Kallmünze , And eas; Khu shid, Rashid; Usman Khiza , Ha iz Muhammad; Yuan,
Jingbo
A icle
Un eiling he hidden dynamics: A con igu a ional analysis
o pe sonali y ai s, demog aphic ac o s, and knowledge
hiding
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Else ie
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Kallmünze , And eas; Khu shid, Rashid; Usman Khiza , Ha iz Muhammad;
Yuan, Jingbo (2025) : Un eiling he hidden dynamics: A con igu a ional analysis o pe sonali y
ai s, demog aphic ac o s, and knowledge hiding, Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge (JIK), ISSN
2444-569X, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 10, Iss. 2, pp. 1-12,
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Un eiling he hidden dynamics: A con igu a ional analysis o pe sonali y
ai s, demog aphic ac o s, and knowledge hiding
And eas Kallmuenze
a
, Rashid Khu shid
b
, Ha iz Muhammad Usman Khiza
c,*
,
Jingbo Yuan
d
a
Depa men o S a egy, Excelia Business School, F ance
b
Ins i u e o Business Managemen & Adminis a i e Sciences, The Islamia Uni e si y o Bahawalpu , Pakis an
c
Human Capi al Resea ch Cen e , Uni ed A ab Emi a es Uni e si y, UAE, Uni ed A ab Emi a es
d
Depa men o Ma ke ing, School o Managemen , Shenzhen Uni e si y, China
ARTICLE INFO
JEL code:
M12
M50
Keywo ds:
Knowledge hiding
Complexi y heo y
FSQCA
Big-5 pe sonali y ai s
The da k iad
ABSTRACT
Knowledge Hiding is a pe asi e p oblem in he wo kplace, which can ha e a ious nega i e consequences o
indi iduals and o ganiza ions. D awing om he unde pinning o complexi y heo y, his s udy in es iga es he
complex causal in e ela ionships associa ed wi h knowledge hiding in he wo kplace. Tha is, we explo e he
in e ela ionships o indi idual-le el ac o s: i) demog aphic cha ac e is ics (age, gende , educa ion and expe-
ience), and ii) pe sonali y ai s (i.e., Big-5 and he Da k T iad), and knowledge hiding beha iou s. We collec ed
da a om 157 employees in he hospi ali y sec o and analyzed by using uzzy-se quali a i e compa a i e
analysis ( sQCA). Ou esul s highligh ed mul iple con igu a ions o he demog aphic cha ac e is ics and pe -
sonali y ai s (i.e., causal condi ions) leading o knowledge hiding beha iou s (i.e., ou come). Ou indings
e ealed a o al o 25 unique p o iles combining pe sonali y ai s and demog aphics ac o s–14 associa ed wi h
he p esence o knowledge hiding, and 11 linked o i s absence. In pa icula , Machia ellianism eme ged as a
co e condi ion d i ing he p esence o knowledge hiding, while ex a e sion was iden i ied as a co e condi ion
associa ed wi h i s absence. This is he i s -e e s udy comp ehensi ely in es iga ing dis inc p o iles esul ing
om he in e play be ween employees’ pe sonali y ai s and demog aphic ac o s associa ed wi h hei
knowledge hiding beha iou .
In oduc ion
In oday’s complex and dynamic wo k en i onmen , he success o
nea ly e e y o ganiza ion depends on i s abili y o manage knowledge
esou ces e ec i ely (AlMulhim, 2023; Sepúl eda-Ri illas e al., 2022).
Recen ly, he e has been g owing in e es in unde s anding when and
why employees sha e (o hide) knowledge, as well as he po en ial
bene i s (o downsides) o bo h employees and o ganiza ions (A ain
e al., 2022, 2023). Despi e signi ican e o s, knowledge hiding
(he ea e ; KH) emains a pe asi e phenomenon a wo kplace, and a
ba ie o e ec i e knowledge managemen in o ganiza ions (Chen
e al., 2022). KH e e s o he in en ional concealmen , wi hholding, o
dis o ion o in o ma ion, knowledge, o expe iences ele an o a
pa icula ask, p ojec , o o ganiza ion (Connelly e al., 2012). Exis ing
esea ch on knowledge managemen has p edominan ly ocused on
knowledge sha ing, o en o e looking i s coun e pa , KH (Peng, 2013).
Howe e , ou limi ed unde s anding o how, when, and why employees
engage in KH in he wo kplace highligh s he need o u he
in es iga ion.
P e ious esea ch has shown ha his de ian beha io can ha e
se e al de imen al consequences including dec eased p oduc i i y
(Kho e a & Wechsle , 2020), employee dis us (A ain e al., 2020), and
hinde ed inno a ion and i m pe o mance (Haa e al., 2022; Xiao &
Cooke, 2019). Ano he body o esea ch has iden i ied he an eceden s
o KH a a ious le els, including he indi idual (e.g., Bu , 2021; Xiao,
2024), in e pe sonal o g oup le el (e.g., Ba i e al., 2023; Ja a i-Sadeghi
e al., 2022), and o ganiza ional le els (e.g., Anand e al., 2023; Kau &
Kang, 2023).
Recen s udies ha e highligh ed he signi icance o examining how
indi idual cha ac e is ics con ibu e o KH in he wo kplace (e.g., He
e al., 2023; Zhang e al., 2023). In his line o esea ch, schola s ha e
pa icula ly unde sco ed he c i ical ole o employees’ pe sonali y ai s
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (H.M.U. Khiza ).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
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jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/jik
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jik.2025.100666
Recei ed 14 July 2024; Accep ed 28 Janua y 2025
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100666
A ailable online 7 Ma ch 2025
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h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ).
in coun e p oduc i e knowledge beha io s (e.g., Se enko, 2024; Wu &
Liu, 2023). Fo ins ance, Se enko (2024) sugges ed ha employees wi h
psychological diso de s (e.g., na cissism and sadism) a e mo e likely o
engage in KH beha io s. No ably, among a ious pe sonali y assessmen
models and amewo ks, he Big Fi e (Big-5) model and he Da k T iad
(D-3) ha e ecei ed wide ecogni ion om he schola ly communi y o
examining he ela ionship be ween pe sonali y ai s and wo kplace
a i udes and beha io s (e.g., Balak ishnan e al., 2019; Pan e al., 2018;
So al e al., 2022).
