Zink, Dionys; Knill, Ch is oph; S einebach, Y es
A icle — Published Ve sion
Bu eauc a ic o e load and o ganiza ional policy iage:
A compa a i e s udy o implemen a ion agencies in i e
Eu opean coun ies
Regula ion & Go e nance
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Zink, Dionys; Knill, Ch is oph; S einebach, Y es (2024) : Bu eauc a ic o e load
and o ganiza ional policy iage: A compa a i e s udy o implemen a ion agencies in i e Eu opean
coun ies, Regula ion & Go e nance, ISSN 1748-5991, John Wiley & Sons Aus alia, L d, Melbou ne,
Vol. 19, Iss. 3, pp. 637-655,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/ ego.12581
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Bu eauc a ic o e load and o ganiza ional policy iage: A
compa a i e s udy o implemen a ion agencies in fi e
Eu opean coun ies
Dionys Zink
Geschwis e -Scholl-Ins i u ü Poli ikwissenscha , Ludwig-Maximilians-Uni e si ä München, Munich, Ge many
Ch is oph Knill
Geschwis e -Scholl-Ins i u ü Poli ikwissenscha , Leh s uhl ü Empi ische Theo ien de Poli ik, Ludwig-Maximilians-Uni e si ä München,
Munich, Ge many
Y es S einebach
Ins i u o S a s i enskap, Uni e si y o Oslo, Oslo, No way
Abs ac
Resea ch on policy implemen a ion adi ionally has ocused on unde s anding he success o ailu e o indi idual policies
wi hin specific con ex s. Li le a en ion has been gi en o he challenges ha eme ge om he cumula i e g ow h o policy
po olios o e ime. This pape is add essing his esea ch gap by examining he phenomenon o o ganiza ional policy iage,
which occu s when implemen a ion o ganiza ions ace o e load and a e o ced o make ade-o decisions be ween he imple-
men a ion o he di e en policies in hei po olios. We in es iga e empi ical pa e ns o policy iage ac oss 16 social and
en i onmen al implemen a ion agencies in fi e Eu opean coun ies (Denma k, Ge many, I eland, I aly, and UK). We show
ha a ia ion in policy iage can be explained by he combina ion o h ee cen al ac o s: blame-shi ing oppo uni ies, he
mobiliza ion o ex e nal esou ces, and he commi men o compensa e o o e load by implemen a ion au ho i ies.
Keywo ds: bu eauc a ic o e load, implemen a ion, public adminis a ion, public policy.
1. In oduc ion
Policy implemen a ion is a di ficul and complex ask, and he comple e, imely, and smoo h ansposi ion and
p ac ical applica ion o policies in line wi h ini ially defined objec i es is subjec o a ious challenges. The la e
ha e been analyzed by se e al wa es o implemen a ion esea ch inspi ed by P essman and Wilda sky’s(
1984)
g ound-b eaking wo k. As a esul , we know a lo abou he implemen a ion o specific policies in a gi en se ing
ha has been mo e o less success ul. We also know a lo on he impo an ole o s ee -le el bu eauc a s whose
en ep eneu ship and disc e ion plays a c ucial ole in ma ching policy equi emen s wi h local needs (Cohen &
A i am, 2021; Lowi, 1964).
The s ong o ien a ion on o en case-s udy based assessmen s o indi idual policies, howe e , implies ha
implemen a ion esea ch has missed he o es o he ees; ha is, i has no de eloped analy ical senso s o cap-
u e implemen a ion challenges ha eme ge beyond he adop ion o indi idual policies, bu om agg ega e pa -
e ns o policy change. In his ega d, a pa icula challenge esul s om pa e ns o policy g ow h o policy
accumula ion ha ha e been iden ified as a ubiqui ous phenomenon in mode n democ acies (Adam e al., 2019).
The ac ha sec o al policy po olios con inuously a e g owing o e ime poses a no el—so a unexplo ed
challenge— o policy implemen a ion. As mo e policies gene ally ansla e in o an implemen a ion bu den, he e
is he isk o a s uc u al o e load o implemen a ion bodies i policy g ow h is no ma ched wi h co esponding
Co espondence: Dionys Zink, Ludwig-Maximilians-Uni e si ä München, Geschwis e -Scholl-Ins i u ü
Poli ikwissenscha , Oe ingens aße 67, 80538 Munich, Ge many. Email: [email p o ec ed]
*Conflic o in e es : The au ho s epo ha he e a e no compe ing in e es s o decla e.
Accep ed o publica ion 16 Janua y 2024.
© 2024 The Au ho s. Regula ion & Go e nance published by John Wiley & Sons Aus alia, L d.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided
he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
Regula ion & Go e nance (2025) 19, 637–655 doi:10.1111/ ego.12581
expansions o adminis a i e capaci ies. Consequen ly, implemen a ion o ganiza ions migh find hemsel es
unable o handle all o hei manda ed asks e ec i ely, implying ha no only he espec i e o ganiza ion’s
implemen a ion pe o mance is a ec ed nega i ely bu also he o e all sec o al pe o mance migh su e .
The implemen a ion p oblems po en ially esul ing om such o e load scena ios ha e been desc ibed as o ga-
niza ional policy iage (Knill e al., 2023). This concep cap u es he ac ha o e bu dened o ganiza ions a e de
ac o o ced o eso o ade-o s in decisions o a ious kind when ca ying ou hei implemen a ion asks. The
mo e such ade-o s ha e o be made, he wo se he implemen a ion pe o mance o he espec i e o ganiza ion
appea s o be. E en hough hese challenges and esul ing policy iage a e well-acknowledged in he ecen li e a-
u e (Adam e al., 2019; Knill e al., 2020,2023), we s ill ha e limi ed knowledge abou he ex en o which hese
pa e ns a y ac oss sec o al and na ional o ganiza ions and why his is he case. While he explo a ion o o gani-
za ional s uc u es holds a p ominen place in implemen a ion esea ch (Saba ie , 1986), he cen al discou se in
his ealm ponde s abou whe he public policies p ima ily mani es h ough a “single lonely o ganiza ion”
(Pe e s, 2014, p. 132) o necessi a e a “mul io ganiza ional analy ic pe spec i e” o a comp ehensi e g asp o he
implemen a ion p ocess (Hall & O’Toole, 2000; Hje n & Po e , 1981, p. 201). The p e ailing o ganiza ional pe -
spec i e has p edominan ly concen a ed on delinea ing and mapping he en i ies in ol ed in policy implemen a-
ion, moni o ing changes in hei composi ion o e ime. Howe e , his emphasis has o e looked a undamen al
ques ion: how do indi idual o ganiza ions add ess he challenge o o e load and cope wi h he complexi ies a is-
ing om simul aneous implemen a ion o mul iple policies?
