cao e al.,2021;Elleby e al.,2020), including access o
ag icul u al inpu s, such as e ilize s, and o he s (Ayanlade & Radeny,2020;Nchanji e al.,
2021;Pan e al.,2020;Pu & Zhong,2020). We expec ha households ha e become mo e
ood insecu e due o COVID-19 and ela ed lockdown measu es.
Policy esponses—hoa ding a he coun y le el ( ood expo bans) and iscal s imulus:
COVID-19 igge ed a ange o policy esponses a bo h he na ional and in e na ional le els.
Two impo an policy esponses we e hoa ding a he coun y le el, pa icula ly ood expo
bans, and he iscal s imulus. Hoa ding a he coun y le el e e s o he ac o go e nmen s
Economies 2025,13, 155 4 o 22
es ic ing o banning expo s o essen ial commodi ies such as ood, medical supplies, and
o he goods in esponse o he COVID-19 pandemic. Some coun ies ha e implemen ed
expo bans on ood and o he essen ial goods o ensu e hei domes ic ood secu i y and
mee he needs o hei popula ion. Howe e , hese policies can lead o sho ages in o he
coun ies, pa icula ly in low-income coun ies, which can exace ba e ood insecu i y and
con ibu e o global p ice ola ili y. Fiscal s imulus e e s o policies aimed a boos ing
economic g ow h and mi iga ing he impac o he COVID-19 pandemic on businesses and
indi iduals. Fiscal s imulus measu es can ake he o m o di ec paymen s o indi iduals,
ax b eaks, loans and g an s o businesses, and inc eased go e nmen spending on public
in as uc u e p ojec s. These measu es a e aimed a main aining agg ega e demand
and suppo ing households and businesses ha a e s uggling inancially owing o he
pandemic. Fiscal s imulus policies ha e been widely implemen ed by go e nmen s a ound
he wo ld in esponse o he COVID-19 pandemic. The scale and scope o hese policies
ha e a ied, wi h some coun ies implemen ing la ge-scale s imulus packages and o he s
adop ing mo e a ge ed measu es. The e ec i eness o hese policies in mi iga ing he
economic impac o he pandemic has been mixed, wi h some coun ies expe iencing a
ebound in economic ac i i y while o he s con inue o s uggle. In summa y, hoa ding a
he coun y le el and iscal s imulus a e wo impo an policy esponses o he COVID-19
pandemic. While hoa ding can con ibu e o global p ice ola ili y and exace ba e ood
insecu i y, iscal s imulus policies a e aimed a mi iga ing he economic impac o he
pandemic on households and businesses. The e ec i eness o hese policies in mi iga ing
he impac o he pandemic will con inue o be e alua ed o e ime.
Al hough he li e a u e on he e ec s o COVID-19 on ood secu i y in low- and
middle-income coun ies con inues o g ow, minimal esea ch exis s on he magni ude o
he impac o he co ona i us pandemic on he abo e mechanisms, pa ly because de ailed
household su ey da a a e no ye a ailable. This s udy aims o examine he implica ions
o he sp ead o he pandemic and associa ed lockdown measu es on he ul ima e ood
secu i y ou comes o households. Bu kina Faso was highly suscep ible o income shocks
and ood insecu i y associa ed wi h he sp ead o he pandemic. Thus, na ional and egional
lockdowns and mobili y es ic ions dis up ed majo economic ac i i ies, including local
businesses. These es ic ions a ec ed ood anspo a ion wi hin he coun y, wi h clea
implica ions o he ood supply. The e a e indica ions ha Bu kina Faso’s domes ic and
in e na ional ood supply chains ha e been dis up ed, ood p ices ha e inc eased, and
in o mal sec o unemploymen a es a e likely o be inc easing. All hese e ec s a e likely o
gene a e signi ican epe cussions o ood insecu i y, pa icula ly in poo e and ulne able
households (Ama e e al.,2021;E icksen e al.,2012;Gilligan,2020;Tendall e al.,2015).
