O h, Ba ba a
A icle — Published Ve sion
Fo ging mobili ies, becoming ideal wo ke s? Tempo a y
mig a ion and he gig economy
Jou nal o E hnic and Mig a ion S udies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Leibniz Ins i u e o Resea ch on Socie y and Space (IRS)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: O h, Ba ba a (2025) : Fo ging mobili ies, becoming ideal wo ke s? Tempo a y
mig a ion and he gig economy, Jou nal o E hnic and Mig a ion S udies, ISSN 1469-9451, In o ma
UK Limi ed, London, Vol. 51, Iss. 11, pp. 2793-2811,
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Fo ging mobili ies, becoming ideal wo ke s?
Tempo a y mig a ion and he gig economy
Ba ba a O h
To ci e his a icle: Ba ba a O h (2025) Fo ging mobili ies, becoming ideal wo ke s?
Tempo a y mig a ion and he gig economy, Jou nal o E hnic and Mig a ion S udies, 51:11,
2793-2811, DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2025.2467176
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/1369183X.2025.2467176
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
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Fo ging mobili ies, becoming ideal wo ke s? Tempo a y
mig a ion and he gig economy
Ba ba a O h
Leibniz Ins i u e o Resea ch on Socie y and Space (IRS), E kne , Ge many
ABSTRACT
This s udy in es iga es he connec ion be ween a specific mig a ion
ajec o y, he Wo king Holiday Visa Scheme and new o ms o
p eca ious, digi ally-media ed jobs. D awing on 20 na a i e
in e iews conduc ed be ween 2021 and 2023, i ollows wo king
holidaymake s om Chile as hey mig a e o Ge many. The
findings e eal how esea ch pa icipan s o ge mobili ies agains
empo a y isa egimes and how hese p ac ices in u n shape
hei subjec i i ies and hei ela ionship o pla o m wo k. I a gue
ha his pa icula expe ience o liminali y p oduces an ideal
wo k o ce o pla o m companies equi ing a high u no e o
hype flexible, digi ally sa y wo ke s. Focussing on one pa icula
and ye unde s udied isa ca ego y con ibu es o heo isa ions
o he co-cons i u ion o pla o m labou and immig a ion
egula ions.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 28 Feb ua y 2024
Accep ed 10 Feb ua y 2025
KEYWORDS
Wo king holidays; isa
egimes; labou ; pla o m
wo k
In oduc ion
Se ice economy jobs such as ood deli e y and domes ic cleaning a e inc easingly
media ed by digi al labou pla o ms. As echnology companies, hese pla o ms unc-
ion acco ding o ne wo k logics. This means hei abili y o aise in es o capi al and
ul ima ely make a p ofi depends on ma ke domina ion. As a esul o his winne -
akes-i -all logic, he en i e pla o m economy is p edica ed on as g ow h.
This momen um, schola s ha e a gued, can only be main ained h ough hype -
flexible wo k a angemen s ha can s a oday and end omo ow ( an Doo n,
Fe a i, and G aham 2023). To fill hese jobs, pla o m companies ely on agmen ed
and mig an ised labou ma ke s, ma ked by a diffe en ia ion o wo ke s along gende ,
ace and immig a ion s a us (Al en ied 2024; Geb ial, 2024; O h 2024; Mau y 2024).
Pla o m companies eschew egula o y mechanisms o employe s esul ing in p eca -
ious labou condi ions o wo ke s. These include job insecu i y, lack o social secu i y
p o ec ions, and low wages (Ra enelle 2019). The e o e, wo ke s o en do no s ay in
hese jobs long- e m esul ing in high u no e a es. To quickly achie e ma ke domi-
nance, companies need la ge numbe s o wo ke s ha can s a he nex day bu a e
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
CONTACT Ba ba a O h [email p o ec ed]
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly
ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he
au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
JOURNAL OF ETHNIC AND MIGRATION STUDIES
2025, VOL. 51, NO. 11, 2793–2811
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/1369183X.2025.2467176
also unwilling o imp o e wo king condi ions o e ain hem o e longe pe iods o ime.