In his pape , we add ess his esea ch gap. We s udy he o ganiza ional policy iage in fi e Eu opean coun-
ies (Denma k, Ge many, I eland, I aly, and UK) ac oss he sec o s o social and en i onmen al policy. To
accoun o empi ical a ia ion in iage pa e ns, we depa om he assump ion ha he ex en o which imple-
men a ion bodies eso o policy iage esul s om he configu a ion and in e play o a ious ac o s a he
na ional, sec o al, and o ganiza ional le el. In iew o his cons ella ion, ou unde lying app oach is essen ially
explo a i e in na u e. We build on a heo e ical in e p e a ion o empi ical a ia ion ha elies on he combina-
ion o di e en causal ac o s. The la e include (1) blame-shi ing oppo uni ies o cen al policymake s;
(2) he implemen a ion au ho i ies’oppo uni ies o mobilize ex e nal esou ces; and (3) he ex en o which
implemen a ion au ho i ies a e commi ed o compensa e o o e load.
The emainde o his pape is s uc u ed as ollows: We begin wi h a b ie discussion o he phenomenon o
policy g ow h in o de o subs an ia e he main poin o analy ical depa u e o his s udy (Sec ion 2). In Sec ion 3,
we p o ide an empi ical mapping o policy iage in he o ganiza ions unde s udy and iden i y pa e ns o a ia-
ion ac oss coun ies and sec o s. In Sec ion 4, we discuss po en ial heo e ical explana ions o he empi ical pa -
e ns obse ed and analyze he impac o di e en combina ions o causal ac o s. Sec ion 5concludes.
2. Policy g ow h and challenges o policy implemen a ion
The phenomenon o policy g ow h has been desc ibed and cap u ed om di e en analy ical angles, including
he concep s o “policy accumula ion”(Adam e al., 2019), “ ule g ow h”(Jakobsen & Mo ensen, 2015), “policy
laye ing”(Daugbje g & Swinbank, 2016), “policyscapes”(Me le , 2016), o “legisla i e g ow h”(Kos i & Le i-
Fau , 2019). Al hough hese concep s display impo an di e ences in hei analy ical ocus, hey all obse e ha
go e nmen s e ec i ely adop mo e ules and policies o e ime han hey abolish.
Resea ch has iden ified a ious d i e s and ac o s a ec ing pa e ns o policy g ow h. Policy g ow h is no
only d i en by o e-seeking poli icians who aim o demons a e hei esponsi eness o public and in e es g oup
demands by add essing he challenges ci izens ca e abou (G a on e al., 2021). Mo eo e , policies a e also go -
e nmen s’main p oblem-sol ing ool because hey allow hem o deal “wi h issues and p oblems as hey a ise”
(O en & Skow onek, 2017, p. 3). Howe e , while he e a e s ong poli ical incen i es o p oduce new policies, i
is ha dly ewa ding poli ically o disman le exis ing policies, e en when hey ha e u ned ou o be ine ec i e
(Baue e al., 2012; Knill e al., 2020). Poli ical incen i e s uc u es, he e o e, esul in go e nmen s ypically
adop ing mo e policies han hey elimina e o e ime, ega dless o he policy sec o in ques ion.
In o de o measu e policy g ow h, we concei e o a policy as a combina ion o a a ge (i.e., NOx emission;
long- e m unemploymen ) and an ins umen ha add esses his a ge (i.e., a ban; a means- es ed benefi ).
Figu es 1and 2p o ide an empi ical imp ession o he dynamics o policy g ow h o e a pe iod o mo e han ou
© 2024 The Au ho s. Regula ion & Go e nance published by John Wiley & Sons Aus alia, L d.638
D. Zink e al. BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE
decades (1976–2020) (Adam e al., 2019,2022). The figu es display how he numbe o en i onmen al and social
policies de eloped on a e age o he fi e coun ies sc u inized in his pape du ing he obse a ion pe iod. The da a
p esen ed epo policy g ow h as he esul o a con inuous addi ion o new policy elemen s o exis ing policy po -
olios wi hou he compensa o y educ ion o al eady exis ing policy elemen s. A policy elemen is defined by he
combina ion o a policy a ge and a policy ins umen . While policy a ge s define wha o who is being add essed
by a new policy, policy ins umen s define how he a ge is being add essed. We a e no in e es ed in he es ic-
i eness o gene osi y o a ce ain policy since changes in he ins umen se ings do no a ec he size o a policy
po olio. Ins ead, we a e in e es ed in he in oduc ion o new policy ins umen s and/o he widening o he scope
o exis ing policy ins umen s o new policy a ge s. The da a collec ion is based on he coding o ele an na ional
legisla ion, which allows us o sc u inize changes in he size and p ope ies o en i onmen al and social policy
po olios— he s ock o policies a coun y has a i s disposal (Adam e al., 2017). By doing so, we do no only ake
s ock o newly in oduced policies bu also accoun o ( a e) ins ances o policy disman lemen .
Figu e 1 En i onmen al policy g ow h in he coun ies unde s udy.
Figu e 2 Social policy g ow h in he coun ies unde s udy.
© 2024 The Au ho s. Regula ion & Go e nance published by John Wiley & Sons Aus alia, L d. 639
BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE D. Zink e al.
