Abdi, Abdika i Hassan; Siyad, Siyad Abdi ahman; Sugow, Mohamed Okash; Oma
Mohamed Oma
A icle
App oaches o ecological sus ainabili y in sub-Saha an A ica:
E alua ing he ole o globaliza ion, enewable ene gy, economic
g ow h, and popula ion densi y
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Else ie
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Abdi, Abdika i Hassan; Siyad, Siyad Abdi ahman; Sugow, Mohamed Okash; Oma
Mohamed Oma (2025) : App oaches o ecological sus ainabili y in sub-Saha an A ica: E alua ing
he ole o globaliza ion, enewable ene gy, economic g ow h, and popula ion densi y, Resea ch in
Globaliza ion, ISSN 2590-051X, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 10, pp. 1-12,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. esglo.2025.100273
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/331193
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App oaches o ecological sus ainabili y in sub-Saha an A ica: E alua ing
he ole o globaliza ion, enewable ene gy, economic g ow h, and
popula ion densi y
Abdika i Hassan Abdi
a,b,*
, Siyad Abdi ahman Siyad
a
, Mohamed Okash Sugow
a
,
Oma Mohamed Oma
b
a
Ins i u e o Clima e and En i onmen SIMAD Uni e si y Mogadishu Somalia
b
Facul y o Economics SIMAD Uni e si y Mogadishu Somalia
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Ecological oo p in
En i onmen al pollu ion
Globaliza ion
Renewable ene gy consump ion
T ade openness
ABSTRACT
Add essing he in e wined challenges o economic g ow h and en i onmen al sus ainabili y is essen ial o
mi iga e he wo sening impac s o clima e change in sub-Saha an A ica (SSA). P omo ing clean ene gy adop ion
and unde s anding he ole o globaliza ion ha e been iden i ied as c i ical s a egies o enhance en i onmen al
quali y while os e ing sus ainable economic p og ess. Howe e , empi ical ocus on he SSA con ex emains
limi ed, pa icula ly ega ding ecological oo p in s as a measu e o en i onmen al sus ainabili y. This s udy
in es iga es he e ec s o globaliza ion, enewable ene gy consump ion, economic g ow h, ade openness, and
popula ion densi y on SSA na ions’ ecological oo p in and CO
2
emissions om 1994 o 2021. To ensu e obus
and eliable indings, ad anced econome ic echniques—namely Panel-Co ec ed S anda d E o s (PCSE),
Feasible Gene alized Leas Squa es (FGLS), and D iscoll-K aay es ima o s—a e employed o add ess he e oge-
nei y and c oss-sec ional dependence issues p e alen in panel da a. The esul s iden i y h ee key indings:
i s ly, globaliza ion has a double-edged e ec on en i onmen al ou comes in SSA, inc easing he ecological
oo p in signi ican ly bu educing CO
2
emissions; secondly, enewable ene gy consump ion is a c i ical
de e minan o en i onmen al imp o emen , signi ican ly educing bo h ecological oo p in s and CO
2
emis-
sions; and inally, economic g ow h deg ades he en i onmen , esul ing in a signi ican inc ease in bo h
ecological oo p in s and CO
2
emissions. Addi ionally, he Dumi escu-Hu lin panel causali y es u he un-
co e s bidi ec ional ela ionships be ween mos explana o y a iables and en i onmen al indica o s. Based on
hese indings, he s udy ecommends ha SSA coun ies p io i ize in es men s in enewable ene gy in a-
s uc u e, adop s ic e en i onmen al egula ions, emb ace g een echnologies o p omo e sus ainable eco-
nomic g ow h and le e age u baniza ion and in as uc u e de elopmen .