Thus, companies equi e a cons an supply o new wo ke s wi h basic digi al li e acy
skills, aising he ques ion whe e hese wo ke s come om (see O h 2024). In Cen al
and No he n Eu ope, s udies poin o empo a y mig a ion schemes such as he
Wo king Holiday Visa (WHV). Pla o m esea che s ha e no ed a significan sha e o
wo king holidaye s om Chile and A gen ina wi hin hei gig economy wo ke
samples (see e.g. Al en ied 2022; Flo os and Bak Jø gensen 2023; G uszka, Pillinge ,
and Ge old 2024; Nieble and Animen o 2023; O h 2022,2024; an Doo n 2020).
While he salience o his mobili y pa hway in u ban pla o m economies is well-docu-
men ed in he pla o m labou esea ch field, i is no ye well unde s ood why
wo king holidaye s seem o g a i a e o his ype o wo k and how hey expe ience
hese jobs.
This pape add esses his esea ch gap by acing he expe ience o La in Ame ican gig
wo ke s who eside in Ge many on a WHV. Explo ing he wo king holiday mig a ion
ajec o y as a newly eme gen labou mobili y in Eu ope is no only o academic in e es ;
i also has poli ical implica ions o he p o ec ion o wo ke s in he p esen and u u e: as
he EU Di ec i e on Pla o m Labou seeks o amelio a e widely dec ied p eca ious
wo king condi ions in he gig economy, i is highly ele an o unde s and how and
whe he i will help o p o ec mig an wo ke s. As he la ges economy in Eu ope,
Ge many p o ides a good case o explo e how diffe en socio-legal s a uses shape
mig an wo ke s’engagemen in and ela ionship o pla o m-media ed jobs. Agains
his backg ound, his s udy explo es how he egula ions o he WHV shape gig
wo ke s’subjec i i ies.
WHV isa schemes allow young adul s, ypically be ween he ages o 18 and 30, o
spend a limi ed amoun o ime in a pa ne coun y. As WHVs a e based on bila e al
ea ies, he specifics o each pa ne ship a y; wha is impo an is ha eligibili y is p e-
mised fi s and o emos on an applican ’s age and secondly on hei ci izenship. Pu
diffe en ly, he WHV does no hinge on a candida e’s educa ional o p o essional qualifi-
ca ions as o he isas ypically do, no does i ie mig an s o a pa icula job, educa ion
p og amme o sponso . A he same ime, i allows wo king holidaye s o ake on any
jobs, including ull- ime wo k, making he isa excep ionally well-sui ed as a labou
mobili y isa (O h 2024).
Concep ualising he WHV as a ca ego y o labou mobili y, he pape does no p i-
ma ily ocus on he WHV’s cul u al significance and he liminali y o young adul hood
as o he s udies ha e done (Ka o 2013; Wilson, Fishe , and Moo e 2009). Ins ead, i
aces how he pa icula logic and egula ions ha unde pin he isa shape mig an s’
engagemen wi h pla o m wo k. Since a mig an ’s legal s a us has impo an amifica-
ions o hei expe ience o wo k, i is impo an o unde s and he socio-legal effec s
o pa icula egula ions. In he case o he Ge man WHV, hese egula ions a e fi s
and o emos ela ed o ime and empo a iness (S ingl and O h 2024): while open
o any ci izen o he wel e pa ne coun ies
1
, he isa is only a ailable du ing a ela-
i ely sho ime in a pe son’s li e cou se, be ween he ages o 18 and 30. In addi ion, i
is a one-off1-yea - isa ha is nei he ex endable no enewable.As I will a gue
h oughou he pape , his pa icula expe ience o liminali y p oduces an ideal wo k-
o ce o pla o m companies equi ing a high u no e o hype flexible, digi ally sa y
wo ke s.
2794 B. ORTH
The pape fi s offe s an app aisal o he eme ging schola ship on mig a ion and he
gig economy. D awing on he field o you h mobili y s udies, he li e a u e e iew also
in oduces he WHV in mo e dep h. Following his, I p esen he esea ch design and
sample his s udy d aws on. While mig a ion ajec o ies a e o cou se a ely linea , I
show ha esea ch pa icipan s end o see a wo king holiday in Ge many as a s epping
s one o o ge longe mig a ion p ojec s. My findings e eal how he inhe en p eca i y o
his newly eme ging labou mig a ion pa hway affec s wo ke s’ ela ionship wi h wo k.