Fo bo h policy a eas, we see ha he e has been a cons an inc ease in policies o e ime. While policy
g ow h is mo e p onounced o he en i onmen al field, which cons i u es a ela i ely young and dynamic a ea, i
is ema kable ha we also obse e subs an i e inc eases in he mo e ma u e and sa u a ed field o social policy.
Ye , esea ch on policy g ow h mainly has ocused on he adop ion o new p og ams, ules, and laws. The
majo sha e o a en ion has been o policy ou pu s. By con as , sys ema ic in es iga ions o he ou comes and
impac s o his ou pu g ow h ha e emained a e. The li e a u e acknowledges ha policy g ow h is no a p ob-
lem pe se. The p oduc ion o (new) public policies o en means ha p oblems a e add essed, public demands a e
sa isfied, and po en ially conflic ual si ua ions a e egula ed i no sol ed (Rasmussen e al., 2019; Wlezien &
So oka, 2016). The p oduc ion o en i onmen al policies, o ins ance, helped o subs an ially educe ai and
wa e pollu ion (S einebach, 2019,2022). Howe e , he li e a u e has also shown ha his posi i e link be ween
policy g ow h and policy pe o mance is a om s aigh o wa d i policy g ow h is no backed by an expansion
o adminis a i e capaci ies o implemen a ion. Limbe g e al. (2022)find ha new policies lead o imp o emen s
o sec o al policy pe o mance only i hey a e ma ched by a simul aneous inc ease in adminis a i e capaci ies.
Likewise, Fe n
andez-i-Ma ín e al. (2022) show ha a widening “gap”be ween he policies up o implemen a ion
and a ailable implemen a ion capaci ies gene ally leads o a dec ease in he e ec i eness o public policies, imply-
ing ha a some poin addi ional policies make no di e ence wha soe e o e en wo se, diminish o e all sec o al
policy pe o mance.
3. Policy g ow h and o ganiza ion policy iage: Pa e ns ac oss coun ies and sec o s
I is he main goal o his pape o s udy in close de ail how he s uc u al challenges eme ging om a po en ially
widening gap be ween g owing implemen a ion bu dens and a ailable implemen a ion capaci ies un olds a he
o ganiza ional le el. Ou analy ical poin o depa u e hence de ia es om classical implemen a ion esea ch,
which is ypically conce ned wi h analyzing he implemen a ion e ec i eness o indi idual policies. Ins ead, we
concen a e on he implemen a ion pe o mance o o ganiza ions o in es iga e he consequences o policy
g ow h on implemen a ion ac i i ies.
In ocusing on policy g ow h, we ocus on he ex en o which he bu dening wi h new asks esul s in a
g owing misma ch wi h exis ing implemen a ion capaci ies. Wi h his quan i a i e assessmen in changes in he
numbe o asks, we adop a a he cau ious measu e ha po en ially unde es ima es o e load p oblems, as mo e
asks migh a he same ime inc ease o e all policy complexi y and impose conflic ing equi emen s on imple-
men a ion agencies (Hu ka & Haag, 2020).
Ye , a misma ch be ween bu den and capaci ies need no be me ely a esul o a g ow h in policies bu may
also be he consequence o budge cu s. Indeed, such cu s can be obse ed in some o ganiza ions in ou sample,
o ins ance in he case o he I ish Na ional Pa ks and Wildli e Se ice (NPWS). In such cons ella ions, howe e ,
his de elopmen ook place in he con ex o pa allel bu den expansion, implying ha he cen al complain
oiced in he in e iews and desc ibed in o ficial epo s was s ill ocused on he alloca ion o addi ional asks
wi hou adequa e esou ce adjus men s. We do no dispu e he ac ha a misma ch be ween wo kload and o ga-
niza ional capaci y can also be he esul o budge cu s. Howe e , gi en he ac ha we only obse ed budge
cu s o o ganiza ions ha we e also a ec ed by policy g ow h, we canno make s a emen s abou he isola ed
e ec o budge cu s on he ex en o policy iage. Fu he mo e, we also obse ed o e bu dening in o ganiza ions
ha we e no a ec ed by budge cu s bu expe ienced policy g ow h. Consequen ly, policy g ow h is—a leas o
he o ganiza ions in ou sample—a necessa y and su ficien condi ion o policy iage.
3.1. The concep o policy iage
To compa e a ia ion and change in o ganiza ional implemen a ion pe o mance, we u ilize he concep o policy
iage (Knill e al., 2023). Policy iage e e s o he p io i iza ion o implemen a ion asks ela ed o specific poli-
cies o e o he s wi hin an o ganiza ion. As o ganiza ional wo kload inc eases, he e is a g owing need o make
ade-o decisions o his na u e. The p e alence o policy iage di ec ly impac s an o ganiza ion’s implemen a-
ion pe o mance. When policy iage is mo e p e alen , he o ganiza ion’s implemen a ion pe o mance ends o
dec ease, as ce ain policies and asks consis en ly and egula ly a e neglec ed in a o o o he s. Any ins ance o
© 2024 The Au ho s. Regula ion & Go e nance published by John Wiley & Sons Aus alia, L d.640
D. Zink e al. BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE
policy iage ine i ably leads o selec i e implemen a ion and, consequen ly, implemen a ion defici s. This
emains ue ega dless o he unde lying a ionale d i ing implemen a ion bodies o p io i ize ce ain policies o
asks o e o he s. In o he wo ds, when adminis a i e bodies ely on o ganiza ional ou ines ha in ol e policy
iage decisions du ing he execu ion o hei implemen a ion asks, an inc ease in implemen a ion defici s is
expec ed o occu consis en ly.
In he cou se o hei day- o-day ope a ions, o ganiza ions equen ly ace he need o make ade-o s,
balancing compe ing p io i ies and alloca ing esou ces acco dingly. Howe e , an inc ease in policy iage indi-
ca es ha o ganiza ions a e making inc easingly challenging ade-o s, pu ing hem a a highe isk o encoun-
e ing implemen a ion defici s and ailu es. In line wi h his easoning, he p e alence o implemen a ion defici s
is de e mined by he deg ee o which iage influences he o ganiza ional ou ines and in e nal p ocesses o
implemen a ion bodies (Baye lein e al., 2020; Baye lein, Knill, & S einebach, 2021; Baye lein, Knill, S einebach, &
Zink, 2021). The e o e, we define policy iage as an o ganiza ional pa e n. Ou analy ical ocus lies in iden i ying
iage pa e ns ha become e iden in o ganiza ional ou ines (Becke e al., 2005).