1. In oduc ion
The ole o globaliza ion and enewable ene gy consump ion in
shaping en i onmen al sus ainabili y has become inc easingly c i ical in
oday’s in e connec ed wo ld. While globaliza ion has spu ed economic
g ow h and de elopmen , i has also signi ican ly con ibu ed o en i-
onmen al deg ada ion h ough heigh ened esou ce ex ac ion and
pollu ion (Asongu & Odhiambo, 2019). Key d i e s exace ba ing his
deg ada ion include apid popula ion g ow h, accele a ed u baniza ion,
bu geoning indus ializa ion, and he in ensi ica ion o globaliza ion, all
o which lead o inc eased consump ion and p oduc ion (Te zi & Pa a,
2020; Wa same e al., 2023). Acco ding o he In e go e nmen al Panel
on Clima e Change [IPCC] (2023), global empe a u es ha e isen by
app oxima ely 1.1 ◦C since he p e-indus ial e a, wi h p ojec ions
indica ing a po en ial ise o 3.2 ◦C by 2100 i cu en clima e policies
pe sis . This wa ming end has al eady esul ed in se e e impac s,
including mo e equen and in ense wea he ex emes, ad e sely
a ec ing sec o s such as ag icul u e, ou ism, ishe ies, ene gy, and
o es y on a global scale (Abdi e al., 2023). Amids hese challenges,
enewable ene gy p esen s a p omising pa hway o educing ecological
oo p in s by dec easing dependence on ossil uels and lowe ing
g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Zoundi, 2017). Howe e , he non-
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A.H. Abdi).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
jou nal homepage: www.sciencedi ec .com/jou nal/ esea ch-in-globaliza ion
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. esglo.2025.100273
Recei ed 16 July 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 25 Janua y 2025; Accep ed 26 Janua y 2025
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
A ailable online 27 Janua y 2025
2590-051X/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
alignmen o clima e and ene gy policies in de eloping coun ies poses
signi ican challenges o achie ing sus ainable de elopmen (Sala i
e al., 2021). Resea che s a e ac i ely seeking o de elop impac ul
s a egies ha o ge e icien connec ions be ween ene gy consump ion
and esou ce u iliza ion. Such s a egies p omo e sus ainable, cos -
e ec i e g ow h while add essing en i onmen al issues (Langnel &
Amega i, 2020). Aligning ene gy policies wi h clima e goals is essen ial
o ad ancing sus ainabili y and mi iga ing he ad e se en i onmen al
impac s o globaliza ion.
Globaliza ion, which in ol es he in e connec ions and in-
e dependencies o economies, has ans o med he wo ld h ough he
exchange o p oduc s, cul u e, and ideas (Sahoo & Se hi, 2021; Abdi &
Hashi, 2024). While o e ing nume ous ad an ages, globaliza ion has
also se e ely impac ed he en i onmen , leading o esou ce deple ion,
inc eased pollu ion, was e gene a ion, and loss o biodi e si y (Kassou i
& Alola, 2022). The accele a ion o indus ial ac i i ies due o global-
iza ion esul s in highe ene gy consump ion and ca bon emissions,
exace ba ing clima e change (Asongu & Odhiambo, 2019). Rapid u -
baniza ion and in as uc u e de elopmen associa ed wi h globaliza-
ion con ibu e o habi a des uc ion and inc eased ecological oo p in s
(Okelele e al., 2022). Mo eo e , he global demand o aw ma e ials
o en leads o he o e exploi a ion o na u al esou ces, which esul s in
unsus ainable ex ac ion p ac ices (Na haniel e al., 2020). Besides,
ene gy consump ion signi ican ly con ibu es o coun ies’ economic
g ow h globally, bu i s en i onmen al impac a ies depending on he
na u e o he ene gy esou ces consumed (Guo e al., 2023). Howe e ,
enewable ene gy esou ces p oduce signi ican ly ewe pollu ion
emissions han non- enewable esou ces like ossil uels. The adop ion o
enewable ene gy helps dec ease ai and wa e pollu ion, he eby
imp o ing public heal h and educing en i onmen al damage (Jacobson
& Delucchi, 2011). Addi ionally, in eg a ing enewable ene gy in o
globalized economies suppo s sus ainable economic g ow h by
p o iding eliable ene gy sou ces and c ea ing g een jobs (REN21,
2021). In densely popula ed a eas, enewable ene gy can alle ia e he
en i onmen al p essu es associa ed wi h high ene gy demand and u -
baniza ion (Sahoo & Se hi, 2021).
In he con ex o sub-Saha an A ica (SSA), signi ican challenges
ela ed o ene gy dep i a ion and en i onmen al sus ainabili y pe sis .
The implemen a ion o enewable ene gy o e s subs an ial p omise o
add essing hese issues (Wang e al., 2022). The egion is endowed wi h
abundan na u al esou ces, such as sunligh , wa e , and wind, which
can be ha nessed o mee ene gy needs wi hou comp omising en i-
onmen al in eg i y (Abdi, 2023). Cu en ly, many coun ies in SSA ely
on na u al biomass uels o ou ine cooking and hea ing, which leads o
indoo ai pollu ion and a ious heal h issues (Abdi & Hashi, 2024;
Ding u e al., 2023). In 2017, app oxima ely 57 % o he popula ion in
SSA, o abou 600 million people, lacked access o elec ici y (Ojong,
2022). In he ea ly 1990 s, many A ican coun ies expe ienced de-
mog aphic shi s ha led o u ban popula ion dis ibu ion challenges,
esul ing in nume ous en i onmen al and socio-economic issues, such as
ood and wa e sca ci y and ecological and land deple ion (Baye e al.,
2021). Addi ionally, wa e supply schemes in he SSA egion ha e
inc easingly shi ed om g oundwa e o su ace wa e sou ces like
i e s. This shi , combined wi h apid u baniza ion and limi ed wa e
esou ces, has signi ican ly educed pe capi a wa e a ailabili y
(Kassou i & Alola, 2022). Acco ding o he Global Foo p in Ne wo k
(2022), Wes e n and Sou he n A ica ha e expe ienced a no able in-
c ease in hei ecological oo p in , su passing biocapaci y and leading
o an ecological de ici . Eas e n A ica displays a simila pa e n, wi h i s
ecological oo p in exceeding biocapaci y since 2005. In con as ,
Middle A ica has main ained an ecological su plus, wi h biocapaci y
mee ing o exceeding he ecological oo p in .