Using mul i a ia e analysis, Sya iq e al. (2022) epo ed ha he educed income
and wo k s oppage s a us o households we e ela ed o household ood secu i y du ing
he pandemic in Indonesia. They also ound ha households wi h lowe incomes had
a ou imes highe isk o expe iencing ood insecu i y. Addi ionally, households wi h
younge people had a wo imes highe isk o expe iencing ood insecu i y han hei
olde coun e pa s. Ouoba and Sawadogo (2022) analyzed he e ec s o income loss
due o COVID-19 on ood secu i y and po e y among he u ban households o small
ade s in Bu kina Faso. They ound ha he pandemic has educed incomes by inc easing
he likelihood o households en e ing po e y. In addi ion, COVID-19 has inc eased he
likelihood o households being ood insecu e due o hei lowe ood consump ion. Ouoba
and Sawadogo concluded ha households wi h adap i e capaci y we e able o adjus o
he shock.
Using a compu able gene al equilib ium model wi h wo al e na i e scena ios (i.e.,
op imis ic and pessimis ic), Zidouemba e al. (2020) sugges ed ha he COVID-19 pandemic
Economies 2025,13, 155 5 o 22
has con ibu ed o a wo sening o ood secu i y as ood insecu i y is inc easing among poo
households in u al and u ban a eas in Bu kina Faso. The au ho s show ha while u ban
non-poo households a e esilien o he pandemic’s e ec s, u al non-poo households a e
likely ulne able.
2.2. Theo e ical F amewo k
COVID-19 has had signi ican impac s on ood secu i y wo ldwide. Concep ually, he
impac s o COVID-19 on ood secu i y can be unde s ood h ough a ange o heo e ical
amewo ks, including he ood sys ems amewo k, he household li elihoods amewo k,
and he global poli ical economy amewo k. The ood sys em amewo k emphasizes he
in e connec edness o he di e en componen s o he ood sys em, including p oduc ion,
p ocessing, dis ibu ion, and consump ion. The COVID-19 pandemic dis up ed all o hese
componen s, wi h impac s on a me s, ood p ocesso s, anspo wo ke s, and e aile s
(Kuma & Kuma Singh,2022). The esul ing dis up ions led o ood sho ages, inc eased
p ices, and educed access o nu i ious oods, pa icula ly o ulne able popula ions
(Labo de e al.,2020). The ood sys em amewo k can be used o unde s and he complex
and in e ela ed impac s o COVID-19 on ood secu i y and in o m policy esponses ha
add ess he di e en componen s o he ood sys em.
The household li elihoods amewo k emphasizes he ole o indi idual households
in secu ing access o ood. The COVID-19 pandemic has led o widesp ead job losses and
economic insecu i y, which has had signi ican impac s on households’ abili y o access
and a o d ood (Ka pman e al.,2020). In addi ion, lockdowns and o he public heal h
measu es ha e limi ed households’ abili y o access ood ma ke s and o he sou ces o ood.
The household li elihood amewo k can help o unde s and he di e en ial impac s o
COVID-19 on households, depending on hei socio-economic s a us and o he ac o s, and
o in o m policy esponses ha a ge ulne able households and add ess he unde lying
economic d i e s o ood insecu i y.
The global poli ical economy amewo k emphasizes he ole o in e na ional ade and
powe ela ions in shaping ood secu i y. The COVID-19 pandemic has led o dis up ions
in global ade and supply chains, including ood expo s and impo s. In addi ion, he
economic impac s o he pandemic ha e disp opo iona ely a ec ed low-income coun ies
and small-scale a me s, who a e o en elian on in e na ional ade o hei li elihoods
(Clapp & Moseley,2020). In e na ional ade is one o he key sou ces o ood secu i y as
ade mo es ood om su plus coun ies o de ici coun ies, inc eases ood a ailabili y,
and educes p ices (Ouoba & Sawadogo,2022). Howe e , ade can be a h ea o ood
secu i y because o he closu e o ma ke s o ade ba ie s ha dis up he ood supply
chain. Wo ldwide, da a indica e ha COVID-19 has a signi ican nega i e impac on he
ood supply chain, which con ibu es o wo sening malnu i ion (FAO e al.,2021). The
global poli ical economy amewo k can help us unde s and he unde lying s uc u al
d i e s o ood insecu i y and in o m policy esponses ha add ess powe imbalances and
inequi ies in he global ood sys em.