Di e ing om he s udies ha ci e la gely ma e ial easons o why mig an s ake up
pla o m wo k, he findings show ha gig jobs fi pa icula ly well in o wo king holi-
daye s’la ge li e wo ld. O e all, my analysis affi ms he need o unde s and he co-con-
s i u ion o new o ms o labou mig a ion and new o ms o wo k.
Zoning in on immig a ion s a us in he pla o m economy
Digi al labou pla o ms do no o mally ac as employe s bu claim o simply ‘connec ’
hei use s. As eelance s, wo ke s a e paid o one ‘gig’a a ime, no en i led o any
social secu i y (including heal h insu ance, acciden insu ance o unemploymen
benefi s) and managed h ough a se o echnological ools known as algo i hmic man-
agemen . F eelance s a us and algo i hmic managemen combined esul in low wages
and o e all p eca ious wo king condi ions. A lo o pla o m labou li e a u e has
s udied hese mechanisms and de ailed he expe ience and esis ance o wo ke s
wi hin digi ally media ed labou sys ems. This li e a u e has also no ed he o e ep esen-
a ion o mig an s in his ype o wo k ( an Doo n, Fe a i, and G aham 2023) and
sough o explain why mig an s choose gig jobs despi e hei downsides.
Fo eg ounding echnologically media ed applica ion p ocesses and he lack o o mal
equi emen s in pla o m wo k, schola s ha e desc ibed hese jobs as excep ionally acces-
sible o people wi hou knowledge o he local language, es ablished social ne wo ks, and
limi ed op ions in he labou ma ke (Al en ied 2024,2022; Ben egnù and Kampou i
2021; an Doo n and Vijay 2024). Pla o m wo k can p o ide a s opgap o allback
op ion o mig an s (Flo os and Bak Jø gensen 2023; Mau y 2020; Newlands 2022; an
Doo n 2022), and some schola s e en sugges au oma ed onboa ding sys ems equi ing
no con ac wi h hi ing manage s limi mig an s’exposu e o e e yday acism and cul-
u al s e eo yping (Bene egù and Kampou i 2021; Bonhomme and Muldoon 2024; an
Doo n and Vijay 2024).
While hese s udies ha e made impo an con ibu ions o he specific expe ience o
mig an wo ke s, pa icula ly hei mo i a ions o ake up pla o m wo k, hey la gely
do no diffe en ia e be ween diffe en g oups o mig an s o diffe en legal s a uses in
he coun y o esidence (O h 2024). Mig an s wo k on all kinds o isas, including
hose ha a e no a all, o no p ima ily, in ended o be labou mig a ion isas. As a
esul , he e is wha Könönen (2019, 786) calls a ‘ju idical di ision o labou ’, especially
in low-paid se ice wo k. In o he wo ds, o people wi h non-pe manen lea e o
emain, i is he condi ions o hei immig a ion s a us ha p ima ily shape hei
labou condi ions. The e o e, i is i al o show how diffe en isa ca ego ies in e ac
wi h new o ms o digi ally media ed labou . This leads o a mo e nuanced unde s anding
o how new o ms o labou egimes a e co- egula ed and co-cons i u ed by immig a ion
policies.
JOURNAL OF ETHNIC AND MIGRATION STUDIES 2795
While any ca ego y o immig a ion could help heo ise his connec ion, he WHV is a
pa icula ly in e es ing case no only because wo king holidaye s o m a sizeable g oup o
wo ke s in his sec o bu also because i emains a ca ego y o ‘hidden’labou mobili y.
Despi e he weal h o esea ch on he WHV as a o m o ‘gues wo ke ’ egime in Aus-
alia and Canada (James 2024; Robe son 2014,2016; Vosko 2023), i emains o e -
looked in he Eu opean con ex . In Ge many specifically, s uden and au pai isas
ha e been s udied as o ms o labou mobili y (Hess 2009), bu he e has been no esea ch
on he WHV o da e (see also S ingl and O h 2024). This is all he mo e su p ising gi en
Ge many has g ea ly expanded i s wo king holiday schemes o e he las decade,
2
signing
ag eemen s wi h Chile in 2014, B azil in 2015, A gen ina in 2016, and U uguay in 2017.