Howe e , despi e he po en ial o enewable ene gy in SSA,
nume ous obs acles pe sis , including in as uc u e de ici s, inancial
limi a ions, policy inconsis encies, echnology gaps, and challenges wi h
communi y accep ance (Abdi, 2023). To achie e a sus ainable
equilib ium, he e is an u gen need o ansi ion o enewable ene gy
sou ces like sola , wind, and hyd opowe , which ha e minimal en i-
onmen al impac and can alle ia e ene gy po e y (Salahuddin e al.,
2020). Renewable ene gy p ojec s no only educe dependence on ossil
uels bu also p o ide en i onmen ally iendly solu ions o p ese ing
ecosys ems and biodi e si y (Adekoya e al., 2022). Reducing he
ecological oo p in in SSA necessi a es ha enewable ene gy ini ia i es
align wi h egional en i onmen al conce ns. Fo example, decen alized
sola ene gy sys ems can be ins alled in u al a eas wi hou he need o
la ge, igid in as uc u e (Ib ahiem & Hana y, 2020). The a e o
esou ce deg ada ion in SSA o en ou paces conse a ion e o s, sug-
ges ing he u gency o in es iga ing he ole o globaliza ion and
enewable ene gy in mi iga ing ecological oo p in s. The ansi ion
om non- enewable o enewable ene gy consump ion is aligned wi h
se e al Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals [SDGs], such as
SDG 3 [good heal h and well-being], SDG 7 [a o dable and clean en-
e gy], SDG 11 [sus ainable ci ies and communi ies], and SDG 13
[clima e ac ion] (E yi˘
gi , 2021). In eg a ing enewable ene gy esou ces
in o na ional policies can signi ican ly mi iga e en i onmen al impac s
and p o ide mo e sus ainable solu ions o he egion (Abdi & Hashi,
2024; Sain Akadi i e al., 2019).
The measu emen o ecological asse s equi ed by he cu en pop-
ula ion o p oduce na u al esou ces o consump ion is e med human
demand. Nume ous e o s ha e been made o quan i y he human en-
e gy necessa y o sus ain he exis ing de elopmen con igu a ion (Guo
e al., 2023). As he global popula ion con inues o g ow, was e gene -
a ion and esou ce demand also escala e, which necessi a es a shi in
cu en ene gy consump ion pa e ns o educe he ecological oo p in
(Na haniel e al., 2020). Bio-capaci y, on he o he hand, measu es he
Ea h’s abili y o p oduce hese na u al esou ces (Okelele e al., 2022;
Oni ade, 2023). O e he decades, inc easing human demands ha e
consis en ly exe ed p essu e on he ecology, a ec ing land use, esou ce
deple ion, and ex ac ion. Globaliza ion has exace ba ed hese p essu es
by accele a ing indus ial ac i i ies and expanding consump ion pa -
e ns (Asongu & Odhiambo, 2019). This highligh s he e ec s o glob-
aliza ion on he ecological oo p in (Okelele e al., 2022). The
ecological oo p in measu es he consump ion o na u al esou ces and
en i onmen al impac s, such as land deg ada ion, clima e changes,
pollu ion, and biodi e si y loss (Guo e al., 2023). Consequen ly, he
global ecological oo p in has been ising, leading o unsus ainable
le els o esou ce use and en i onmen al deg ada ion (Wacke nagel &
Beye s, 2019). P e ious s udies ha e equen ly used CO
2
emissions as a
p ima y indica o o en i onmen al impac . The ecological oo p in is a
mo e comp ehensi e measu e han CO
2
emissions, encompassing
esou ce consump ion, was e, and biodi e si y loss, allowing o a ho-
lis ic assessmen o human impac on ecosys ems (Wacke nagel &
Beye s, 2019).