O e all, hese heo e ical amewo ks can be used o unde s and he complex and
in e ela ed impac s o COVID-19 on ood secu i y and in o m policy esponses ha
add ess he unde lying d i e s o ood insecu i y. Indeed, policymake s mus be awa e ha
be o e COVID-19, p e-exis ing ac o s such as clima e change, con lic s, and socioeconomic
ac o s con ibu ed o ood insecu i y, and hese e ec s ha e pe sis ed wi h he pandemic.
Thus, a ge ed mul isec o al in e en ions a e needed o ensu e ha popula ion esilience
accoun s o he in e ela ion be ween ood insecu i y ac o s.
Economies 2025,13, 155 6 o 22
3. COVID-19 Measu es in Bu kina Faso
The COVID-19 pandemic, which began in China in Decembe 2019, quickly sp ead
o all coun ies in he wo ld. Bu kina Faso o icially eco ded i s i s in ec ion case on
9 Ma ch 2020. On 12 Ap il 2022, he e we e 20,865 con i med cases o COVID-19, wi h
383 dea hs. Like many coun ies wo ldwide, Bu kina Faso ollowed physical dis ancing,
handwashing, and ace-co e ing measu es in o de o limi he sp ead o he i us. In
iew o he inc ease in he incidence o COVID-19 cases, in addi ion o ba ie measu es,
new social and economic measu es we e aken h ee weeks a e he s a o he epidemic
and we e g adually in oduced wi hin he coun y. To con ain he sp ead o he disease,
he go e nmen o Bu kina Faso ook addi ional p e en i e measu es, he i s o which
came in o o ce on 16 Ma ch 2020. These measu es included he ollowing: he closu e
o schools and uni e si ies, he closu e o ce ain ma ke s, he closu e o es au an s and
ba s, he closu e o all places o wo ship, and he in oduc ion o a cu ew ( om 7 p.m. o
5 a.m. in Ma ch and la e om 9 p.m. o 4 a.m. in Ap il) h oughou he e i o y. Also, he
go e nmen implemen ed es ic ions on a el wi hin he coun y; he qua an ine o ci ies
eco ding a leas one case; he closu e o ai , land, and ail bo de s; he cessa ion o all non-
essen ial ac i i ies, including spo s and cul u al ac i i ies; and he p ohibi ion o ga he ings
o mo e han 50 people. While hese es ic i e measu es we e in ended p ima ily o educe
he sp ead o he disease, hey impac ed he li ing condi ions o popula ions o a ying
deg ees. Fo example, he closu e o ma ke s impac ed access o ood in ci ies and among
he poo due o he inc ease in p ices. Indeed, du ing he pe iod when an i-COVID-19
measu es we e implemen ed, 25 pe cen o households na ionwide we e unable o access
s aple oods (INSD,2020). Thus, COVID-19 has a ec ed people’s abili y o mee hei ood
needs, which has ul ima ely exace ba ed ood and nu i ion insecu i y in Bu kina Faso.
Howe e , he closu e o ma ke s in he main ci ies was he mos con es ed measu e as
a as majo i y o young sel -employed people wo k in he in o mal sec o in ma ke s and
make a li ing om day- o-day selling hei p oduc s (Tapsoba,2022). In Ouagadougou,
he poli ical capi al o Bu kina Faso, 36 ma ke s we e closed om 26 Ma ch o 20 Ap il
2020, and he la ge ma ke was closed in Bobo Dioulasso, he economic capi al, om
30 Ma ch o 12 Ap il 2020. To mi iga e he impac o his measu e on li elihoods, he
go e nmen op ed o he dis ibu ion o ood and necessi ies o hose impac ed by he
decision, speci ically o in o mal ade s. Howe e , as dona ions, io s, and demons a ions
e up ed, he go e nmen was u ged o suspend he decision o close he ma ke (Tapsoba,
2022). Indeed, weeks la e , a decision was made o eopen ma ke s, bu wi h condi ional
measu es, such as he disin ec ion o all ma ke s, a educ ion in he numbe o clien s, he
ins alla ion o hand-washing equipmen in e e y shop, social dis ancing, and mask-wea ing
o cus ome s and me chan s. Keeping ma ke s open helped o main ain ade s’ incomes
and p e en hem om sliding in o po e y, and he ood secu i y o many u ban esiden s
who elied on hem was also p ese ed. Acco ding o he FAO (2021), du ing he pandemic,
a solida i y und was es ablished by he go e nmen in he coun y o bene i ac o s in he
in o mal sec o , pa icula ly women, o e i e ade ac i i ies in ege ables and ui s.