The le el o policy iage can be assessed by conside ing wo key aspec s: iage equency and iage se e i y.
T iage equency measu es how o en implemen a ion bodies engage in ade-o decisions. A high iage e-
quency indica es ha policy iage is a egula and in eg al pa o an o ganiza ion’s ou ines. On he o he hand,
low iage equency sugges s ha ade-o s occu pe iodically o in excep ional ci cums ances a he han sys-
ema ically being embedded in o ganiza ional ou ines. T iage se e i y, on he o he hand, ocuses on he ex en
o esou ce ealloca ion. High iage se e i y in ol es significan ade-o s, esul ing in he comple e abandon-
men o ce ain policies o he neglec o impo an implemen a ion asks in a o o o he s. In such si ua ions,
policy iage leads o he e ec i e e mina ion o ce ain o ganiza ional esponsibili ies. Con e sely, iage se e i y
is conside ed low when he ade-o s a e less ex ensi e and a he impede bu do no comple ely p e en he exe-
cu ion o specific implemen a ion asks. To summa ize, a high le el o policy iage is cha ac e ized by equen
ade-o decisions made by implemen a ion bodies ha esul in significan edis ibu ion o esou ces among
di e en policies and implemen a ion asks. Con e sely, a low le el o policy iage indica es ha decisions
ega ding esou ce ealloca ion a e in equen and in ol e only mino shi s in esou ces.
3.2. Measu ing policy iage: Case selec ion and da a collec ion
To analyze o ganiza ional policy iage, we compa e implemen a ion bodies in he sec o s o social and en i on-
men al policy. S udying bo h en i onmen al and social policy allows us o es ou a gumen ac oss (1) di e en
policy ypes ( egula o y s. edis ibu i e policies); (2) fields wi h di e en deg ees o ma u i y (young s. old
field); (3) qui e di e en equi emen s o implemen a ion (au ho iza ion, inspec ion, and planning s. public se -
ice p o ision); and, ela edly, (4) di e ences in poli ical incen i es o engaging in capaci y expansions in iew
o o e s’a ec edness in case o implemen a ion ailu es (di use ma e s o en i onmen al quali y s. p oblems
in he deli e y o indi idual se ices).
Wi h ega d o he coun ies unde s udy, we employ a di e se case selec ion (Ge ing, 2008). We ocus on
fi e coun ies (Denma k, Ge many, I eland, I aly, and UK) ha cons i u e ad anced indus ialized democ acies,
bu subs an ially a y in he ins i u ional cha ac e is ics o hei poli ical sys ems and hei adminis a i e adi-
ions (Pain e , 2016). This allows us o s udy o ganiza ional policy iage and i s de e minan s ac oss a se o
(o he wise) e y di e en ins i u ional condi ions and, as such, o inc ease he gene alizabili y o ou findings.
Fo easons o o ganiza ional compa abili y, we limi ou empi ical ocus o implemen a ion bodies ope a ing a
he na ional le el; ha is, minis e ial bodies and independen agencies. The o ganiza ions we e selec ed acco ding
o hei ask load by checking he numbe o policies wi hin a popula ion o o ganiza ions in bo h policy sec o s
and hen selec ing he ac o s esponsible o he la ges sha e o policies (see Suppo ing In o ma ion o mo e
de ails on his p ocess). We exclude local and egional au ho i ies as a angemen s o local go e nmen a e highly
di ficul o compa e ac oss coun ies in iew o s ong di e ences in pa e ns o delega ion and au onomy. The
only excep ion he e is p esen ed by he UK whe e na ional policies a e implemen ed by o ganiza ions in England,
Sco land, Wales, and No he n I eland as a esul o de olu ion. In his case, we decided o ocus exclusi ely on
English agencies in o de o a oid skewing ou sample. Thus, o e all, ou sample co e s 16 implemen a ion bod-
ies, 8 in each sec o (see Table 2).
© 2024 The Au ho s. Regula ion & Go e nance published by John Wiley & Sons Aus alia, L d. 641
BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE D. Zink e al.
To iden i y he p esence o o ganiza ional ou ines o policy iage, we conduc ed a o al o 140 expe in e -
iews (see Table A2 in he Suppo ing In o ma ion). O hose, 41 ook place wi h he o ganiza ions’s a . The
emaining 99 seconda y in e iews we e conduc ed wi h ele an s akeholde s such as egional and local adminis-
a ions and o he ac o s in he espec i e policy field in o de o ob ain addi ional backg ound in o ma ion and
c oss- alida e accoun s p o ided by he p ima y in e iews. The in e iews ook place be ween Feb ua y 2021
and May 2023, mos ly ia elephone o ideo calls. In he Suppo ing In o ma ion, we p o ide mo e de ailed
in o ma ion on he in e iew ques ionnai e, he coding p ocedu e, and he dis ibu ion o in e iews ac oss o ga-
niza ions as well as a lis o he in e iews conduc ed. To complemen ou findings and o c oss- alida e in o ma-
ion ob ained h ough he in e iews, we also consul ed seconda y sou ces such as benchma king documen s
commissioned by na ional go e nmen s o in e na ional o ganiza ions like he OECD, as well as media epo s
ha co e ed he ac i i ies o he agencies unde s udy. The implied objec i e was no only o e i y ha in o ma-
ion ob ained ia he in e iews is ac ually co ec bu also o ensu e ou coding scheme adequa ely cap u ed he
s a e o policy iage wi hin he o ganiza ions.
3.3. Ope a ionaliza ion o policy iage le els
Based on he abo e da a om p ima y and seconda y sou ces, we can iden i y indica ions o he se e i y and e-
quency o policy iage. In doing so ou analy ical in e es is ocused on he ex en o which iage equency and
iage se e i y a e embodied in o ganiza ional ou ines. To allow o a di ec compa ison o he wo dimensions,
we a e bo h iage equency and se e i y as “low,”“medium,”o “high”(see Table 1).