Gi en his backg ound, his s udy aims o in es iga e he e ec s o
globaliza ion, enewable ene gy u iliza ion, economic g ow h, ade
libe aliza ion, and u baniza ion on he ecological oo p in and ca bon
emissions in 34 selec ed A ican coun ies using panel da a om 1994 o
2021. This esea ch add esses c i ical gaps in he exis ing li e a u e and
in oduces insigh ul policy pe spec i es. Fi s ly, while p e ious s udies
ha e p ima ily ocused on CO
2
emissions, we expand he scope o
include ecological oo p in s, which p o ides a mo e comp ehensi e
measu e o en i onmen al impac . This is pa icula ly ele an o SSA, a
egion g appling wi h esou ce deple ion and apid u baniza ion. Sec-
ondly, unlike p io esea ch ha o en examines isola ed ac o s o
speci ic egions, his s udy in eg a es hese a iables in o a single model,
o e ing a holis ic iew o hei combined e ec s. By ocusing on SSA, he
analysis iden i ies egion-speci ic ends and policy implica ions, hus
ex ending he geog aphical scope beyond p e ious s udies. Thi dly, he
s udy employs ad anced econome ic echniques such as Panel-
Co ec ed S anda d E o s (PCSE), Feasible Gene alized Leas Squa es
(FGLS), and D iscoll-K aay es ima o s, which e ec i ely add ess c oss-
sec ional dependence and he e ogenei y, he eby enhancing he
A.H. Abdi e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
2
obus ness o ou indings. Gi en he economic and ade spillo e s
among SSA coun ies, hese me hodologies ensu e ha ou policy in-
s umen s demons a e c oss- egional dependence and accoun o
s uc u al di e ences. Finally, he s udy p o ides policy ecommenda-
ions based on he esul s, which emphasize he p omo ion o enewable
ene gy adop ion o mi iga e ecological oo p in s, he design o ade
policies ha enhance en i onmen al sus ainabili y, and he imple-
men a ion o u ban planning s a egies ha accoun o he en i on-
men al impac s o inc eased u baniza ion and economic g ow h.
The emainde o he pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2 p o-
ides a comp ehensi e e iew and syn hesis o ecen empi ical li e a-
u e on he opic. Sec ion 3 de ails he sampling, a iables, and empi ical
s a egy. Sec ion 4 p esen s he esul s along wi h an in-dep h discus-
sion. Finally, Sec ion 5 concludes wi h policy insigh s based on he
indings.
2. Li e a u e e iew
Recen schola ly in es iga ions ha e ex ensi ely in es iga ed he
e ec s o globaliza ion, enewable ene gy u iliza ion, economic g ow h,
ade libe aliza ion, and u baniza ion on he ecological oo p in and
ca bon emissions ac oss di e en egions. Wi h he u gen global
manda e o comba clima e change, his associa ion has become a ocal
poin in con empo a y academic discou se. The empi ical s udies in his
ealm ha e yielded di e se ou comes, la gely due o a ia ions in
me hodologies, selec ed a iables, and he de elopmen al s ages o he
na ions in ol ed. By syn hesizing insigh s om a b oad spec um o
academic sou ces, his e iew c i ically examines he e ec s o ade
openness, enewable ene gy consump ion, economic g ow h, and glob-
aliza ion on en i onmen al sus ainabili y.
Globaliza ion has been ound o signi ican ly inc ease ca bon emis-
sions and ecological oo p in s ac oss di e en egions and pe iods.
Sul ana e al. (2023) s udied he Nex -11 coun ies om 1990 o 2019,
using he e ogeneous panel coin eg a ion es s and he me hod o mo-
men s quan ile eg ession. Thei indings indica e ha globaliza ion
signi ican ly inc eases CO
2
emissions, wi h a g ea e impac obse ed a
highe quan iles. Simila ly, Sabi and Go us (2019) analyzed Sou h
Asian coun ies om 1975 o 2017 using he panel au o eg essi e
dis ibu ional lag (ARDL) model. They concluded ha economic glob-
aliza ion signi ican ly inc eased he ecological oo p in , while echno-
logical changes had an insigni ican impac . Rudolph and Figge (2017)
ex ended his analysis o 146 coun ies om 1981 o 2009. Thei ou -
comes highligh ed ha economic globaliza ion inc eased ecological
oo p in s in consump ion, p oduc ion, impo s, and expo s. Mo eo e ,
Mahmood e al. (2024) e ealed ha sus ainable supply chain p ac ices,
such as g een logis ics and esou ce-e icien ope a ions, signi ican ly
enhance en i onmen al sus ainabili y. This indica es a b oad and
pe asi e in luence o globaliza ion on en i onmen al ou comes. On he
o he hand, localized s udies p o ide addi ional insigh s in o he speci ic
impac s o globaliza ion on di e en egions. Usman e al. (2020)
examined he impac o globaliza ion on he ecological oo p in in he
USA om 1985 o 2021 using he ARDL app oach. They ound ha
globaliza ion posi i ely a ec s he ecological oo p in in bo h he sho -
and long- e m. In Malaysia, Ahmed e al. (2019) ound ha while
globaliza ion is no a signi ican de e minan o he ecological oo p in ,
i inc eases he ca bon oo p in . Thei analysis, u ilizing Baye -Hanck
and ARDL es s, showed ha ene gy consump ion and economic
g ow h a e p ima y d i e s o ecological oo p in s, while popula ion
densi y educes hem.