4. Me hodology
4.1. Da a Desc ip ion
We use da a om Bu kina Faso’s High-F equency Phone Su ey (HFPS) phase one,
which we e collec ed by he Wo ld Bank in collabo a ion wi h he Bu kina Faso Na ional
Ins i u e o S a is ics and Demog aphy (INSD). HFPS phase 1 was used o assess he im-
pac s o he COVID-19 pandemic and included 11 ounds collec ed om 9 June 2020 o
28 June 2021 and was conduc ed on a mon hly basis. Table 1p esen s he da es o da a
collec ion. The HFPS is a subsample o he Bu kina Faso 2018/19 Li ing S anda ds and
Economies 2025,13, 155 7 o 22
Measu emen Su ey (LSMS). We me ged he da a om all 11 ounds and kep he cases
wi h comple e in o ma ion. These da a p o ide in o ma ion on ood, nu i ion secu i y
indica o s, employmen , income, e c. Adjus ing o po en ial a i ion in he HFPS and
cons uc ing na ionally ep esen a i e s a is ics necessi a e cons uc ing and applying ap-
p op ia e sampling weigh s. The HFPS eam cons uc ed sampling weigh s using he
weigh s o he LSMS as he basis, wi h u he adjus men s made o a i ion in he phone
su ey. The weigh s o he inal sample o households om he HFPS we e calcula ed in
se e al s ages and a e shown o ensu e a compa able dis ibu ion o obse able cha ac-
e is ics om he LSMS and he HFPS. Fu he mo e, o ob ain ep esen a i e s a a a he
na ional, u ban, and u al le els, he HFPS eam a ge ed a sample size o 1800 households
om he 7010 ep esen a i e households in he LSMS. By assuming a 50% non esponse a e,
hey ob ained he minimum equi ed sample o 1479 households. The e o e, o accoun
o non esponse and a i ion, 2500 households we e called in he baseline ound. A o al
o 1968 households we e ully in e iewed du ing he i s ound o in e iews, and hose
1968 households cons i u ed he inal success ul sample o be con ac ed in he subsequen
ounds o he su ey. O e all, mo e han 95% o he 1968 households we e success ully
in e iewed in each ound. Since HFPS da a con ain some impo an in o ma ion on house-
holds’ pa icipa ion in economic ac i i ies and ood insecu i y expe ience, we can assess
he pe sis ence o he impac s o he COVID-19 pandemic on ood insecu i y.
Table 1. Da es o da a collec ion.
Rounds S a End
1 9 June 2020 1 July 2020
2 20 July 2020 14 Augus 2020
3 12 Sep embe 2020 21 Oc obe 2020
4 6 No embe 2020 2 Decembe 2020
5 9 Decembe 2020 30 Decembe 2020
6 15 Janua y 2021 1 Feb ua y 2021
7 12 Feb ua y 2021 2 Ma ch 2021
8 13 Ma ch 2021 1 Ap il 2021
9 20 Ap il 2021 4 May 2021
10 25 May 2021 15 June 2021
11 28 June 2021 20 July 2021
Sou ce: Wo ld Bank.