In de e mining he se e i y o iage, we conside he na u e o he asks ha ou inely we e neglec ed in a o
o o he s. T iage se e i y can be conside ed “low”i some policies a e neglec ed (pa ially) o he ad an age o
o he s, bu his negligence is es ic ed o seconda y implemen a ion asks (consul a ion, esea ch ac i i ies) ha
do no di ec ly unde mine he e ec i eness o a gi en policy. “High” iage in ensi y implies ha he e a e a -
eaching ade-o s be ween policies, esul ing in a si ua ion whe e o ganiza ions comple ely qui and abandon
he implemen a ion o ce ain policies o cen al implemen a ion asks, such as on-spo inspec ion o he moni-
o ing o emissions o dange ous pollu an s. “High” iage in ensi y also means ha implemen a ion asks equi -
ing accu a e analysis and con ol, such as he ce ifica ion o indus ial plan s o he g an ing o social allowances,
a e me ely “ ubbe -s amped”by he implemen a ion body ins ead o being examined ho oughly. The defini ion
o co e asks o a gi en o ganiza ion is based on i s manda e and on he policies ha hey a e supposed o imple-
men which in u n a e again based on legisla ion (i.e., s a u o y asks). The e a e ce ain asks ha all wi hin he
manda e bu a e no s a u o y. He e we would a gue ha he neglec is no as se e e because implemen a ion o
s a u o y asks umps non-s a u o y asks.
Cases exhibi ing high se e i y indica e implemen a ion defici s in hese co e a eas. Con e sely, low se e i y is
assigned o cases whe e ce ain measu es ela ed o policy implemen a ion, such as addi ional con ols o public
ou each, ou inely a e dis ega ded, o when ce ain asks need o be delega ed o o he ac o s on a egula basis.
Table 1 Le el o policy iage and i s cons i uen dimensions
Le el o policy
iage
Policy iage
equency
LOW: T iage decisions a ely occu and only imply he eshu fling o esou ces be ween
a ew policies o implemen a ion asks unde he esponsibili y o a gi en au ho i y.
MEDIUM: T iage decisions occu equen ly bu a e limi ed o a ew policies o
implemen a ion asks unde he esponsibili y o a gi en au ho i y.
HIGH: T iage decisions occu o en and a ec all policies and implemen a ion asks
unde he esponsibili y o a gi en au ho i y.
Policy iage
in ensi y
LOW: T iage decisions a e es ic ed o “seconda y”implemen a ion asks ha do no
unde mine he e ec i eness o policies.
MEDIUM: T iage decisions in ol e key implemen a ion asks. These implemen a ion
asks a e delayed bu s ill pe o med a some poin .
HIGH: T iage decisions imply ha whole policies o cen al implemen a ion asks a e no
longe pe o med.
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D. Zink e al. BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE
The equency o iage is de e mined based on s a emen s indica ing how o en ce ain asks ypically a e
neglec ed in he o ganiza ion unde s udy. Do o ganiza ions display ou ine beha io ha en ails egula , occa-
sional, o me ely excep ional eso o policy iage? “Low” iage equency means ha iage decisions a ely
occu and in ol e he eshu fling o esou ces be ween a ew policies o implemen a ion asks. “High” iage e-
quency, by con as , en ails ha ade-o s in implemen a ion occu o en and ha almos all policies and imple-
men a ion asks unde he esponsibili y o a gi en au ho i y a e subjec o iage decisions.
We a gue ha bo h dimensions, se e i y and equency, a e equally impo an in assessing he impac o pol-
icy iage. The se e i y dimension highligh s he significance o neglec ing co e asks, while he equency dimen-
sion p o ides insigh s in o he egula i y and pe sis ence o iage p ac ices. By conside ing bo h se e i y and
equency, we p o ide a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he le el o iage and i s implica ions o policy imple-
men a ion. Table 2shows how combina ions o he di e en le els o se e i y and equency de e mine ei he
high o low policy iage le els. Whe eas a low le el o policy iage p esumes bo h low equency and low se e -
i y, he opposi e is he case o a high le el. Ye , in eali y we can also concei e o cases ha display hyb id com-
bina ions o low equency and high se e i y o ice e sa. In e iewees o he I alian MET, o example,
admi ed o a high equency o iage—“i o en happens ha we miss some schedules”(IT22012824)—while a
he same ime a es ing a low se e i y: “we ake a week o when no mally we could do he same hing in wo
days”(IT22012824).
3.4. Empi ical findings
Table 3p o ides an o e iew o ou empi ical findings. O e all, ou esul s e eal conside able a ia ion in he
p esence o policy iage. Pa e ns do no only di e ac oss coun ies, bu also ac oss sec o s, and o some ex en
also ac oss sec o al bodies wi hin he same sec o .
While Denma k s ands ou as a coun y o low o ganiza ional policy iage in bo h sec o s, he o he coun ies
unde s udy display a highly mixed pa e n, wi h iage deg ees s ongly a ying ac oss he di e en o ganiza-
ions. P onounced a ia ion also exis s e en ac oss agencies wi hin he same sec o in a coun y, as i is he case,
o ins ance, wi h I ish implemen a ion agencies in bo h sec o s and wi h Ge man social policy agencies. Gene -
ally, we obse ed sligh ly less p onounced iage le els in he social compa ed o he en i onmen al sec o .