3
Closing he esea ch gap on he Ge man WHV is bo h ele an and imely i he Aus-
alian and Canadian cases a e any hing o go by: since hei espec i e go e nmen s began
o p omo e WHV schemes o fill labou sho ages in he 1990s and 2000s (Cha and and
Vosko 2021; W igh and Clibbo n 2020), indus ies ha employ wo king holidaye s ha e
been associa ed wi h widesp ead employe abuse and o en pay below minimum wage
(Howe e al. 2018;James2024; Vosko 2023; W igh and Clibbo n 2020). Wo king holi-
daye s a e a g ea isk o alling h ough he c acks o labou inspec ions –howe e
augh –associa ed wi h o he isas. The legal and discu si e aming o wo king holidays
as simply being ‘ ou is ’,‘li es yle’,‘cul u al exchange’,o ‘you h mobili y’schemes hides
hei impo ance o labou mig a ion (Reilly 2015; W igh , G ou sis, and Kaabel 2022).
This s udy is hus no only ele an o mig a ion schola s bu also o policy make s in e -
es ed in labou p o ec ions.
Resea ch design
The findings o his pape eme ged om a la ge p ojec ha aced mig a o y ou es in o
Be lin’s gig economy. To unde s and he pa icula mig a ion ajec o y o young Chi-
leans be e , I pu sued a ‘ ollow- he-people’app oach (Ma cus 1995): I conduc ed
fieldwo k wi h p ospec i e mig an s in Chile (Sep embe 2022–Oc obe 2022) and
aced hei jou neys o Ge many (No embe 2023–May 2023). The analysis d aws on
20 biog aphically ocussed in e iews wi h wo king holidaye s. Mig an s we e in e -
iewed a diffe en s ages o hei jou neys: some we e in e iewed in Chile as hey p e-
pa ed o a wo king holiday in Ge many
4
; some we e al eady in Ge many on a WHV a
he ime o he in e iew; and some had fi s a i ed in Ge many on a WHV and since
ansi ioned ou in o o he isas.
5
In e iewing people a diffe en poin s o hei jou ney
allowed me o unde s and wo king holidaye s’‘ eali y checks’and hei changing
ela ionship wi h wo k o e ime.
The gende make-up o he sample was balanced (42% male, 58% emale) bu hei
socio-economic backg ound was ela i ely homogeneous: all bu one we e uni e si y
educa ed, and mos had held p o essional jobs in he fields hey had ained in be o e
mo ing o Eu ope. E en hough he Ge man WHV is o mally a ailable o any
Chilean na ional be ween he ages o 18–30, i comes wi h financial equi emen s ha
inad e en ly selec o hose backg ounds (O h 2024, 482). Rela edly, all esea ch pa -
icipan s conside ed hemsel es whi e
6
and/o o Eu opean descen as socio-economic
s a us and ace a e highly in e wined in he pos colonial socie ies o La in Ame ica
(Ce on-Anaya, de San ana Pinho, and Ramos-Zayas 2023). Indeed, he high educa ion
2796 B. ORTH
le els, socio-economic backg ound and acial makeup o his s udy’s esea ch pa ici-
pan s a e consis en wi h o he s udies on WHV mig a ion (Dewey and Fozda 2023;
Robe son 2014) and La in Ame ican mig a ion o Eu ope (Bayona-i-Ca asco and
A ila-Tàpies 2020, 214).
Du ing he fi s field phases o he p ojec in Be lin, I had lea n ha mos o my La in
Ame ican esea ch pa icipan s we e e y ac i e in he digi al communi y g oups. Fo he
addi ional pe iods o field wo k, I ec ui ed pa icipan s h ough pos ing calls on hese
social media g oups. In e iews we e conduc ed in English, Spanish, and Ge man,
o en swi ching back and o h be ween languages eflec ing he a ied language compe-
encies o in e iewees.
7
All esea ch pa icipan s ha e been assigned pseudonyms, and
hei quo es in his a icle ha e been sligh ly ab idged and edi ed o g amma ical co ec -
ness and language consis ency.