We measu ed ood insecu i y using h ee indica o s, cap u ing households’ expe ience
o ood insecu i y and using he ood insecu i y expe ience scale (FIES) de eloped by
Ca ie o e al. (2018). In he HFPS, households’ ood insecu i y expe iences we e elici ed
using he sel - epo ed expe iences o hunge and ood sho ages in he las 30 days
(Hoddino ,1999;Ca le o e al.,2013;Bellema e & No ak,2017). The i s indica o asked
i a household head o any o he adul in he household had skipped a meal because he e
was no enough money o o he esou ces o ob ain ood. The second indica o elici ed
whe he he household had un ou o ood due o a lack o money o o he esou ces
o ob ain ood. The hi d indica o ook a alue o 1 i he household o any o he adul
in he household wen wi hou ea ing o a whole day because o a lack o money o
o he esou ces. These h ee indica o s a e he educed FIES and ep esen a subse o
he ull FIES commonly employed in he COVID-19 li e a u e (Akim e al.,2024;Ama e
e al.,2021). Ama e e al. (2021) and Akim e al. (2024) used he same h ee indica o s
o measu e ood insecu i y du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Nige ia. In gene al, and
in he COVID-19 li e a u e, he ull FIES consis s o eigh indica o s (Rudin-Rush e al.,
2022;Adjognon e al.,2021). Howe e , he educed FIES is consis en wi h he adi ional
ood insecu i y classi ica ion in he li e a u e (Akim e al.,2024;Adjognon e al.,2021).
Economies 2025,13, 155 8 o 22
Also, hese h ee indica o s may no cap u e all domains o he ood secu i y si ua ion, bu
hey do show po en ial dynamics in he ood secu i y si ua ion (Ama e e al.,2021) and
easonably cap u e household ood insecu i y conce ns (Akim e al.,2024). In addi ion
o he sepa a e indica o s, Akim e al. (2024) used he FIES indica o s o compu e a ood
insecu i y index and ood insecu i y sco e. Indeed, based on he educed FIES indica o s,
Ama e e al. (2021) used p incipal componen analysis (PCA) o cons uc a composi e
index o ood insecu i y, whe eas Akim e al. (2024) included he sum o he indica o s o
measu e he ood insecu i y sco e. Mo eo e , Rudin-Rush e al. (2022) and Adjognon e al.
(2021) used ood insecu i y se e i y classi ica ions.
Table 2 epo s he weigh ed and pooled summa y s a is ics o he key a iables in
ou sample. We selec ed common a iables on he basis o he COVID-19 li e a u e. Abou
15 pe cen o he esponden s in ou sample we e emale; 14.9 pe cen o he households
skipped a meal because o a lack o mone a y esou ces; 8 pe cen an ou o ood; and
5 pe cen wen wi hou ea ing o a whole day.
Table 2. Summa y s a is ics o key a iables.
Va iables De ini ion and Measu e Mean S .De Min. Max.
Dependen a iable
Skipped a meal 1 i he household skipped a meal; 0 o he wise 14.92 - 0 1
Ran ou o ood 1 i he household an ou o ood; 0 o he wise 8.46 - 0 1
Wen wi hou ea ing 1 i a membe o he household wen wi hou
ea ing; 0 o he wise 5.03 - 0 1
Con ol a iables
Gende 1 i indi idual is a emale; 0 o he wise 15.60 - 0 1
Age Age in yea s 47.83 13.909 18 102
Age g oups
18–24 g oup 1 i he indi idual is aged 18–24 yea s 0.97 - 0 1
25–44 g oup 1 i he indi idual is aged 25–44 yea s 40.56 - 0 1
45–64 g oup 1 i he indi idual is aged 45–64 yea s 36.59 - 0 1
65+ g oup 1 i he indi idual is aged 65 o mo e 21.18 - 0 1
Household size Numbe o household membe s 7.89 0.354 4 8
Household size classes
4–6 membe s 1 i household has be ween 4 and 6 membe s in
o al 1.29 - 0 1
7 membe s 1 i household has 7 membe s in o al 7.26 - 0 1
8 membe s 1 i household has 8 membe s in o al 91.43 - 0 1
U ban 1 i he household li es in u ban a ea; 0 i he
household li es in u al a ea 65.80 - 0 1
Fa m ac i i ies 1 i household is in ol ed in a m (ag icul u e)
ac i i ies; 0 i in ol ed in non- a m ac i i ies 64.26 - 0 1
Sample size 8144 -
Sou ce: The au ho s’ calcula ions used da a om he HFPS 2020–2021.