As e idenced by se e al s udies, enewable ene gy consump ion
plays a c ucial ole in mi iga ing ecological oo p in s and p omo ing
en i onmen al sus ainabili y. Ta iq e al. (2024) demons a ed ha in
G7 na ions, g een ene gy inance, go e nance, and hyd opowe con-
sump ion signi ican ly educe ecological oo p in s. Simila ly, Ansa i
e al. (2021) ound ha in leading enewable ene gy-consuming coun-
ies om 1991 o 2016, enewable ene gy signi ican ly educed
ecological oo p in s, which implies i s po en ial o alle ia e en i on-
men al p essu es. In Somalia, Abdi e al. (2024) used he ARDL model
and dynamic OLS o show ha enewable ene gy educes bo h ecolog-
ical oo p in s and CO
2
emissions in he sho - and long- e m. Simila ly,
Cagla e al. (2021) demons a ed ha in coun ies wi h se e e en i-
onmen al deg ada ion, enewable ene gy consump ion mi iga es en i-
onmen al ha m, which ein o ces i s en i onmen al bene i s.
Addi ionally, Abdi (2023) in es iga ed 41 SSA coun ies be ween 1999
and 2018, using con empo a y he e ogeneous panel app oaches and
pooled mean g oup (PMG), and ound ha enewable ene gy con-
sump ion alle ia es en i onmen al pollu ion in bo h he long- and sho -
un. In a ecen s udy, ¨
Ozkan, Ahmed, e al. (2024) examined he
en i onmen al impac o he ene gy ansi ion, poli ical globaliza ion,
and na u al esou ces on en i onmen al deg ada ion in Tu key, using
quan ile–quan ile mul i a ia e eg ession app oach, and ound ene gy
ansi ion lowe s ca bon emissions in all quan iles. Fu he mo e, Ahmed
e al. (2022) examined he e ec o democ acy and clean ene gy on
ecological oo p in s in Pakis an using he no el Augmen ed ARDL
app oach, inding ha democ acy and clean ene gy mi iga e ecological
oo p in s while popula ion densi y inc eases hem.
The complex ela ionship be ween economic g ow h and en i on-
men al sus ainabili y is e iden in nume ous s udies, each highligh ing
di e en aspec s o his dynamic. Danish e al. (2019) disco e ed ha
economic g ow h and biocapaci y lead o a ise in ecological oo p in s,
al hough no di ec causali y was ound be ween g ow h and oo p in
changes. Yang and Usman (2021) con i med ha economic g ow h
subs an ially inc eases ecological oo p in s in he wo ld’s op en
heal hca e-spending coun ies. Simila ly Ay un e al. (2024) ound ha
economic g ow h con ibu es o he o e all ecological oo p in in 19
middle-income coun ies. Suppo ing he En i onmen al Kuzne s Cu e
(EKC) hypo hesis, Hassan e al. (2019) demons a ed ha economic
g ow h ini ially causes en i onmen al deg ada ion bu may lead o im-
p o emen s o e ime. This is u he alida ed by Yıldı ım e al. (2024)
and Sul ana e al. (2023) by showing ha pe capi a GDP and enewable
ene gy consump ion signi ican ly in luence ca bon emissions. In
con as , Yilanci and Pa a (2022) disco e ed ha he G7 coun ies do no
suppo he EKC hypo hesis since causal ela ionships show a consis en
line and do no suppo an in e ed U-shaped ela ionship be ween
en i onmen al pollu ion and economic g ow h. Addi ionally, Sha ma
e al. (2021) emphasized egional a ia ions, e ealing ha pe capi a
income and popula ion densi y p o oundly impac he ecological oo -
p in in Sou h and Sou heas Asian na ions. Ozkan e al. (2024), using a
quan ile-based app oach, ound ha na u al esou ce dependency and
economic g ow h nega i ely a ec en i onmen al quali y, while inan-
cial globaliza ion posi i ely in luences he en i onmen . Simila esul s
ha e been obse ed by Ozkan e al. (2024) in China.
The li e a u e gene ally sugges s ha while economic g ow h o en
exace ba es ecological oo p in s, i s nega i e en i onmen al impac s
can be mi iga ed by enewable ene gy consump ion and o he sus ain-
able p ac ices. Fo ins ance, Pa a e al. (2023) highligh ha GDP has a
signi ican ly inc easing e ec on enewable ene gy consump ion in G7
coun ies, which indica es ha g ow h in he economy can de i e in-
es men s in sus ainable ene gy solu ions. By he same oken, Li e al.
(2022) e ealed ha enewable ene gy p omo es economic g ow h and
imp o es en i onmen al condi ions ac oss 120 coun ies, hough i s
impac a ies wi h u baniza ion a es. Mo eo e , Des ek, O˘
guz, e al.