Al hough some empi ical e idence explo es he ela ionships be-
ween pe sonali y cha ac e is ics and KH (e.g., Hamza e al., 2023), ou
unde s anding o he indi idual-le el causes o KH emains limi ed in
se e al ways. Exis ing esea ch on pe sonali y ai s and KH e eals
con lic ing esul s, u he complica ing he o e all unde s anding. Fo
ins ance, Hamza e al. (2023) iden i ied a posi i e associa ion be ween
KH and h ee pe sonali y dimensions (openness, conscien iousness, and
neu o icism) and a nega i e ela ionship be ween ex a e sion and
ag eeableness. Con e sely, Wu (2021) epo ed a posi i e link be ween
all BIG-5 pe sonali y dimensions and KH, excep o openness o expe-
ience. Simila ly, while mos p io s udies ha e es ablished a connec ion
be ween D-3 pe sonali y ai s and KH (e.g., Ka im, 2020, 2022), he e
also exis s empi ical e idence highligh ing he dis inc endencies o D-3
ai s—na cissism, psychopa hy, and Machia ellianism— o in luence
di e en KH s a egies (Pan e al., 2018). Fo example, a ecen s udy
epo ed ha psychopa hs p e end o be unawa e (i.e., play dumb),
na cissis s engage in a ionalized hiding, and indi iduals high Machs
employ e asi e hiding s a egies (Joshi e al., 2024).
Despi e he signi ican ole o indi idual di e ences in wo kplace
beha io s, ew s udies ha e examined he associa ion be ween de-
mog aphic ac o s and KH (e.g. Zhang e al., 2022). Fu he mo e, mos
esea ch has ocused on cause-and-e ec mechanisms by conside ing a
limi ed se o indi idual-le el ac o s (Ga g & Anand, 2020; Chawla &
Gup al., 2019), ypically wi hin linea ela ionships. This na ow ocus
o e looks how a ious indi idual-le el ac o s may in e ac o join ly
in luence KH in he wo kplace. Howe e , a syn hesized unde s anding o
hese linkages is lacking. Acco ding o Lemon and Macklin (2021)),
"When schola s a e no longe limi ed o bina y, dicho omous app oaches
and unde s anding, he po en ial o heo y de elopmen is enhanced"
(p. 222). In his con ex , complexi y heo y o e s a amewo k o
de eloping a nuanced, comp ehensi e unde s anding o how and when
a ious condi ions may lead o speci ic ou comes (Ande son, 1999).
F om his pe spec i e, we a gue ha complex and dynamic in e ac ions
among a ious indi idual-le el ac o s can in luence KH. The e o e, his
s udy aims o p esen a holis ic iew o he di e en combina ions o
indi idual ac o s, such as demog aphic cha ac e is ics (e.g., gende ,
age, educa ion, and expe ience) and pe sonali y ai s (e.g., Big-5 and
D-3) associa ed wi h KH beha io s in o ganiza ions.
This s udy con ibu es o he exis ing li e a u e in se e al ways. Fi s ,
i expands he unde s anding o indi idual-le el ac o s in luencing KH
by examining a b oad ange o a iables, including age, gende , edu-
ca ion, expe ience, and pe sonali y ai s. While p e ious esea ch has
add essed some o hese ac o s in isola ion, his s udy adop s a mo e
in eg a ed app oach o iden i y condi ions associa ed wi h KH. I
uniquely examines he combina ions o indi idual-le el condi ions ha
in luence KH bo h independen ly and in a ious con igu a ions. Second,
he indings p o ide ac ionable insigh s o o ganiza ions aiming o
educe KH and os e a cul u e o knowledge sha ing. By iden i ying
speci ic combina ions o condi ions associa ed wi h KH, o ganiza ions
can de elop a ge ed in e en ions o mi iga e his beha io . Thi d, his
s udy ad ances he li e a u e on o ganiza ional beha io by demon-
s a ing he u ili y o complexi y heo y and uzzy se Quali a i e
Compa a i e Analysis ( sQCA) in unde s anding complex and dynamic
o ganiza ional phenomena. By adop ing a holis ic app oach, his s udy
lays a ounda ion o en ep eneu s and o e s aluable insigh s o
u u e esea ch on KH.
Theo y and backg ound
Knowledge hiding (KH)
KH e e s o he delibe a e wi hholding o concealmen o in o ma-
ion eques ed by ano he employee ha could bene i o he s wi hin an
o ganiza ion (Connelly e al., 2012). I is concep ualized as a mul idi-
mensional cons uc encompassing a ious o ms o hiding, wi h-
holding, and dis o ing in o ma ion (Shi ahada & Zhang, 2022).
Connelly e al. (2012) iden i ied h ee p ima y dimensions o KH: E asi e
Hiding, Playing Dumb, and Ra ionalized Hiding. E asi e hiding in ol es
in en ionally a oiding o edi ec ing ques ions, eques s o in o ma-
ion, o oppo uni ies o sha ing knowledge. Playing dumb in ol es
delibe a ely p e ending no o know o unde s and some hing, he eby
wi hholding one’s knowledge o expe ise. Ra ionalized hiding en ails
p o iding jus i ica ions o excuses o a oiding knowledge sha ing, such
as claiming a lack o ime, ea ing nega i e consequences, o deeming
he knowledge i ele an .
KH is a dis inc phenomenon ha can some imes be con la ed wi h
ela ed concep s. Fo example, some s udies ha e conside ed KH and
knowledge hoa ding o be he same (e.g., E ans e al., 2015), while
o he s ha e ea ed hem as dis inc cons uc s (Connelly e al., 2012) o
g ouped bo h unde he b oade ca ego y o knowledge wi hholding (e.
g. Webs e e al., 2008). Fu he mo e, beha io s such as a lack o
knowledge sha ing, coun e p oduc i e wo k beha io (CWB), wo k-
place agg ession, wo kplace unde mining, decep ion, and inci ili y in
he wo kplace ha e been iden i ied as sepa a e om KH (Connelly e al.,
2012). Howe e , unlike o he coun e p oduc i e beha iou s, KH s ands
ou as one ha is connec ed o, bu dis inc om, hese beha iou s
(Se enko & Bon is, 2016).