4.2. Food Insecu i y Dynamics and P o iles in Bu kina Faso
Figu e 1plo s he p opo ion o esponden s who expe ienced ood insecu i y be ween
2020 and 2021. Al hough be ween 10 pe cen and 28 pe cen o he esponden s expe ienced
ood insecu i y du ing he beginning o he pandemic, he end o e his ime shows ha
less han 10 pe cen o he esponden s expe ienced ood insecu i y in he second qua e o
2021. This end e lec s imp o ed esilience and adap i e measu es wi hin he popula ion
despi e he challenges expe ienced in he b oade Bu kina Faso con ex .
Economies 2025,13, 155 15 o 22
Ama e e al. (2021) showed ha s a e-le el lockdown measu es in Nige ia a e associa ed
wi h la ge educ ions in non- a m business ac i i ies. Howe e , wage- ela ed ac i i ies
may be less a ec ed by lockdown measu es since hey may s ill be ope a ed emo ely,
and indi iduals can con inue wo king emo ely (Dingel & Neiman,2020). In addi ion,
indi iduals engaged in wage- ela ed ac i i ies a e likely o ha e o mal con ac s and,
hence, a e less likely o lose hei jobs on sho no ice (Abay e al.,2020;Ama e e al.,2021;
Dingel & Neiman,2020).
We a e awa e o some po en ial endogenei y and an omi ed a iables bias in ou dy-
namic model due o he po en ial co ela ion be ween he indi idual- ixed e ec s (Equa ion
(1)) and o he de e minan s o ood insecu i y. The a ia ions in ood insecu i y a e likely
d i en by bo h go e nmen esponses o he pandemic and household-le el esponses
associa ed wi h p ecau iona y measu es (Abay e al.,2020). Addi ionally, ou s udy did no
conside a iables ela ed o educa ion o li e acy (Akim e al.,2024;Ouoba & Sawadogo,
2022), income (Ouoba & Sawadogo,2022), asse owne ship (Akim e al.,2024), o labo
ma ke pa icipa ion (Ama e e al.,2021). In addi ion, he indings a e only ep esen a i e
o households ha ha e access o elephone se ices, as he a e o phone owne ship in he
coun y is low, especially in u al a eas (Akalu & Wang,2023). Howe e , his s udy e ealed
a long- e m e ec o he pandemic on ood insecu i y as we conside ed he ele en ounds
o he phone su ey da a (see Table 1). Fu he mo e, we ook in o accoun he he e ogenei y
o he e ec s ac oss a ious aspec s o households, such as gende , age, and size.
6. Discussion
The pe sis en ood insecu i y in Bu kina Faso, exace ba ed by he linge ing impac s
o he COVID-19 pandemic, demands a c i ical examina ion o unde s and he dep h o
challenges acing policymake s in add essing ood sca ci y. Bu kina Faso, wi h i s p e-
dominan ly ag a ian economy, has long con ended wi h issues such as clima e a iabili y
and gene al esou ce sca ci y. The eme gence o a global heal h c isis, howe e , un eiled
he in ica e laye s o ulne abili y wo en in o he ab ic o he coun y’s socio-economic
landscape. One o he cen al conce ns in s abilizing ood supplies lies in he gende ed
dimensions o ood insecu i y. The pandemic dis up ed adi ional gende oles, disp o-
po iona ely bu dening women wi h inc eased esponsibili ies and limi ing hei access
o heal hca e and income-gene a ing ac i i ies. This no only deepened exis ing gende
inequali ies bu also con ibu ed o a mo e p onounced ulne abili y o women o ood in-
secu i y.