Se en ou o he 16 bodies unde s udy e eal pa e ns o low iage. In hese cases, a ailable implemen a ion
capaci ies s ill seem o e ol e la gely in locks ep wi h g owing implemen a ion bu dens eme ging om policy
g ow h. In case o Paymen s Denma k (PD) o example, he e a e some mino “a eas on which (…) [PD] does
no ha e ha much a en ion on”(PD1) a a pa icula poin in ime. Howe e , hose ins ances ha dly can be
desc ibed as equen o se e e as hey occu only in imes o high p essu e o implemen new legisla ion on a
la ge scale and do no cons i u e implemen a ion defici s o any kind. A he mos , he agency “ uns isk[s] o
de ocusing (…) [i s] manage s”(PD2) since he g adually g owing legal and adminis a i e complexi y in social
policy empo a ily may en ail a ew “nega i e consequences on e ficiency”only (PD3). Tasks ha a e pos poned
a e limi ed o h ee kinds o seconda y implemen a ion cho es; fi s , adjus ing “mino de ails a e he implemen-
a ion”in case PD’s so wa e specialis s “find ou ha he [IT-]sys em is no coping 100% wi h he [new] egula-
ion and need o fil e ou some p oblems”(PD1); second, op imizing and simpli ying he cus ome se ices and
communica ions so ha “ he [online] jou ney o he pensione s [in e ms o hei in e ac ion wi h he au oma-
ized clien in e ac ion sys em] is he bes expe ience possible”(PD3); hi d, imp o ing he o e all unc ioning
and p ocedu al in eg a ion o di e en social benefi b anches wi hin he IT-sys em in o de o wea he p oo
agains po en ial inc eases o adminis a i e complexi y in he u u e (In e iew_PD2; PD3). In e iewees o
STAR, he o he cen al implemen e o social policy in Denma k and he wo en i onmen al agencies epo ed a
Table 2 Dimensions and le els o policy iage
Low iage High iage
F equency Low High
Se e i y Low High
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BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE D. Zink e al.
simila se ing: STAR’s wo kload and asks a e “fluc ua ing, bu on a s eady le el”(LMRA1). In case o he En i-
onmen Agency, one in e iewee e en no ed ha “we a e ahead o ime wi h ou own schedules”(EA_2).
In simila ein, also he I ish En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency (EPA) and Pensions Au ho i y (PA) ha e
epo ed only e y limi ed ins ances o iage, mos ly caused by a lag be ween ask alloca ion and esou ce alloca-
ion (Knill e al., 2023). In o he wo ds: i akes some ime be o e he agency ge s wha i needs o implemen pol-
icies. As one in e iewee no ed, he e is usually a pe iod o wo o h ee yea s when new esou ces a e no
a ailable ye , which can be exhaus ing and s ess ul (IR21051001). A he same ime, howe e , all in e iewees
ag eed ha any o e load is gene ally well-con ained. Bo h agencies e y a ely ha e o eso o policy iage in
o de o emain ope a i e beyond he ac ha some ac o s occasionally ha e o wai longe o en i onmen al
pe mi s o example (IR21052702; IR21053104; IR21061006).
Las ly, he Ge man Bundesagen u ü A bei (Fede al Employmen Agency; BA) also epo s li le o no
ins ances o iage. Gene ally, in e iewees e en no ed an imp o emen o condi ions o e he yea s: “We no lon-
ge ha e hese imes whe e we had o ollow he ‘mass ins ead o class’p inciple. […] Fo una ely, we ha e
mo ed away om i ”(DE210728). Despi e an inc easing wo kload—“addi ional asks pu a s ain on he sys-
em”— he o ganiza ion “usually can cope wi h his and […] keep i a a easonable le el”(DE210708). Again,
mino asks migh be delayed occasionally, such as ollowing up on adminis a i e ini ia i es; howe e , hey do
no ouch he co e manda e o he FEA (DE210708).
In fi e o ganiza ions, he need o eso o ade-o decisions is mo e p onounced, wi h iage occu ing mo e
equen ly, albei in mos ins ances wi hou se e e consequences on policy pe o mance. The I ish Depa men
Table 3 O ganiza ional policy iage ac oss coun ies and sec o s
O ganiza ion Coun y Sec o T iage
le el
Limi s o poli ical
blame a ibu ion
Resou ce
mobiliza ion
O e load
compensa ion
En i onmen al P o ec ion
Agency (EPA)
DK En i onmen Low High High High
Na u e Agency (NA) DK En i onmen Low High High High
Paymen s Denma k DK Social Low High High High
Agency o Labo Ma ke and
Rec ui men (STAR)
DK Social Low High High High
Bundesagen u ü A bei (BA) GER Social Low High High High
En i onmen al P o ec ion
Agency (EPA)
IRL En i onmen Low High High High
Pensions Au ho i y (PA) IRL Social Low High High High
Depa men o Social
P o ec ion (DSP)
IRL Social Medium Low Medium Medium
Minis y o En i onmen al
T ansi ion (MET)
IT En i onmen Medium High Low High
Minis y o Labo and Social
Policy (MLSP)
IT Social Medium High Low High
Social Secu i y Ins i u e (INPS) IT Social Medium High Low High
Depa men o Wo k and
Pensions (DWP)
UK Social Medium Medium Medium Medium
Deu sche Ren en e siche ung
(DRV)
GER Social High Low Low Low
Na ional Pa ks and Wildli e
Se ice (NPWS)
IRL En i onmen High Low Low Low
Ins i u e o En i onmen al
P o ec ion and Resea ch
(ISPRA)
IT En i onmen High Low Low Medium
En i onmen Agency (EA) UK En i onmen High Low Low Low
No e: The g ay shading indica es he le el o iage: ligh g ay =low iage; g ay =medium; da k g ay =high iage.
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D. Zink e al. BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE
buy in suppo . Bu we wan o build ha capaci y ou sel es, build ou own muscle up a bi he e”(EN23031010).
The agency also cons an ly shi s esou ces wi hin and be ween depa men s o make he mos o hei in e nal
capaci y o “make su e ha we e ficien ly use he esou ces we’ e go and we deli e ”(EN23031010). Simila ly,
he DSP engages in o ganiza ional e o m and es uc u ing, also on he uni le el. Senio manage s ha e he
powe o es uc u e hei subdi ision as and when hey see fi . Fo example, as a esul o he une en dis ibu ion
o wo kload due o di e ging demog aphics in di e en coun ies, suppo uni s we e es uc u ed and cen alized
o deal wi h an inc ease in asks (IR21127711; IR21112210). Compensa ion on he indi idual le el is limi ed o
bo h he DSP and he DWP. One in e iewee no ed ha mos ly he manage ial le el would engage in excessi e
o e ime in o de no o o e bu den hei s a membe s. Ye , in imes o c isis e en high-le el managemen helps
ou on he g ound—“e e ybody is like all hands-on deck”(IR21121711).