In he ollowing sec ions, I will d aw ou my main findings ela ing o he WHV as a
new pa hway o labou mig a ion o Ge many. I p esen he findings s uc u ed by he
wo hemes o mig a ion ajec o y and ela ionship o pla o m wo k. Fi s , I d aw on
p e-depa u e in e iews wi h p ospec i e mig an s in Chile o explain how people en i-
sion hei mig a o y p ojec s and wha happens when hey b ush up agains he en o ced
empo a iness o he isa in Ge many. I hen offe a b ie analysis o his pa icula
mig a ion ajec o y as insecu e and p eca ious, equi ing mig an s o cons an ly nego-
ia e he s uc u al cons ain s o hei empo a y s a us. I hen highligh how his shapes
mig an s’ ela ionship wi h gig wo k. My findings e eal ha he egula o y amewo k o
he isa –selec ing o middle-class people, who need o be young, able-bodied, and una -
ached, and emain in a s a e o p eca ious isa s a us –p o ides an ideal wo k o ce o
he gig economy.
The Ge man WHV as a s epping s one
A 25 yea -old woman I will call Ca men was e y exci ed when I me he a ew days
be o e he fligh o Ge many a a ca e in San iago, Chile. When I asked he abou how
she had decided o come o Ge many, she ecoun ed how us a ed she had been he
las ew yea s. Despi e he Mas e ’s deg ee and p o essional job, she was no able o
affo d a place o he own and hoped he wo king holiday would enable he o make a
ansi ion in o economic independence. Ye , ins ead o pu suing ‘upwa d’ca ee p o-
g ession by mig a ing, she wan ed o ocus on pe sonal g ow h and de elopmen ,
imp o ing he yoga p ac ice and he English skills, and ejec ed no ions o p o essional
aspi a ions:
I can’ li e wi h my pa en s anymo e! I wan o li e alone, wo k and s udy, and I hink i ’s
mo e possible in Eu ope han i ’s in Chile now […]Bu I am also jus going o enjoy his
yea [on he WHV]. I wan he ‘ a el li e’. I don’ eally expec o sa e money. I ’s okay i
I do i , bu I don’ eel like I’m obliga ed. I p e e o ake [yoga] classes.
Ca men’s s o y is emblema ic o all o my in e iew pa ne s: hei mo i a ions o
unde ake a wo king holiday we e ex emely a ied and anged om aes he ic consump-
ion, iden i y and cul u e o emancipa ion om financial dependence on hei amilies.
As Robe son (2021, 73) a gues, wo king holidaye s’mo i a ions o mo e hus o en
oscilla e be ween ‘economic desi es and li es yle desi es, sojou n and se lemen ’.
JOURNAL OF ETHNIC AND MIGRATION STUDIES 2797
While he mo i a ions o do a wo king holiday amongs my esea ch pa icipan s hus
mi o hose o o he wo king holidaye s, hey diffe in wo impo an ways: my esea ch
pa icipan s by and la ge had no p io knowledge o Ge many o in e es in he coun y;
his was su p ising gi en he impo ance o imagina ies o a away places in he li e a u e
on li es yle, you h, and wo king holiday mig a ion (see e.g. Kawashima 2010; Salaza
2014; Yoon 2015). In addi ion, po en ial income oppo uni ies did no ea u e e y p o-
minen ly ei he as accoun s o economic mig a ion would sugges . Ins ead, almos e e y
single wo king holidaye I me p e-depa u e highligh ed Ge many as a s epping s one
owa ds o he des ina ions. This seemed especially impo an a e expe iencing ma e ial
and poli ical ins abili y du ing he social up isings in Chile in 2019 and he ensuing
COVID-19 pandemic. Many wan ed, as Ja ie pu i , a chance o ‘escape he coun y,
o escape om eali y’. And his is whe e my esponden s diffe om p e iously
s udied wo king holidaye s om he Global No h:
Chileans do no ha e as many op ions o in e na ional mobili y. Many we e acu ely
awa e o hei posi ion wi hin a global hie a chy o mobili y, and knew how ha d i was o
emig a e o No h Ame ica, Eu ope, o Aus alia. Glo ia explained his calcula ion:
I you don’ ha e a[n EU] passpo o ge ma ied [ o an EU ci izen]––you know, hese a e he
only wo op ions— om his eali y, [ he WHV] is kind o a good way ou . And maybe you will
ge ano he be e isa a e wa ds i you do he hings ‘ igh ’.