(2024) examined high-income de eloping na ions (BRICS-T) o he
pe iod om 1995 o 2020, using he CS-ARDL echnique, and ound ha
he usage o enewable ene gy imp o es en i onmen al quali y, e en i
economic g ow h ha ms en i onmen al quali y. Simila esul s ha e
been obse ed by Des ek, Yıldı ım, e al. (2024) in 11 ansi ion econ-
omies. Howe e , s udies by ¨
Ocal e al. (2020) and Cu cu e al. (2023)
disco e ed he exace ba ing e ec s o non- enewable ene gy consump-
ion and ade openness on en i onmen al deg ada ion, wi h bo h ac-
o s ma kedly inc easing ecological oo p in s in Tu key and he en
as es -de eloping coun ies. Using Wa ele quan ile-based echniques
A.H. Abdi e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
3
in Tu key be ween 2000 and 2019, ¨
Ozkan, Coban, e al. (2024); ¨
Ozkan,
Degi menci, e al. (2024) disco e ed ha poli ical globaliza ion posi-
i ely a ec s en i onmen al quali y ac oss all quan iles, while economic
g ow h has nega i e impac s a lowe quan iles.
The impac o ade openness on en i onmen al sus ainabili y p e-
sen s a complex and a ied pic u e ac oss di e en egions. Lu (2020)
ound ha in 13 Asian coun ies om 1973 o 2014, ade openness
modes ly mi iga es ecological oo p in s, hough he o e whelming in-
luence o eal income and ene gy consump ion equi es u gen sus-
ainable policy in e en ions. Simila ly, Des ek and Sinha (2020)
suppo ed he EKC hypo hesis in OECD coun ies om 1980 o 2014.
The indings e eal ha inc eased ade openness co ela es wi h
educed ecological oo p in s and demons a ing a U-shaped ela ion-
ship be ween economic g ow h and ecological oo p in s. In con as ,
Aydin and Tu an (2020) obse ed inconsis encies in BRICS na ions,
whe e he impac o ade openness on ecological oo p in s a ied,
which demands he need o egion-speci ic policies. Kongbuamai e al.
(2020) epo ed ha in Thailand, om 1974 o 2016, ade openness,
along wi h economic g ow h and ene gy consump ion, inc eased
ecological oo p in s, al hough ou ism and popula ion densi y helped
educe hem. In sub-Saha an A ica, Okelele e al. (2022) ound ha
ade openness dec eased ecological oo p in s pe capi a ac oss 23
coun ies om 1990 o 2015 while also iden i ying an in e ed-U ela-
ionship be ween ecological oo p in and GDP pe capi a. Abdi and
Hashi (2024) explo ed he impac s o ene gy consump ion, indus iali-
za ion, and u baniza ion on en i onmen al sus ainabili y in Somalia
om 1990 o 2020, using he bounds- es ing app oach. Thei ARDL
model indings indica e ha ade openness and economic g ow h
signi ican ly exace ba e en i onmen al pollu ion in Somalia in bo h he
sho - and long- un.
Fu he mo e, he li e a u e p esen ed a mul i ace ed ela ionship
be ween popula ion densi y and en i onmen al sus ainabili y ac oss
a ious egions. Suppo ing he EKC hypo hesis, Gup a e al. (2022)
ound ha in Bangladesh, popula ion densi y and u baniza ion signi i-
can ly inc ease ecological oo p in s. Anse e al. (2020) echoed hese
indings in hei global s udy o 130 coun ies, showing ha popula ion
densi y and economic g ow h signi ican ly impac ecological oo p in s,
also in line wi h he EKC hypo hesis. Con e sely, Hussain e al. (2022)
epo ed ha in Pakis an, highe popula ion densi y nega i ely impac s
ecological oo p in s, which sugges s ha well-dis ibu ed popula ions
can educe en i onmen al deg ada ion. Chen e al. (2022) disco e ed
ha globally, human capi al ini ially inc eases bu e en ually educes
ecological oo p in s, wi h u baniza ion mode a ing his e ec . Highe
u baniza ion le els equi e mo e human capi al o imp o e en i on-
men al quali y. In he Ba celona Me opoli an Region, Mu˜
niz and Ga -
cia-L´
opez (2019) ound ha polycen ism helps educe ecological
oo p in s, hough he impac o popula ion densi y emains con en-
ious. Ko ´
acs e al. (2020) demons a ed signi ican spa ial dispa i ies in
he Budapes Me opoli an Region, whe e highe disposable income in
he co e ci y led o inc eased oo p in s, while subu ban a eas saw ising
oo p in s due o younge , mo e a luen households and highe hea ing
needs. The exis ing s udies indica e ha while popula ion densi y and
u baniza ion can exace ba e en i onmen al s ess, s a egic u ban
planning and human capi al de elopmen a e c ucial o mi iga ing hei
nega i e impac s and p omo ing sus ainable de elopmen .