4.5. O ganiza ions wi h high le els o iage
Mos o ganiza ions wi h high le els o iage display a high ulne abili y o be blamed o implemen a ion ail-
u es. The ISPRA is a ec ed simila ly o o he o ganiza ions on he I alian cen al le el. In he a ea o en i on-
men al policy in pa icula , esponsibili ies o implemen a ion a e a he unclea . The o mula ing le el hus
e ec i ely is able o a oid aking blame o deficien implemen a ion while a he same ime inc easing wo kload
mo e o less cons an ly, as one ISPRA s a e explained: “They o en make a mess ha we ha e o sol e. Then
you a e esponsible o sol ing all hese o e head p oblems and hey a e no esponsible”(IT21042804). In e -
iewees o he Ge man DRV epo ed simila issues abou blame-shi ing: “ he pension p o ide s ha e also
wa ned abou he complexi y […]. Bu he c ies ha e gone unhea d, and he p oblems ha e been assigned o
us. […] You don’ always ge he imp ession ha poli icians, when hey wan o ollow hei own pa h o wha -
e e eason, lis en o he expe s”(DE210929_1). Also o he English En i onmen Agency poli icians easily a e
able o dump esponsibili y o implemen a ion ailu e on o he o ganiza ion using i s s a us as independen
agency. The o mula ing le el o example egula ly a gues ha due o he EA’s licensing e enue he damage o
s agna ing—and in case o ce ain p og ams—e en dec easing esou ces is no ha se e e. A ex book example
o ecen blame-shi ing was p o ided by a o me en i onmen sec e a y commen ing on i e pollu ion in ce -
ain a eas in England: “ he o me chai o he agency, has a emp ed o blame ‘cu s’ o hei budge […] The
budge o moni o ing license condi ions has always been ully cos eco e ed so i was an agency managemen
ailu e no a lack o budge ”(Adie, 2023). Las ly, NPWS does no su e significan ly om blame-shi ing in he
adi ional sense bu mo e om a gene al neglec and dis ega d by policymake s as he o ganiza ion was no pe -
cei ed as “poli ically a o able” o o mula o s and hus hey did no “wan o engage wi h [NPWS]”
(IR22052428). Consequen ly, he agency can be desc ibed as an o ganiza ional os e child by all means: As a
esul o wha MacCa haigh and colleagues call “slicing and dicing”o depa men al po olios (2023, p. 19), he
o ganiza ion has changed pa en depa men no less han six imes since i s c ea ion in 1991. Essen ially, he
NPWS has been used as a doo ma ha could be bu dened wi h wo k wi hou p o iding he necessa y esou ces.
Rega ding esou ce mobiliza ion, again all o ganiza ions wi h high iage le el seem o sha e simila issues.
On he one hand, he e a e li le o no oppo uni ies o ad oca e o mo e esou ces. In case o he NPWS, o
example, he e exis s no o mal unding obliga ion as he o ganiza ion is o ficially inco po a ed in i s espec i e
pa en depa men . The DRV on he o he hand o en a emp s o ad oca e o an inc ease o s a fing: “we had
oo ew s a on boa d. They [ he agency’s leade ship] men ioned his again and again a hei mee ings [wi h he
o mula ing le el]”(DE210929_2), ye no inc eases mani es ed.
In addi ion, esou ces also dec eased o some o ganiza ions. As a esul o he economic c isis in 2008, he
NPWS’budge was cu by 70 pe cen . While unding now is a p e-c isis le els again, his was no he esul o
o ganiza ional esou ce mobiliza ion bu a he a o ce o hand as policymake s inc eased he budge only a e a
numbe o in ingemen cases we e b ough agains I eland by he EU. The EA also saw massi e budge cu s: he
Go e nmen mo e han cu in hal he agency’s en i onmen al p o ec ion budge om £170 million in 2009–
2010 o £76 million in 2019–2020, while also p o iding less and less oppo uni ies o empo a y unding o
p ojec s.
1
Wi h ega d o o e load compensa ion, o ganiza ions wi h high iage le els also sha e a commonali y: hey
almos exclusi ely engage in compensa ion on he indi idual le el. As ISPRA in e iewees no e, o example,
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BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE D. Zink e al.
o e load is deal wi h h ough ex eme pe sonal sac ifices on behal o he s a : “ he ac i i ies a e done, bu in
absu d condi ions, in eally ha sh condi ions and wi h pe sonal sac ifices. Fo example, wo o my colleagues who
ha e a con ac we e p eca ious and pa - ime, hey wo ked o ee while wai ing o he new con ac because
he imes a e long, [and] you can’ s op. […] They wo ked p ac ically in fi e yea s, one yea o ee wi hou
being paid. This is he eali y i we alk abou a public ins i u ion”(IT21042804; see also IT21100609). Simila
wo king condi ions we e epo ed in case o he DRV, al hough in sligh ly less d ama ic e ms: “people a e us-
a ed and some push endless o e ime and aca ion sa ings, bu s ill s uggle”(DE210929_1).
Gene ally, all implemen e s wi h high iage ac i i y display a o al absence o o e load compensa ion mecha-
nisms ha go beyond he indi idual le el and would cons i u e some kind o o ganiza ional s a egy: “i ’sup o
us o make he ac i i ies un. I ’s bo om-up, i is up o us o o ganize ou sel es o comple e he wo k wi hin he
deadlines”(IT21100609). In case o he DRV, adminis a i e ules and p ocedu es ac i ely p ohibi some o
he mechanisms we heo ized ea lie as being pa o compensa o y beha io : “You can only wo k o one eam.