Demog aphic cha ac e is ics and KH
Demog aphic cha ac e is ics ha e been shown o in luence employee
beha io s and pe o mance ac oss a ious wo k- ela ed se ings. Recen
s udies ha e ocused hei in es iga ions on how demog aphic cha ac-
e is ics (e.g. gende , age, and educa ional backg ound) can s imula e
KH among employees. This includes examining he endencies and di -
e ences o hiding (o sha ing) knowledge among olde ( s. younge ),
emale ( s. male), and hose wi h highe e sus lowe le els o educa ion
(e.g. Zhang e al., 2023; And ee a & Zappa, 2023). Exis ing esea ch
indica es ha ce ain demog aphic cha ac e is ics can a ec employees’
likelihood o engaging in KH (A ain e al., 2022; Miminosh ili & Ce ne,
2022). Howe e , empi ical e idence also exis s, epo ing an insigni i-
can ela ionship be ween he demog aphic cha ac e is ics (i.e. age,
gende , and educa ion) and KH.
Fo ins ance, ac o s such as employee age, educa ion, and enu e
ha e been explo ed as po en ial con ibu o s o KH. Some s udies epo
ha indi iduals wi h longe enu es, highe educa ional a ainmen , and
olde age a e mo e likely o engage in KH. Howe e , o he s ha e ound
con adic o y o insigni ican esul s (e.g., Connelly e al., 2012; Laz-
azza a & Za, 2019; Oshagbemi, 2000; Zhang e al., 2023). Simila ly,
deba es exis o e whe he sho - e m employees a e mo e likely o
engage in KH compa ed o long- e m employees. A ecen s udy sug-
ges ed a less likely associa ion be ween enu e (as a con ol a iable)
and KH (Zhang e al., 2022).
Fu he mo e, ega ding educa ional backg ound, he li e a u e p e-
sen s mixed indings. Fo example, highly educa ed o o e quali ied
indi iduals ha e been linked o KH beha io s in some s udies (e.g.,
Dodokh, 2020; Tian e al., 2022), while o he s poin s o an indi ec o
insigni ican ela ionship be ween educa ional le el and o e all KH.
Simila ly, mixed esul s ha e been epo ed ega ding he ela ionship
be ween gende and KH. Acco ding o And ee a and Zappa (2023), male
and emale employees ha e a ying endencies o hide knowledge by
selec ing s a egies ha align wi h o he s’ pe cep ions o hei social
oles (Eagly & Ka au, 2002; Rudman & Phelan, 2008). Some s udies
A. Kallmuenze e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100666
2
sugges ha women a e mo e likely o engage in KH compa ed o men,
while o he s epo he opposi e (e.g., And ee a & Zappa, 2023; I um
e al., 2020; Koay & Lim, 2023).
Ou e iew o he li e a u e indica es ha demog aphic ac o s such
as age, gende , educa ion, and expe ience may play a signi ican ole in
in luencing KH in he wo kplace. The e o e, his s udy aims o explo e
he speci ic mechanisms h ough which hese demog aphic cha ac e -
is ics a ec KH.
RQ1: To wha ex en do di e ences in demog aphic cha ac e is ics (i.e.,
age, gende , educa ion, and expe ience) explain a ia ions in KH?
Pe sonali y ai s and KH
Schola s ha e a gued ha indi idual beha io al ai s signi ican ly
impac a i udes, ac ions, and pe o mance (e.g., Kim & Pa el, 2011; Kim
& Nguyen, 2023; Salmony e al., 2022). Recen yea s ha e wi nessed
g owing academic in e es in unde s anding he ela ionship be ween
pe sonali y ai s and KH among employees (Se enko, 2024).
Pe sonali y ai s e e o s able pa e ns o beha io s, hough s, and
eelings ha in luence an indi idual’s ac ions and in e ac ions wi h
o he s (Diene & Lucas, 2019). Among he mos commonly s udied
amewo ks is he Big-5 pe sonali y model, which comp ises i e di-
mensions: conscien iousness, neu o icism, ag eeableness, ex a e sion,
and openness o expe ience (Dennison e al., 2001; Tanasescu e al.,
2013). Ano he widely used model, he Da k T iad (he ea e , D-3),
examines h ee nega i e pe sonali y ai s—na cissism, psychopa hy,
and Machia ellianism—and hei in luence on employee beha io in
o ganiza ions (Junca & Sil a, 2023; Szab´
o e al., 2023).
Nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed a co ela ion be ween KH and
pe sonali y ai s. Ex a e s, cha ac e ized as ou going, iendly, and
socially p oac i e indi iduals (Fu nham & Fudge, 2008), end o eel
mo e com o able sha ing in o ma ion and in e ac ing wi h o he s
(Rus ina e al., 2024). Simila ly, openness, a ai closely linked o
c ea i i y (Ch is ensen, 2023), is associa ed wi h cu iosi y, imagina ion,
and open-mindedness (Nusbaum & Sil ia, 2011). Consequen ly, in-
di iduals wi h high le els o openness a e mo e likely o acqui e and
sha e knowledge wi h o he s (Ma zle e al., 2008; Cui e al., 2023).
Mo eo e , conscien ious indi iduals, known o hei esponsibili y,
us wo hiness, and o ganiza ional skills (Hasanah e al., 2022), o en
alue e hical beha io and hones y, which may discou age hem om
engaging in KH (Chawla & Gup a, 2019). Howe e , hei high
achie emen o ien a ion may some imes lead hem o hide knowledge o
main ain a compe i i e edge (Jain, 2014). Con e sely, neu o ic in-
di iduals, who a e mo e p one o expe iencing nega i e emo ions such
as dep ession (Pang & Wu, 2021), may be mo e likely o engage in KH as
a coping mechanism.
In e es ingly, he ela ionship be ween Big-5 pe sonali y ai s and
KH has yielded inconsis en indings in he li e a u e (Hamza e al.,
2023). Fo ins ance, some s udies indica e ha employees sco ing high
in ex a e sion and openness a e less likely o engage in KH, while hose
wi h high sco es in conscien iousness, ag eeableness, and neu o icism
a e mo e inclined o do so (Iqbal e al., 2020). Howe e , o he esea ch
has iden i ied posi i e associa ions be ween openness, conscien ious-
ness, neu o icism, and KH (Hamza e al., 2023).
Fu he mo e, indi iduals exhibi ing D-3 ai s—psychopa hy,
Machia ellianism, and na cissism—a e mo e p one o une hical and
manipula i e beha io s (Fo sy h e al., 2012; Ha ison e al., 2018).