Despi e ex ensi e esea ch on he e ec s o globaliza ion, enewable
ene gy consump ion, economic g ow h, ade openness, and u baniza-
ion on ecological oo p in s and ca bon emissions, se e al c i ical gaps
s ill need o be add essed. Mos no ably, he SSA egion has been unde -
in es iga ed, wi h exis ing s udies p ima ily ocusing on CO
2
emissions
a he han a b oade measu e like ecological oo p in s (Abdi, 2023;
Asongu & Odhiambo, 2019; Salahuddin e al., 2020; Wa same e al.,
2023). P e ious in es iga ions ha e highligh ed he signi ican impac
o economic g ow h and globaliza ion on inc easing ecological oo -
p in s, bu he mi iga ing e ec s o enewable ene gy and ade openness
ha e shown inconsis en esul s ac oss di e en egions. Addi ionally,
he ole o popula ion densi y in en i onmen al sus ainabili y emains
con en ious, wi h s udies showing bo h posi i e and nega i e impac s
depending on he con ex . Mo eo e , he e is a no able absence o
comp ehensi e analyses ha holis ically in eg a e hese ac o s o un-
de s and hei combined e ec s on en i onmen al sus ainabili y. Exis -
ing esea ch ends o ocus on indi idual ac o s in isola ion o wi hin
speci ic egional con ex s, which limi s he gene alizabili y o he ind-
ings. Ou s udy aims o add ess hese gaps by ocusing on he SSA, using
ecological oo p in s and CO
2
emissions as dependen a iables o p o-
ide a mo e comp ehensi e measu e o en i onmen al impac .
3. Me hodology
3.1. Da a and a iables
This s udy u ilizes annual panel da a om 1994 o 2021 o examine
he impac o globaliza ion, enewable ene gy consump ion, economic
g ow h, ade openness, and popula ion densi y on ecological oo p in s
and en i onmen al deg ada ion in 34 SSA coun ies. The explained
a iables a e ecological oo p in s and en i onmen al pollu ion. The
eg esso s include globaliza ion, enewable ene gy consump ion, eco-
nomic g ow h, ade openness, and popula ion densi y. These a iables
we e chosen o hei signi ican in luence on en i onmen al ou comes.
Globaliza ion o en d i es economic ac i i ies and esou ce u iliza ion,
which in luences en i onmen al quali y (Ahmed e al., 2019; Yang &
Usman, 2021). Renewable ene gy consump ion mi iga es en i onmen al
impac by educing eliance on ossil uels and lowe ing GHG emissions
(Abdi, 2023; Sha ma e al., 2021). Economic g ow h can a iably a ec
en i onmen al deg ada ion, wi h highe GDP po en ially leading o
inc eased pollu ion o enabling in es men s in cleane echnologies
(Hassan e al., 2019; Hussain e al., 2022). T ade openness in luences he
scale and composi ion o economic ac i i ies, he eby impac ing en i-
onmen al ou comes h ough inc eased p oduc ion and consump ion
(Aydin & Tu an, 2020; Kongbuamai e al., 2020; Lu, 2020). Popula ion
densi y a ec s esou ce use and was e gene a ion, wi h highe densi ies
ypically leading o g ea e en i onmen al p essu es (Hussain e al.,
2022; Kongbuamai e al., 2020). Da a we e sou ced om epu able in-
s i u ions such as he Wo ld De elopmen Indica o s (WDI) and he KOF
Swiss Economic Ins i u e. De ailed desc ip ions o da a sou ces, symbols,
and measu emen uni s a e p o ided in Table 1.
3.2. Model speci ica ion
Building on empi ical s udies by Da and Asi (2018), Sinha and
Shahbaz (2018), Kongbuamai e al. (2020), and Sola in e al. (2017),
his esea ch ex ends hei scope by collec i ely analyzing he e ec s o
globaliza ion, enewable ene gy consump ion, economic g ow h, ade
openness, and popula ion densi y on ecological oo p in s and en i-
onmen al pollu ion. All a iables a e log- ans o med o enhance
elas ici y compa isons, mi iga e he e oscedas ici y, and educe da a
Table 1
Va iables, symbols, measu emen uni , and sou ces.