Fo p ocedu al easons, oo, you a e only app o ed o ha one eam. Fo example, I wo k on day 10. I he e is
a c isis in he eam o day 9, I canno jump in, e en i I wan ed o”(DE211027). In case o he NPWS, o e load
compensa ion has also been limi ed by ano he aspec : “Communica ions a e poo on many le els: No enough
in e nal communica ion o sha ing o wo k plans and p io i ies and his applies wi hin small uni s, and a e e y
le el, igh up o o ganiza ion-wide. The e simply is no cul u e o communica ing and wo king oge he . We ha e
no newsle e , no con e ence, no me hod wha soe e o communica ing ac oss NPWS”(Depa men o
Housing, 2021, p. 5).
5. Conclusion
Ou pape shed ligh on he challenges ha a ise om he cumula i e g ow h o policy po olios and i s impac
on policy implemen a ion. While p e ious implemen a ion esea ch has p ima ily ocused on indi idual policies,
we ad oca e o he need o conside he b oade pa e ns o policy change and he esul ing o ganiza ional policy
iage. As we ha e shown, he con inuous g ow h o sec o al policy po olios poses a significan challenge o
implemen a ion o ganiza ions, po en ially leading o s uc u al o e load and impeding e ec i e implemen a ion.
To accoun o empi ical a ia ion ac oss implemen ing o ganiza ions, we efined he concep o o ganiza-
ional policy iage which cap u es he ade-o s ha o e loaded o ganiza ions a e compelled o make and ul i-
ma ely impac hei implemen a ion pe o mance nega i ely. This shi in analy ical ocus owa d o ganiza ional
pe o mance a he han he e ec i eness o indi idual policies p o ides insigh s in o he s uc u al challenges
a ising om policy accumula ion. Ou pape emphasizes he impo ance o unde s anding he a ia ion in policy
iage ac oss sec o al and na ional o ganiza ions and he unde lying ac o s con ibu ing o his a ia ion.
By examining 16 minis e ial bodies and na ional agencies a he cen al le el in fi e Eu opean coun ies, we
a e able o p o ide e idence o policy iage wi hin he social and en i onmen al sec o s. Ou findings highligh
a ia ions in he deg ee o policy iage independen o coun y-specific a iables such as adminis a i e adi ion,
poli ical sys em, o s uc u al ac o s such as o ganiza ional size. Fu he mo e, we ha e shown ha he heo e ical
amewo k ad anced in his s udy, cen ally based on h ee explana o y ac o s, blame-shi ing oppo uni ies,
esou ce mobiliza ion, and he commi men o implemen a ion au ho i ies is able o accoun o a ia ion
obse ed in ou sample.
In gene al, ou findings indica e ha he le el o policy iage is no only a ec ed by ac o s ha a e exoge-
nous o an o ganiza ion, such as poli ical blame games o an o ganiza ion’s poli ical le e age o mobilize ex e nal
esou ces, bu also by endogenous dynamics ha de e mine an o ganiza ion’s commi men o o e load educ ion.
While poli ical ac o s a e di ficul o change in he sho e m, engagemen in o ganiza ional e o ms migh con-
s i u e a mo e app op ia e app oach o handle bu eauc a ic o e load. The link be ween o ganiza ional e o ms
and he po en ial o hese e o ms o educe bu eauc a ic o e load a e hence a p omising a ea o u u e esea ch
in his field. Recen esea ch has shown o ins ance, ha a emp s o s eng hen he e ical coo dina ion
be ween bu eauc acies in cha ge o policy o mula ion and hose in cha ge o policy implemen a ion can help o
educe he po en ial o adminis a i e o e bu dening (Fe n
andez-i-Ma ín, Hin e lei ne , e al., 2023; Fe n
andez-i-
Ma ín, Knill, e al., 2023). Mo eo e , ou findings show ha o ganiza ions go e ned by a “silo men ali y”could
benefi om mo e coope a i e s uc u es o cope wi h o e load. In cases such as he DRV o ins ance, e o ming
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D. Zink e al. BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE
he o ganiza ional ules and p ocedu es o allow o a mo e coope a i e app oach among uni s and depa men s
mos likely will also mi iga e o e load o some ex en .
While p oblems o o e load and adminis a i e capaci y limi a ions a e o en discussed as a gene al ea u e o
public sec o o ganiza ions, i is impo an o emphasize ha ou analysis e e s o a specific class o adminis a-
i e bodies, namely hose bodies o which new asks ypically a e pe manen in na u e. O e load hence eme ges
om he ac ha bu den cons an ly piles up, adding o he numbe o exis ing asks he o ganiza ion mus ulfill.
The implemen a ion o public policies is a p ima y example o such pe manen asks. By con as , o e load chal-
lenges esul ing om a cons an piling up o bu den a e less likely o o ganiza ions ha deal wi h one-o asks,
ha is, asks ha a e o he able once hey a e ulfilled such as policy de elopmen o policy e alua ion.
Acknowledgmen s
This wo k was suppo ed by he Eu opean Resea ch Council unde Ho izon 2020 g an 788941. We hank ou
h ee anonymous e iewe s o hei cons uc i e eedback on he o iginal e sion o his a icle. The au ho s also
hank Da id Le i-Fau o he chance o p esen an ea ly e sion a he Theo ies o Regula ion & Go e nance
webina se ies as well as all ellow panelis s, discussan s, and commen e s a he CES 2023 and DACH 2023 con-
e ences o hei aluable eedback and sugges ions. Las ly, we also ex end ou g a i ude o Dionys Zink (medio )
o language edi ing and p oo eading. Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The da a ha suppo he findings o his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he co esponding au ho . The da a
a e no publicly a ailable due o p i acy o e hical es ic ions.
ENDNOTE
1See h ps://hansa d.pa liamen .uk/commons/2022-11-17/deba es/29A0035B-708A-4796-8C52-395CA86C7C54/En i onmen
AgencyEn o cemen Budge #:: ex =Howe e %2C%20 he%20Go e nmen %20mo e%20 han,was%20only%20£94%20million.
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Suppo ing in o ma ion
Addi ional Suppo ing In o ma ion may be ound in he online e sion o his a icle a he publishe ’s web-si e:
Appendix S1. Suppo ing In o ma ion.
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BUREAUCRATIC OVERLOAD AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY TRIAGE D. Zink e al.