S udies ha e ound ha employees wi h D-3 ai s o en engage in KH o
gain powe o con ol o e o he s (Pan e al., 2018; Ka im, 2022).
No ably, he e ec s o na cissism and psychopa hy on KH can be
s onge in men han in women (Pan e al., 2018). Joshi e al. (2024)
u he elabo a ed ha di e en D-3 ai s co ela e wi h speci ic KH
s a egies: Machia ellians p edominan ly use e asi e hiding, na cissis s
a o a ionalized hiding, and psychopa hs a e mo e inclined o adop a
"playing dumb" s a egy. O e all, mos s udies sugges a posi i e asso-
cia ion be ween D-3 ai s and KH. Howe e , his ela ionship may a y
when o he ac o s a e conside ed. Fo ins ance, na cissis s ypically
exhibi low o ganiza ional commi men due o hei sel -cen e ed na u e
(Fos e e al., 2009). Ne e heless, aligning o ganiza ional goals wi h
na cissis s’ aspi a ions can enhance hei commi men and d i e inno-
a ion (Cesinge e al., 2023). By appealing o hei desi e o s a us and
legacy, such alignmen may educe hei endency o engage in KH.
Ou e iew o he ex an li e a u e sugges s ha pe sonali y cha -
ac e is ics (e.g., Big-5 and D-3 ai s), bo h posi i e and nega i e, play a
signi ican ole in KH. A ecen sys ema ic e iew o KH li e a u e also
highligh ed a gap in esea ch explo ing he associa ion be ween pe -
sonali y ai s and KH ac oss a ious con ex s (Khiza e al., 2024).
Agains his backg ound, his s udy in es iga es he in e play and spe-
ci ic mechanisms h ough which pe sonali y ai s in luence KH.
RQ2: To wha ex en do di e ences in pe sonali y cha ac e is ics ( he Big
Fi e ai s and he Da k T iad ai s) explain a ia ions in KH?
Complexi y heo y and KH
Complexi y heo y, ini ially de eloped in he physical and biological
sciences, has since been applied o he social sciences. Ande son’s
(1999) seminal wo k acili a ed i s in eg a ion in o o ganiza ional sci-
ence esea ch. The heo y posi s ha complex sys ems consis o in e -
connec ed elemen s ha in e ac nonlinea ly and dynamically, esul ing
in eme gen beha io s and ou comes ha canno be unde s ood by
examining indi idual aspec s in isola ion (Wallis, 2009). Acco ding o
Le y (2000), i is " he s udy o complex, nonlinea , dynamic sys ems
wi h eedback e ec s" (Le y, 2000, p. 68). Likewise, U y (2005) no ed
ha " ela ionships be ween a iables can be nonlinea wi h ab up
swi ches occu ing, so he same cause can, in speci ic ci cums ances,
p oduce di e en e ec s" (U y, 2005, p. 4).
P oponen s o complexi y heo y a gue ha mos causal condi ions
a e nei he su icien no necessa y o an ou come o occu (Woodside
e al., 2018). Ins ead, ou comes a e shaped by a ious ac o s ope a ing
in andem. These ac o s a ely (o di e en ly) ac in isola ion and,
depending on he con ex , he same condi ions may yield con as ing
e ec s (Fu na i e al., 2021; Misangyi e al., 2017; O danini e al., 2014).
Complexi y heo y is g ounded in h ee key ene s: (i) causal
complexi y (o conjunc u al causa ion), whe eby a single ac o a ely
causes an ou come; ins ead, ou comes depend on mul iple in e depen-
den ac o s, (ii) equi inali y, which sugges s ha he e a e mul iple
pa hways o achie e he same ou come, and (iii) asymme ical e-
la ionships, which sugges s ha he ac o s con ibu ing o he p esence
o an ou come a e no necessa ily he in e se o hose leading o i s
absence. In he con ex o his s udy, complexi y heo y o e s a
comp ehensi e amewo k o unde s anding he causal mechanisms
unde lying KH in o ganiza ions. Ra he han examining indi idual ac-
o s in isola ion, complexi y heo y emphasizes examining he complex
in e ac ions among mul iple ac o s, such as demog aphics and pe -
sonali y ai s.
Building on he p inciples o complexi y heo y, his s udy in-
es iga es how a ious combina ions o demog aphic ac o s (e.g., age,
gende , educa ion, and expe ience), Big-5 ai s (openness, ex a e sion,
conscien iousness, ag eeableness, and neu o icism), and D-3 ai s
(psychopa hy, na cissism, and Machia ellianism) con ibu e o KH be-
ha io s among employees. In pa icula , we aimed o iden i y unique
combina ions o ac o s mos signi ican ly associa ed wi h KH a he
han examining he isola ed e ec s o each ac o . We pos ula e ha KH
is no d i en by a single pe sonali y ai o demog aphic ac o . Ins ead,
KH likely esul s om he complex in e play o demog aphic ac o s and
pe sonali y cha ac e is ics. To add ess hese complexi ies, we o mu-
la ed he ollowing esea ch ques ion and de eloped a comp ehensi e
amewo k (Fig. 1):
RQ3: To wha ex en do di e ences in demog aphics (age, gende ,
educa ion, and expe ience) and pe sonali y cha ac e is ics (Big-5 ai s
and Da k T iad ai s) explain a ia ions in KH?
A. Kallmuenze e al.
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3
Resea ch me hods
Sample and p ocedu es
The hospi ali y indus y a aches g ea impo ance o knowledge
ans e and employee collabo a ion o main ain cus ome assu ance
and p omo e se ice inno a ions (Ja ed e al., 2017; Kim & Lee, 2013;
Zhao e al., 2016). The e o e, i is impo an o in es iga e he dynamics
o KH among hospi ali y sec o employees. Ou empi ical se ing is he
Sou h Punjab egion o Pakis an. This is signi ican because a ious
eligious e en s (e.g., Chanan Pee Mela and Shah Shams), cul u al ac-
i i ies (e.g., Jeep ally in Cholis an dese , and he palaces o he Na-
wabs), and spo s a enas (e.g., Na ional C icke S adiums) a ac a la ge
numbe o ou is s om all o e he wo ld. To iden i y sui able esea ch
pa icipan s om he hospi ali y indus y, we ob ained a lis o ho els
unc ioning in he Sou h Punjab egion om he Pakis an Ho el Asso-
cia ion (PHA) and a ep esen a i e o a local chain o ho els and es-
au an s. Subsequen ly, he HR depa men s o hese pa icula ho els
and es au an s we e con ac ed, and a e ob aining he necessa y pe -
missions, he da a we e collec ed using sel -adminis e ed
ques ionnai es.