The eliance on ag icul u e, a co ne s one o Bu kina Faso’s economy, caused unp ece-
den ed challenges du ing he pandemic. Lockdowns and es ic ions dis up ed supply
chains and ma ke s, lea ing a me s unable o p oduce, anspo , o sell hei goods. This
compounded he p e-exis ing ulne abili ies s emming om he coun y’s suscep ibili y o
clima e change, esul ing in a double blow o ood p oduc ion and a ailabili y. Fu he -
mo e, he economic allou om he pandemic, cha ac e ized by widesp ead job losses
and income dispa i ies, has in ensi ied ood insecu i y. Vulne able popula ions, al eady on
he b ink, ha e ound hemsel es pushed u he o he ma gins, s uggling o mee basic
nu i ional needs.
In Bu kina Faso, Ouoba and Sawadogo (2022) indica e ha in u ban a eas, nea ly
90% o households in u ban a eas buy ood and a e mo e ulne able o p ice luc ua ions,
pa icula ly o households whose main ac i i y is ade. In he same ein, Kansiime
e al. (2021) show ha households whose ood sou ce is linked o he ma ke a e mo e
hea ily exposed o he de e io a ion o hei ood secu i y. Also, Yankey e al. (2025) ound
a signi ican impac o he COVID-19 epidemic on ood ulne abili y among women in
Bu kina Faso.
Economies 2025,13, 155 16 o 22
Impo an ly, he dependence on ex e nal aid o ood assis ance unde sco es he
na ion’s ulne abili y o global shocks. While humani a ian assis ance plays a c ucial ole in
immedia e elie , ques ions a ise abou he sus ainabili y o such in e en ions and he need
o comp ehensi e, long- e m s a egies o build esilience wi hin he coun y. In summa y,
he pe sis ence o ood insecu i y in Bu kina Faso amid he endu ing impac s o he COVID-
19 pandemic demands a holis ic and c i ical app oach. Add essing he oo causes o
ulne abili y, eimagining gende oles, and os e ing sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices a e
essen ial componen s o a comp ehensi e s a egy o no only alle ia e immedia e su e ing
bu also build a mo e esilien and ood-secu e u u e o he na ion. In his way, Ama e e al.
(2021) sugges indings o in o m immedia e and medium- e m social p o ec ion policies
and help go e nmen s and in e na ional dono agencies imp o e hei a ge ing s a egies
o iden i y he mos impac ed and help mi iga e he ad e se e ec s o he pandemic on ood
secu i y. Akim e al. (2024) ound ha emi ances ha e a mi iga ing e ec in Nige ia. The
au ho s indica ed ha in e na ional emi ances ha e a mo e subs an ial mi iga ing e ec
han domes ic emi ances and ha hese mi iga ing e ec s ope a e h ough he capi al
mechanism.
O e all, we expec ou indings o con ibu e o he deba e on he impac s o lockdown
es ic ions on de eloping coun ies and he e icien ole o social p og ams in alle ia ing
shock impac s on popula ions’ wellbeing. Indeed, e idence shows ha pandemic e ec s
di e by geog aphy and he ype o household (Ra allion,2020;Ama e e al.,2021;Ouoba
& Sawadogo,2022;Akalu & Wang,2023;Akim e al.,2024). Fu he mo e, he channels
h ough which he pandemic a ec s indi idual and household ood secu i y a e a conce n
in he con ex o con lic -a ec ed coun ies such as Bu kina Faso. In ac , popula ions
in con lic zones we e mo e ulne able as he pandemic wo sened hei ood insecu i y
si ua ion. Some e idence shows ha coun ies wi h p o ac ed e hnic and poli ical con lic s
we e he ha des hi in e ms o ood insecu i y (ACSS,2021;FAO e al.,2021). In pa icula ,
Bu kina Faso is he coun y ha has expe ienced he hea ies bu den o ood insecu i y
and is ac i ely in ol ed in some o ms o con lic (ACSS,2021).