Unlike wo king holidaye s om coun ies wi h s ong economies and passpo s, who
o en pu sue he wo king holiday as a ‘ i e o passage’(Cla ke 2005; Rice 2010;
Wilson, Fishe , and Moo e 2009), my esea ch pa icipan s saw wo king holidays as a
fi s s ep owa ds longe e m mig a ion p ojec s i hey ’did i igh ’.
As he WHV was o en seen as a fi s s ep, mig an s o eg ounded p ac ical aspec s
such as how much ime, money and effo i would ake o ge his fi s isa. WHV ag ee-
men s always depend on bila e al nego ia ions be ween wo go e nmen s. The e o e,
WHV schemes a y qui e subs an ially in wha hey equi e o an applican in e ms
o sa ings, language skills, and eligible age anges. Resea ch pa icipan s ca e ully
weighed hei diffe en op ions wi h Naomi’sapp oach being illus a i e o many
simila accoun s in my sample:
I had an Excel [shee ] wi h all he possible coun ies ha Chile has a wo king holiday isa
ag eemen wi h, wi h diffe en fields: wha is he age limi ? Do I need o know he language
o ge in o he coun y? …And ha ’s how I wen abou elimina ing candida es.
Naomi chose Ge many because he applica ion is cheap compa ed o o he des i-
na ions and does no equi e language p oficiency es sco es. In addi ion, candida es
can apply a any poin in he yea , and he e is no annual ceiling o quo a on he
numbe o isas issued.
Resea ch pa icipan s concep ualised hese diffe ences in he adminis a i e p ocesses
as a hie a chy be ween diffe en des ina ion coun ies. A he op o his hie a chy we e
English-speaking coun ies which esea ch pa icipan s saw as he mos desi able des i-
na ions bu also as he mos difficul isas o ob ain.
8
By compa ison o places ha
equi ed language es sco es o mo e subs an ial amoun s o sa ings in hei bank
accoun , he Ge man WHV was seen as he ‘ as es ’amongs all WHV schemes and
hus a pe ec s epping s one.
2798 B. ORTH
This was seen as a big ad an age when he pa icula empo al ho izons ha go e n
he isa we e in e up ed by COVID-19-induced a el es ic ions as Naomi eflec ed:
In 2020, I was 28 and his isa is only un il you’ e 30. So I s a ed o ge e y anxious and he
ea o ‘maybe I’m no going o make i ’[se in]. […] And hen, because o he pandemic, he
main ques ion was: which [WHV schemes] a e open, because mos o hem we e closed.
Many mig an s el hei ime was ‘ unning ou ‘as hei 30 h bi hdays, he usual cu -off
age o WHV, app oached. This anxie y was amplified by COVID-19-induced a el
es ic ions du ing he yea s o fieldwo k (2021–2023).
To summa ise, he findings o his s udy sugges ha La in Ame icans sha e some
cha ac e is ics wi h o he g oups o wo king holidaye s in e ms o ha ing he e ogeneous
mo i a ions o hei ip bu also add some new dimensions when compa ed wi h mo e
‘easy-go-lucky’backpacke s. Fi s , wo king holidaye s p agma ically chose Ge many
because o low adminis a i e hu dles wi hin he applica ion p ocess. Second, Co id-
19 ela ed es ic ions u he added o a ime squeeze, which heigh ened his p agma-
ism. Thus, he Ge man WHV eme ged as an ideal s epping s one ei he o sa e
enough money o apply o mo e long- e m isas in o he coun ies o o make
longe - e m plans o s aying in Ge many.
Fo ging mobili es beyond empo a y s a us
When I spoke o hem be o e hey le Chile, esea ch pa icipan s o en did no gi e oo
much hough abou wha hey would do when hei 12 mon hs in Ge many ended.