The cu en s udy ook a igo ous app oach o ec ui ing a di e se
and ep esen a i e sample o esponden s om a ious ope a ional de-
pa men s wi hin he hospi ali y indus y, including on desk man-
agemen , ma ke ing, inance sec ion, R&D, human esou ce
managemen , and in o ma ion echnology. This app oach was aken o
ensu e ha he pe spec i es o employees wo king a di e en le els and
a eas o expe ise a e cap u ed. This is also impo an due o he sig-
ni icance o communica ion and collabo a ion among employees in
c ea ing and deli e ing inno a i e se ices (Tang e al., 2015). Pa ici-
pa ion in he su ey was olun a y, and ques ionnai es we e dis ibu ed
h ough he acili a ion o each ho el’s human esou ces depa men . We
eques ed hei con ac numbe s and email add esses o es ablish
e ec i e communica ion channels wi h employees. Howe e , mos e-
sponden s did no p o ide hei pe sonal con ac in o ma ion due o
p i acy and da a secu i y conce ns. Ins ead, hey sha ed he ho el’s
PTCL (Pakis an Telecommunica ion Company Limi ed) landline
numbe s and o icial email add esses o u he co espondence. To
ensu e he imely comple ion o he ques ionnai es, we ga e elephonic
eminde s o encou age employees o comple e and e u n he ques-
ionnai es. This app oach helped main aining an ac i e and e icien
da a collec ion p ocess, espec ing employees’ p i acy conce ns and
ollowing e hical conside a ions o handling esea ch da a. We also
employed se e al echniques o educe he common me hod a iance
bias (Podsako e al., 2003). These include main aining he con iden-
iali y and anonymi y o esponden s and in oducing a wo-week in-
e al be ween wo wa es o da a collec ion o he a ings o pe sonali y
ai s and KH (Kaya & Ka a epe, 2020; Luu, 2021; Podsako e al.,
2003).
A o al o 157 su eys we e comple ed and u ilized o u he
analysis, esul ing in a esponse a e o 52.3 %. Demog aphic in o ma-
ion (Table 1) o he esponden s indica es ha 59 % we e male; he
majo i y o employees we e be ween he ages o 26 and 35, held bach-
elo ’s o mas e ’s deg ees, and had a ying le els o wo k expe ience.
Measu es
Fo he measu emen o Big-5 pe sonali y ai s, we u ilized he 50-
i em scale sugges ed by Goldbe g (1992) a a Fi e-poin Like scale,
anging om "s ongly disag ee" (1) o "s ongly ag ee" (5). In addi ion,
he scales o Machia ellianism, na cissism, and psychopa hy a e
adap ed om a 12-i em scale by Jonason and Webs e (2010). Nex , ou
esea ch explo es how indi idual-le el a ibu es, such as gende , age,
educa ion, and expe ience, shape employee a i udes and beha iou s
owa d KH. Syed-Ikhsan and Rowland (2004) ha e ca e ully adap ed
and modi ied he demog aphic ac o s ques ionnai e i ems. Fo ou
ou come o in e es (i.e., KH), we ollowed p e ious s udies o u ilize a
h ee-i em scale adap ed om exis ing li e a u e (Peng, 2013; Se enko &
Bon is, 2016).
Analy ical p ocedu e – uzzy-se quali a i e compa a i e analysis ( sQCA)
The cu en s udy explo es he complex web o ela ionships be ween
demog aphic cha ac e is ics (i.e., age, gende , educa ion, and expe i-
ence) and pe sonali y cha ac e is ics (i.e., Big 5 and D-3) associa ed wi h
KH. Howe e , adi ional s a is ical echniques like mul iple eg ession
analysis (MRA) and s uc u al equa ion modelling (SEM) ha e inhe en
limi a ions in un a elling complex in e ac ions in ol ing h ee o mo e
causal condi ions (Ragin, 2008; Woodside, 2013). To ge beyond hese
es ic ions, his s udy u ilizes uzzy se quali a i e compa a i e analysis
( sQCA) as a dominan analy ical ool (Roig-Tie no e al., 2017). FsQCA
allows he iden i ica ion o associa ions among a ious combina ions o
igge s and hei e ec s on he esul s (Fiss, 2011).
In con as o symme ical analy ical me hods (e.g., SEM, MRA),
sQCA is an asymme ical analy ical echnique o igina ed by Ragin
(2000)). The esul s ob ained by sQCA e lec he essen ial p inciples o
complexi y heo y as ollows: i) sQCA e eals ha he a iables which
appea o cause an ou come in one con igu a ion may no ha e he same
ela ionship o may e en ha e an opposi e e ec in ano he con igu a-
ion (asymme ical ela ionships); ii) sQCA demons a es ha he e a e
mul iple pa hs (o combina ions o a iables) ha can lead o he same
ou come (equi inali y); iii) sQCA highligh s ha he e a e mul iple
ac o s ha may in e ac (o combined) o cause an ou come (causal
complexi y o conjunc u al ela ionship). Unlike adi ional
eg ession-based (ne -e ec s) me hods, sQCA iden i ies mul iple con-
igu a ions o causal condi ions leading o he ou come by conside ing
conjunc u al causa ion, equi inali y, and asymme ic associa ions.
No ably, sQCA in business managemen li e a u e has gained popu-
la i y in ecen yea s in unde s anding he a ious complex o ganiza-
ional phenomena (Kuma e al., 2022). The e o e, he u iliza ion o
sQCA is jus i ied in his s udy because he complex pa e ns o causal
in e ela ionships be ween sou ces o KH, such as pe sonali y ai s
(Big-5 and D-3) and demog aphic ac o s (gende , age, educa ion, and
Fig. 1. The in e play o demog aphic ac o s, and pe sonali y ai s associa ed
wi h KH.
Table 1
Desc ip i e p o ile o he esponden s.