7. Conclusions and Sugges ions o Public Resea ch
Food insecu i y is a common social issue a ec ing se e al A ican households. The
COVID-19 pandemic has inc eased ood insecu i y, wi h long- e m consequences ha may
be ha d o measu e wi h pandemic da a alone. This pape con ibu es o he li e a u e
conce ning he impac s o COVID-19 on ood insecu i y. This s udy p o ided a he e ogene-
i y analysis o he impac o he pandemic a he household and indi idual le els using
a dynamic model. We used panel da a om he ele en ounds o he High-F equency
Phone Su ey, in which we we e able o ack changes in ood insecu i y o e almos wo
yea s a e he onse o he pandemic. We ound ha he e was a s ong pe sis ence in ood
insecu i y in Bu kina Faso. The es ima es om ou dynamic o dina y leas squa es model
indica e ha skipping meals, unning ou o ood, and going ou wi hou ea ing in a gi en
mon h inc ease he likelihood o expe iencing ood insecu i y in he ollowing mon hs.
Women and indi iduals aged be ween 44 and 64 a e a ec ed he mos .
These indings ha e h ee policy implica ions. Fi s , i is impo an o enable access
o ood o he mos disad an aged g oups. Policymake s need o implemen assis ance
p og ams o help educe ood insecu i y while conside ing gende , a eas o esidence,
and he ype o ac i i ies unde aken by indi iduals. Second, gi en ha women and he
elde ly expe ience he pe sis ence o ood insecu i y mo e, i is necessa y ha policies
mi iga e he impac o COVID-19 and ela ed shocks a e gende -sensi i e. Thi d, in he
con ex o e o ism, i is c i ical o design policies o educe inequali ies and household
ulne abili y, p o ec ood supply chains, p omo e social p o ec ion, and build esilience
Economies 2025,13, 155 17 o 22
du ing pandemics and gene ally in pe iods o c isis. This will ul ima ely allow indi iduals
and households o adap o exogenous shocks and educe hei dependence on social
assis ance. As his s udy does no quan i y he implica ions o a ia ions in egion-le el
esponses o he pandemic, u he empi ical analysis ac oss a wide a ie y o na ional
policy and economic con ex s in Bu kina Faso may u he cla i y such ela ionships and he
policy lessons hey imply. In addi ion, a u u e analysis o he impac o social p o ec ion
and coping s a egies in mi iga ing he impac o he pandemic on ood insecu i y a he
egional le el is needed.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, P.R.N. and F.A.D.; me hodology, P.R.N.; so wa e, P.R.N.
and F.A.D.; alida ion, P.R.N.; o mal analysis, P.R.N. and F.A.D.; in es iga ion, P.R.N.; esou ces,
P.R.N.; da a cu a ion, F.A.D.; w i ing—o iginal d a , P.R.N. and F.A.D.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing,
P.R.N. and F.A.D.; p ojec adminis a ion, P.R.N.; unding acquisi ion, P.R.N. and F.A.D. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was unded by he A ican Economic Resea ch Conso ium (AERC), g an
numbe RC22514 and he APC was unded by he A ican Economic Resea ch Conso ium (AERC).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The o iginal da a a e openly a ailable in he Wo ld Bank mic oda a
lib a y, e e ence numbe BFA_2020-2024_HFPS_ 23_M.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
Figu e A1. Dynamics o ood secu i y by gende . Sou ce: The au ho s used da a om he HFPS
2020–2021.
Economies 2025,13, 155 18 o 22
Figu e A2. Dynamics o ood secu i y by age g oup. Sou ce: The au ho s used da a om he HFPS
2020–2021.
Figu e A3. Dynamics o ood secu i y by household size. Sou ce: The au ho s used da a om he
HFPS 2020–2021.
Economies 2025,13, 155 19 o 22
Figu e A4. Dynamics o ood secu i y by place o esidence. Sou ce: The au ho s used da a om he
HFPS 2020–2021.
Figu e A5. Dynamics o ood secu i y by he ype o ac i i ies unde aken. Sou ce: The au ho s used
da a om he HFPS 2020–2021.
Economies 2025,13, 155 20 o 22
No e
1
Please no e ha esponden s in his pape a e no household heads, bu a he households’ indi iduals. When su eyed, we
asked ques ions o he esponden s’ household membe s.
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