Howe e , he Ge man WHV is no designed o be a u u e- acing isa: he e is no way
o ex end he isa o eapply o i , and mig an s a e supposed o e u n home a e
one yea . Those who wan ed o s ay in Ge many began o pe cei e hei ansien , em-
po a y legal s a us as a p oblem o wan ing o s ay long- e m ( o a mo e de ailed analy-
sis o his p ocess, see S ingl and O h 2024). To na iga e hese s uc u al cons ain s,
mig an s managed o find a ious bo om-up p ac ices o o ge longe - e m mobili y
p ojec s. Common op ions included applying o a Ge man language s udy isa, a ailable
o up o wo yea s, en olling a a uni e si y i hey had managed o imp o e hei English
o Ge man enough o apply, o applying o a eelance isa. The p oximi y o diffe en
coun ies whe e WHVs ha e in ecen yea s become a ailable means Eu ope lends i sel
pa icula ly well o his s epwise mig a ion s a egy. Ge many’s geog aphic loca ion a he
cen e o Eu ope in pa icula means ha c ossing back and o h be ween diffe en legal
ju isdic ions is compa a i ely cheap. Fo example, esea ch pa icipan s le he Schengen
Zone using isa-on-a i al oppo uni ies wi h nea by coun ies ha a e no pa o he
Schengen ag eemen , such as he Uni ed Kingdom o Bulga ia o e-apply o WHV else-
whe e. Ca lo, o example, specifically planned o do a WHV in Aus ia o be able o con-
inue being in a Ge man-speaking coun y while imp o ing his Ge man and wai ing on
he long p ocess o ge ing his p o essional deg ee acc edi ed in Ge many. O he s aspi ed
o use hei WHV in Eu ope o imp o e hei English skills and sa e up enough money o
mee bo h language and sa ing equi emen s o coun ies like Aus alia and New
Zealand.
While many wo king holidaye s hus ega ded he abili y o change o e o o he
empo a y isas as a p ac ical oppo uni y o achie e pa icula goals, i is impo an
JOURNAL OF ETHNIC AND MIGRATION STUDIES 2799
he coun y and do no ha e o make a li ing wage immedia ely; and hei class posi ion
and he social cons uc ion o he wo king holiday as a liminal space mean ha many do
no pe cei e menial wo k as downwa d social mobili y.
Pla o m companies benefi om his a angemen because he ue cos s o ep odu-
cing a hype flexible labou o ce equi ed o hei business model emain no only
hidden bu a e also shoulde ed en i ely by he wo ke s. The ex e nalisa ion o labou
isks associa ed wi h pla o m wo k, such as affic acciden s o sick lea e is widely pub-
licised. My a gumen he e is ha o ging mig a o y pa hways in o u ban pla o m wo k
should be conside ed ano he dimension o his ex e nalisa ion bo h in he sense o social
ep oduc ion and in e ms o occupa ional haza ds: when mig an s ail o ob ain he nex
isa and wo k pe mi , hey shoulde he cos s. They ha e o find a new way o wo k in
Ge many legally o eloca e elsewhe e. I hey ail in ob aining a new isa o find wo k-
a ounds like s aying in he coun y on ou is o language lea ne isas, hey isk depo -
a ion o sanc ions o wo king on isas ha officially do no pe mi paid wo k. Recen ly,
he Eu opean Commission has e ealed plans o g ea ly expand you h mobili y schemes,
specifically o add ess pos -pandemic labou sho ages (EU Commission 2022).Wi h his
expansion o wo king holiday isa schemes ac oss Eu ope in he coming yea s, pla o m
companies will be able o d aw on an e e inc easing numbe o young, una ached, able-
bodied people ha , o isa easons, do no e en wan he labou p o ec ions ensh ined in
he new EU Di ec i e on Pla o m Labou : s anda d employmen con ac s equi e wo k
pe mi s, and hence limi bo h he ypes o pla o ms hey can wo k o as well as well as
he ways hey can wo k unde semi-complian condi ions on non-labou isas. Effo s o
imp o e wo king condi ions in he pla o m economy need o ake his in o accoun i
hey wan o be success ul.
Tha being said, wo king holidaye s’expe ience and he way hey ela e o pla o m
wo k likely diffe subs an ially om o he g oups wi hin he sec o , such as undocumen-
ed mig an s o EU ci izens (see e.g. Ande sen and Spange 2024; Dimi iadis and Cole o
2024). While he findings o his s udy should he e o e no be cons ued as ep esen a-
i e o mig an s’expe iences o e all, i highligh s he need o hone in on specific isa ca -
ego ies o unde s and he co-cons i u ion o labou and mig a ion egimes. Fu u e
esea ch should s i e o be e unde s and how o he o ms o empo a y s a us, such
as humani a ian isas, o he lack o legal s a us in e ac wi h he empo a iness and an-
sien na u e o gig wo k.