Demog aphics Desc ip i es F equency (N =157) pe cen age (%)
Gende Men 93 59 %
Woman 64 41 %
Age 15–25 71 45 %
26–35 46 29 %
36–45 23 15 %
Abo e 45 17 11 %
Educa ion Basic 7 4 %
High school 16 10 %
Unde g adua e 43 27 %
G adua e 58 37 %
Pos -g adua e 33 22 %
Expe ience 5 yea s o less 74 47 %
6–10 yea s 35 23 %
11–15 yea s 22 14 %
>16 yea s 26 16 %
A. Kallmuenze e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100666
4
expe ience) equi e ad anced analy ical me hods such as sQCA
(Woodside, 2013).
Analysis and esul s
Da a calib a ion
Da a calib a ion is a c ucial s ep in sQCA, in ol ing he ans-
o ma ion o aw da a o all causal condi ions and he ou come o in-
e es in o uzzy alues anging om 0 o 1 (Ragin, 2008). In his s udy,
we selec ed h ee e e ence poin s— ull membe ship, c osso e , and ull
non-membe ship— o calib a e he da a (Kallmuenze e al., 2019;
Palme e al., 2019). We used he 90 h, 50 h, and 10 h pe cen iles as
ancho s o ull membe ship, c osso e poin s, and ull
non-membe ship, espec i ely, o all a iables excep gende (which is
dicho omous). Table 2 p esen s he de ailed calib a ion h esholds.
Analysis o necessa y and su icien condi ions
By u ilizing sQCA so wa e, we pe o med wo key analyses: (i)
necessi y analysis, and (ii) su iciency analysis. A necessa y condi ion
e e s o a condi ion ha mus exis o he ou come o in e es o occu ,
while su icien condi ions a e he condi ions o con igu a ions ha a e
su icien o p oduce he esul .
Necessi y analysis
A condi ion is conside ed “necessa y” i i s ela i e co e age and
consis ency a e equal o o g ea e han 0.5 and 0.9, espec i ely
(Pappas e al., 2020; Schneide & Wagemann, 2010). Table 3 below
p esen s he indings o necessi y analysis, o e ing aluable insigh s in o
he necessa y condi ions o bo h he p esence and absence o KH. Ou
analysis e ealed wo necessa y condi ions o he p esence o KH,
namely low in openness (~OP) and low in ex a e sion (~EXT). On he
o he hand, he EXT is he only necessa y condi ion ound o he
absence o KH. A consis ency alue o 0.9 o highe indica es ha hese
condi ions a e "almos always necessa y" o he p esence (o absence) o
KH; hus, i is also an essen ial componen in he subsequen analysis o
su icien condi ions.
Su iciency analysis
Ou analysis o iden i y su icien condi ions in ol ed se e al s eps.
Following s anda d p ocedu es (Fiss, 2011; Ragin, 2008), we con-
s uc ed a u h able wi h 2
k
ows, whe e ’k’ deno es he numbe o
causal condi ions, and e e y ow deno es a possible combina ion o all
condi ions, o en e e ed o as ’pa hways’ o ’ ecipe’ o ’p esc ip ions’
o ’con igu a ions’ (e.g., H.M.U. Khiza e al., 2024; Woodside, 2014;
G eckhame e al., 2018). Gi en ha he e a e 12 causal condi ions,
including Big-5, D-3, and demog aphic cha ac e is ics (n =4), he u h
able highligh ed 4096 possible combina ions (2
12
=4096). Howe e ,
gi en his complexi y, we ini ially pe o med sepa a e analyses o
pe sonali y ai s and demog aphic cha ac e is ics be o e unning he
comp ehensi e examina ion o iden i y con igu a ions associa ed wi h
KH.
A e cons uc ing he u h able, he logical minimiza ion p ocess
educed he numbe o ows in he u h able based on hei equency
and consis ency alues (Fiss, 2011; Ragin, 2008). The equency e e s o
he numbe o obse a ions o e e y possible combina ion, while he
consis ency measu es he ex en o which he cases a e consis en wi h
he se o heo e ical ela ions de ined in he solu ion (Fiss, 2011). We se
a consis ency cu -o alue o 0.80 and a minimum equency h eshold
o 2 cases. Finally, sQCA gene a es h ee ypes o solu ions, namely,
complex solu ions (wi hou logical esiduals), in e media e solu ions
(wi h pa ial logical esiduals), and pa simonious solu ions (wi h all
logical esiduals). In pa icula , in e media e solu ions a e gene ally
conside ed p e e able o bo h complex and pa simonious solu ions
(Ragin, 2009). A e ob aining he esul s, we classi ied he condi ions as
co e o pe iphe al. Co e condi ions a e hose which ha e a s ong causal
ele ance, appea ing in bo h "in e media e" and "pa simonious" solu-
ions, while pe iphe al condi ions demons a e a weak causal ele ance,
appea ing only in he in e media e solu ion (Fiss, 2011; Kou -
ou hanassis e al., 2017).
Solu ions: con igu a ions ela ed o KH
Ou analysis iden i ied a ious con igu a ions associa ed wi h he
p esence (high) and absence (low) o KH. Bo h solu ions (KH and ~KH)
highligh he ele ance o hei con ibu ions o he iden i ied con igu-
a ions in he pa simonious and in e media e solu ions. Solu ion con-
sis ency ep esen s he alignmen be ween he iden i ied con igu a ions
and he ou comes, while solu ion co e age indica es he p opo ion o
ou comes explained by he iden i ied con igu a ions (Ragan, 2008).
Fu he mo e, aw co e age e lec s he p opo ion (o pe cen age) o he
ou come explained by a speci ic con igu a ion, whe eas unique co e age
measu es he p opo ion o he ou come explained exclusi ely by a
pa icula con igu a ion (Ragin, 2008; Woodside e al., 1999; Zhang,
2012).
We adop ed he no a ions commonly used in sQCA esea ch (e.g.,
Fiss, 2011; Ragin & Fiss, 2008) o isually ep esen he p esence,
absence, and impo ance o a ious condi ions. A small black ci cle (●)
Table 2
Calib a ion o mul iple condi ions and ou come a iables.
Key Fac o s Cons uc s Full
Non-
membe ship
C osso e
ancho s
Full
membe ship
KH Beha io KH 1 3.10 4.67
Big-5
Pe sonali y
T ai s
Ex o e sion 1 3.40 5
Neu o icism 1 3.20 5
Openness 1 3.10 5
Ag eeableness 1 3 5
Conscien iousness 1 3.10 5
Da k T iad o
Pe sonali y
Machia ellianism 1 2.80 4.25
Psychopa hy 1 3.0 4.10
Na cissism 1 2.60 4
Table 3
Analysis o necessa y condi ions o esul s.
I ems Necessa y Condi ions o KH
KH p esence Absence o KH
Condi ions Consis ency Co e age Consis ency Co e age
AGE 0.405921 0.575587 0.611070 0.676423
~AGE 0.771805 0.717676 0.616591 0.447585
GEN 0.537825 0.509892 0.662211 0.490108
~GEN 0.462176 0.636719 0.337788 0.363281
EDU 0.525689 0.626605 0.621385 0.578207
~ EDU 0.646138 0.686137 0.598721 0.496327
Exp 0.429171 0.589867 0.598721 0.642401
~ EXP 0.739821 0.702531 0.617753 0.457943
EXT 0.441080 0.457206 0.905419 0.732660
~ EXT 0.742089 0.909507 0.329216 0.314984
AGR 0.777475 0.836894 0.399244 0.335490
~AGR 0.382670 0.449327 0.805898 0.738713
CON 0.803561 0.863287 0.385732 0.323504
~CON 0.370307 0.435739 0.836989 0.768850
NEU 0.801180 0.845785 0.367572 0.302921
~ NEU 0.339684 0.407593 0.812871 0.761431
Open 0.393444 0.427321 0.888711 0.753511
~ Open 0.773053 0.898971 0.324567 0.294645
NAR 0.799365 0.848237 0.443556 0.367433
~ NAR 0.403879 0.481801 0.816794 0.760655
PSY 0.817625 0.820977 0.400842 0.314201
~ psy 0.317001 0.403960 0.771611 0.767597
MACH 0.832029 0.883749 0.339967 0.281894
~ MACH 0.323920 0.385997 0.859799 0.799837
A. Kallmuenze e al.
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ep esen s he p esence o a condi ion. A c ossed-ou black ci cle (Ɵ)
indica es he absence o a condi ion. An emp y cell indica es a "don’
ca e" si ua ion, meaning he p edic o may o may no be p esen . La ge
ci cles ep esen co e condi ions, while smalle ci cles indica e pe iph-
e al condi ions wi h weake causal ele ance.
Con igu a ions o big-5 pe sonali y ai s
Table 4 p esen s he solu ions o he p esence ( h ee con igu a ions)
and absence ( wo con igu a ions) o KH associa ed wi h he Big-5 pe -
sonali y ai s. Rega ding he p esence o KH, c i ical ai s included low
ex a e sion and low openness, combined wi h ei he high o low le els
o o he ai s. Con e sely, he absence o KH was cha ac e ized by
con igu a ions in ol ing high ex a e sion and high anspa ency,
alongside low conscien iousness and low neu o icism.
Con igu a ions o D-3 pe sonali y ai s
Table 5 illus a es he con igu a ions iden i ied o psychopa hy,
Machia ellianism, and na cissism (D-3 ai s). Ou analysis e ealed ha
psychopa hy and Machia ellianism we e signi ican ly associa ed wi h
KH, ega dless o he p esence o absence o na cissism. Howe e , low
Machia ellianism eme ged as he co e condi ion o he absence o KH.
No ably, indi iduals who we e high in na cissism and low in Machia-
ellianism we e less likely o engage in KH.
Demog aphic o ien a ions owa d KH
Table 6 p esen s he con igu a ions o ou demog aphic a iables (i.
e., gende , age, educa ion, and expe ience) associa ed wi h KH. Fo he
p esence o KH, we obse ed ha younge employees wi h lowe le els
o educa ion and less expe ience we e mo e p one o KH. In addi ion,
expe ienced emales wi h lowe le els o educa ion demons a ed a
endency owa d KH. In e es ingly, younge male employees wi h
highe le els o educa ion and expe ience engaged in KH as well. In
con as , employee educa ion and expe ience we e signi ican ly associ-
a ed wi h he absence o KH, sugges ing ha highe educa ional
a ainmen and accumula ed wo k expe ience educe KH beha io s.
In e play o big-5 ai s, D-3, and demog aphic ac o s
A comp ehensi e analysis o he in e play be ween pe sonali y ai s
and demog aphic cha ac e is ics e ealed six con igu a ions ela ed o
he p esence and absence o KH, as shown in Table 7. Key indings
indica e ha Machia ellianism eme ged as he co e condi ion d i ing
he p esence o KH, whe eas ex a e sion was iden i ied as he co e
condi ion associa ed wi h he absence (o low le els) o KH. Table 7
shows how hese pe sonali y ai s in e ac wi h demog aphic ac o s o
p oduce a ious con igu a ions.
In e p e a ion o all con igu a ions
To acili a e a mo e nuanced unde s anding, Table 8 p esen s a
concise o e iew o he in e play be ween pe sonali y ai s, de-
mog aphic cha ac e is ics, and KH.
Discussion and implica ions
Unde s anding he undamen al causes o KH is c ucial o bo h ac-
ademics and p ac i ione s. D awing on complexi y heo y, his s udy
u ilizes sQCA o in es iga e he con igu a ions o pe sonali y ai s (i.e.,
he Big-5 and D-3) and demog aphic ac o s (i.e., age, gende , educa ion,
and expe ience) ha d i e KH beha io s. Ou indings e eal a ious
con igu a ions o employee pe sonali y ai s and demog aphic ac o s
associa ed wi h bo h he absence and p esence o KH. These indings
unde sco e he complexi y o KH, emphasizing ha i a ises om a mix
o demog aphic ai s and pe sonali y cha ac e is ics (Balak ishnan
e al., 2019).
F om a heo e ical pe spec i e, his s udy con ibu es o and ex ends
he exis ing discou se on indi idual di e ences, o ganiza ional
beha io , and hospi ali y. Rega ding he link be ween demog aphic
ac o s and KH (And ee a & Zappa, 2023; Lazazza a & Za, 2019; Liu &
Dong, 2022; Zhang e al., 2023), ou indings indica e ha younge
employees wi h lowe le els o educa ion and expe ience a e mo e likely
o engage in KH. Addi ionally, expe ienced emales wi h low educa-
ional le els exhibi highe endencies o KH, while expe ienced males
Table 4
Big-5 ai s and KH (high and low).