No es
1. These a e: Aus alia, B azil, Canada, Chile, HongKong, Is ael, Japan, New Zealand,
U uguay, Sou h Ko ea, and Taiwan.
2. O e he same ime, he absolu e numbe s o au pai , wo king holiday, and olun ee isas
issued by Ge many ha e nea ly doubled: in 2013, 8,378 isas we e issued in his ca ego y. By
2022, he numbe had isen o 14, 682. This is my own calcula ion based on s a is ical da a
p o ided h ough a eedom o in o ma ion eques by he Ge man Fo eign Office. In e es -
ingly, he go e nmen was unable o p o ide disagg ega ed da a o he h ee ypes o isa as
hey a e no eco ded sepa a ely. Thus i is only possible o poin o co ela ion be ween he
new ag eemen s and o e all g ow h o you h mobili y isas issued.
2806 B. ORTH
3. I is wo h no ing ha hese coun ies ha e pa icula his o ies o colonialism, immig a ion,
and whi e sup emacy (Ce on-Anaya, de San ana Pinho, and Ramos-Zayas 2023). Whe he ,
and i so, how hese ha e played a ole in he signing o WHV ag eemen s as schola s ha e
explo ed o o he schemes (Cha and and Vosko 2021; Helleine 2017), would be an in e -
es ing a enue o u u e esea ch.
4. O he se en indi iduals I fi s in e iewed in Chile, h ee indi iduals ag eed o be in e -
iewed again once hey had a i ed in Ge many.
5. The sample o WHV mig an s in Ge many includes A gen inians as well.
6. P ocesses o acialisa ion a e, o cou se, highly con ex -dependen . Resea ch pa icipan s
acknowledged ha hei whi eness a home did no ansla e in o wha whi eness means
in Ge many as has been desc ibed o o he La in Ame icans in Eu ope (Gu ié ez Ga za,
2024). Explo ing he malleabili y o whi eness o e he cou se o he mig a o y jou ney
un o una ely goes beyond he scope o he empi ical da a collec ed o his p ojec .
7. I would like o acknowledge he help o La a Massò who helped me deciphe slang and
unde lying meanings in in e iew ma e ial when my own Spanish skills ell sho .
8. To gi e an example, New Zealand is conside ed a e y difficul coun y o ge a WHV o :
New Zealand alloca es isas h ough a lo e y sys em ha one can en e only on specific
da es once o wice a yea , and he numbe o isas issued is capped a an annual
maximum o 940 o Chileans and 1000 o A gen ines, espec i ely. In addi ion, one
mus p o e he equi alen o NZ$ 4200 in unds and pay NZ$ 420 o he applica ion
p ocess (New Zealand immig a ion, no da e).
9. Owing o la ge-scale Eu opean emig a ion o La in Ame ica’s Sou he n Cone in he la e
19 h and fi s hal o he 20 h cen u ies, many Chileans and A gen inians o Eu opean
descen a e eligible o EU passpo s (Ma eos and Du and 2012).
Acknowledgemen s
Thank you o bo h e iewe s o hei aluable sugges ions ha ha e g ea ly imp o ed his pape .
Fo hei hospi ali y and wa m welcome du ing my esea ch s ay in San iago, I would like o hank
Ma isol Ve dugo Pai a and Jona han Ba on a Uni e sidad Pon ificia Ca ólica de Chile. Thank
you o my esea ch assis an s La a Massó and Emma Pe e son; and o Anna Whe y, F anziska
Baum, Isabella S ingl and S ephan Liebsche who ha e helped me hink h ough and efine he
a gumen s I make in his pape . As always, all emaining e o s emain my own. The au ho
would like o acknowledge he E ns Reu e Founda ion and he Ri e -Penck Founda ion o
unding hei field wo k in Chile.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial conflic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
S a emen o in o med consen
All esea ch pa icipan s ga e in o med consen o his s udy. Thei names and ci cum-
s ances ha e been changed o sa egua d hei anonymi y. All da a was p ocessed in
acco dance wi h EU da a p o ec ion equi emen s (GDPR).
ORCID
Ba ba a O h h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7091-9640
JOURNAL OF ETHNIC AND MIGRATION STUDIES 2807
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