A. Kallmuenze e al.
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6
wi h highe educa ional le els a e less likely o engage in such
beha io s.
The nega i e associa ion be ween employee expe ience and KH can
be explained by he no ion ha expe ienced employees may possess a
s onge sense o esponsibili y and p o essionalism, along wi h a
g ea e commi men o hei o ganiza ions. Simila ly, he in e se ela-
ionship be ween educa ion and KH may s em om he idea ha highly
educa ed employees alue knowledge exchange, a e mo e e hically in-
clined, o a e mo e mo i a ed o con ibu e o o ganiza ional success.
This s udy u he unde sco es he p edic i e powe o he Big-5 and
D-3 pe sonali y ai s in explaining KH, con ibu ing o he g owing
body o li e a u e on he ole o indi idual di e ences in shaping
wo kplace a i udes and beha io s (e.g., Douglas & Ma inko, 2001;
Sha ma & De i, 2011; Zhang e al., 2023). Ou indings e eal ha in-
di iduals wi h low openness bu high ag eeableness, conscien iousness,
and neu o icism a e mo e likely o engage in KH. Con e sely, in-
di iduals high in ex a e sion and openness, combined wi h low
ag eeableness, conscien iousness, and neu o icism, a e less likely o
engage in KH.
We also ound ha indi iduals exhibi ing D-3 ai s, pa icula ly
Machia ellianism, a e mo e p one o KH, wi h Machia ellians demon-
s a ing he highes p opensi y. Con e sely, employees wi h low le els
o Machia ellianism and psychopa hy a e less likely o hide knowledge.
In e es ingly, we obse ed ha high le els o na cissism, when com-
bined wi h low le els o Machia ellianism, could lead o educed KH.
This inding aligns wi h p e ious esea ch iden i ying na cissis s as
Table 5
Da k iad ai s and KH (high and low).
Table 6
Demog aphic ac o s and KH (high and low).
A. Kallmuenze e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100666
7
isiona ies d i en by a passion o inno a ion (Campbell e al., 2011).
Mo eo e , he posi i e ela ionship be ween na cissism and o ganiza-
ional no ma i e commi men sugges s ha na cissis s, when s ongly
connec ed o hei o ganiza ions, may engage in knowledge-sha ing o
ein o ce hei s a us and in luence (Cesinge e al., 2023).
D awing on he pa allels be ween complexi y heo y, he con igu-
a ional app oach, and quali a i e compa a i e analysis (e.g., By ne,
2005; Di Paola e al., 2025; Misangyi e al., 2017; Woodside, 2014), ou
indings suppo hese ounda ional p inciples. By comp ehensi ely
examining he indi idual di e ences associa ed wi h KH beha io s, ou
analysis ein o ces he co e ene s o complexi y and con igu a ional
app oaches, namely causal complexi y, equi inali y, and asymme y.
Speci ically, his s udy iden i ies mul iple ac o s, such as pe sonali y
ai s and demog aphic cha ac e is ics, associa ed wi h KH. These
indings e eal a nonlinea ela ionship, highligh ing ha he same
ac o s associa ed wi h he p esence o KH can also lead o i s absence,
depending on he con igu a ion o condi ions.
Ou indings ha e ele ance ac oss a ious disciplines and in-
dus ies. Fo academics and p ac i ione s in e es ed in he ole o he
Big-5 and D-3 ai s in en ep eneu ship (K aus e al., 2020; Salmony &
Kanbach, 2022), his s udy o e s insigh s in o how pe sonali y ai s
in luence knowledge beha io s. Since knowledge sha ing is c i ical o
os e ing inno a ion and compe i i e ad an age in en ep eneu ial
en u es, unde s anding hese in luences can help c ea e en i onmen s
ha encou age open communica ion and collabo a ion. In his con ex ,
manage ial cogni i e s yles (K yeziu e al., 2024) and knowledge-based
dynamic capabili ies (He n´
andez-Lina es e al., 2024) can enhance i m
pe o mance by mi iga ing he ad e se e ec s o KH.
Simila ly, ou indings align wi h p io esea ch emphasizing he
impo ance o e ec i e knowledge managemen in enhancing o gani-
za ional pe o mance (e.g., Wuy ens e al., 2024; Zaim e al., 2022).
These insigh s a e pa icula ly ele an o se ice-o ien ed indus ies,
such as hospi ali y, whe e e icien knowledge managemen di ec ly
impac s cus ome sa is ac ion and ope a ional e iciency. By unde -
s anding he d i e s o KH beha io s, hospi ali y manage s can design
be e aining p og ams and in e en ions o p omo e anspa ency and
collabo a ion, ul ima ely enhancing o ganiza ional ou comes.
F om a p ac ical iewpoin , ou indings ha e impo an implica ions
and ecommenda ion o o ganiza ions seeking o educe KH beha iou
among hei employees. Manage s and o ganiza ions can de elop a -
ge ed in e en ions o educe his de ian beha iou by iden i ying
speci ic demog aphic and pe sonali y ai s associa ed wi h such
beha iou . In pa icula , manage s should pay a en ion o speci ic
pe sonali y ai s (e.g., Big-5, D-3) and indi idual cha ac e is ics (e.g.,
age, gende , educa ion) when dealing wi h KH (o o p omo e a cul u e
o knowledge sha ing) in hei o ganiza ions. Among o he s, ac o s such
as neu o icism, machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and a ying le els o
employee age, gende , and educa ion a e iden i ied as signi ican ac o s
linked o he p esence o KH. On he o he hand, ou indings unde -
sco ed ex a e sion as key cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h he absence
(o low le els) o KH. The e o e, HR manage s may conside de eloping
sc eening es s o e alua e indi idual pe sonali y ai s and de-
mog aphic ac o s du ing hi ing.
Mo eo e , based on hese insigh s, supe iso s and manage s may
alloca e hei employees o asks equi ing a highe (o lowe ) knowl-
edge exchange among membe s. Ou indings also sugges ha
Table 7
All an eceden condi ions o KH (Big-5, da k iad, and demog aphics ac o s).
A. Kallmuenze e al.
Jou nal o Inno a ion & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100666
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