Va iable Code Measu emen Sou ce
Ecological oo p in s EF Global hec a es (gha) Global Foo p in
Ne wo k
Ca bon emissions CO
2
Me ic ons pe capi a o
CO
2
emissions
WDI
Globaliza ion GLO KOF Globaliza ion Index KOF Swiss
Economic Ins i u e
Renewable ene gy
consump ion
REC % o o al inal ene gy
consump ion
WDI
Economic g ow h EG GDP, cons an 2015 US$ WDI
T ade openness TO Sum o expo s and
impo s (% o GDP)
WDI
Popula ion densi y PD People pe squa e
kilome e
WDI
A.H. Abdi e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
4
luc ua ions, esul ing in mo e obus es ima ions han basic linea
speci ica ions. In Model I, whe e he ecological oo p in is he explained
a iable, he a iables’ linea in e ac ion is sys ema ically o mula ed
and a icula ed h ough equa ion (1) as p esen ed:
InEFi =
α
0+
α
1InGLOi +
α
2InRECi +
α
3InGDPi +
α
4InTOi +
α
5InPDi +
μ
i
(1)
whe e EF ep esen s ecological oo p in s, GLO deno es globaliza ion,
REC s ands o enewable ene gy consump ion, GDP signi ies g oss do-
mes ic p oduc , TO ep esen s ade openness, and PD deno es popula-
ion densi y, wi h
α
1 h ough
α
5 as he coe icien s o hese a iables,
and
μ
as he e o e m. In Model II, whe e en i onmen al pollu ion is
he dependen a iable, he linea connec ion among he a iables is
de ined and encapsula ed wi hin equa ion (2), as shown below:
InCO2i =β0+β1InGLOi +β2InRECi +β3InGDPi +β4InTOi +β5InPDi +
ε
i
(2)
whe e CO
2
ep esen s en i onmen al pollu ion,
ε
is he e o e m, and
β1 h ough β5. The subsc ip s i and deno e coun y and ime, espec-
i ely, whe e i =1,…,N deno es a coun y index and =1,…,T deno es
he ime pe iod.
3.3. Econome ic s a egy
3.3.1. C oss-sec ional dependence es
Gi en he economic in e connec ions and sha ed cha ac e is ics
among SSA na ions, c oss-sec ional dependence (CSD) is likely, po en-
ially biasing es ima es and in e ences. Igno ing CSD can lead o inac-
cu a e and inconsis en es ima ions (Sa kodie & Owusu, 2020). To
iden i y CSD, we employ he Pesa an (2004) es . The Pesa an CD es ,
sui able o bo h small and la ge panels, is compu ed as ollows:
CD =
2T
N(N−1)
√∑
N−1
i=1∑
N
j=i+1
ρ
ij (3)
whe e N is he numbe o c oss-sec ions, T is he ime dimension, and
ρ
ij is he sample es ima e o he pai wise co ela ion o he esiduals. The
s udy u he u ilizes he CSD es , speci ically he Lag ange Mul iplie
(LM) s a is ic by B eusch and Pagan (1980). This es e alua es he
al e na i e hypo hesis, which posi s he p esence o c oss-sec ional
connec edness, agains he null hypo hesis, which asse s no c oss-
sec ional eliance. The hypo heses a e o mally s a ed as ollows:
Ho:pij =pji =co (
μ
i ,
μ
j )=0 o j ∕= i
Ha:pij =pji =co (
μ
i ,
μ
j )∕= 0 o somej ∕= i
I he e is a signi ican de ia ion o he CSD s a is ic om ze o, he null
hypo hesis o no CSD is ejec ed, and ice e sa.
3.3.2. Slope he e ogenei y es
Because igno ing slope he e ogenei y could be de imen al o
eg ession analysis, he s udy examines he p esence o absence o he -
e ogenei y in he slope coe icien s by employing he Pesa an and
Yamaga a (2008) es . This es can be compu ed using he ollowing
ela ion:
Δ=(N−1S−k
2k
√)(4)
whe e S is he a e age o he indi idual slope coe icien s, and k is he
numbe o eg esso s. This es de e mines i slope coe icien s signi i-
can ly a y ac oss c oss-sec ions, which indica es he need o he e o-
geneous panel es ima o s. Fo he small samples a e handled by using
he biased adjus ed e sion o Δ es :
Δadj =
N
√(N−1S−E(ZiT)
Va (ZiT)
√)(5)
whe e E(ZiT) = K,Va (ZiT) = 2k(T−K−1)
T+1. The null hypo hesis o his es
posi s ha all slope coe icien s a e homogeneous, which means hey a e
cons an ac oss all c oss-sec ional uni s.
3.3.2. Uni oo es
Gi en he likelihood o CSD in he s udy’s panels, we employ second-
gene a ion uni oo es s o de e mine s a iona i y. Speci ically, we use
he C oss-sec ional Im-Pesa an-Shin (CIPS) and he C oss-sec ional
Augmen ed Dickey-Fulle (CADF) es s. The CIPS es add esses CSD
by inco po a ing c oss-sec ional a e ages o lagged le els and i s di -
e ences, which ensu es a mo e obus analysis o panel da a s a io-
na i y. I can be exp essed as ollows:
Δyi =ai+δiyi, −1+θ1y −1+∑
k
j
θijΔyi, −j+∑
k
j=0
Δyi, −j+
ε
i (6)
whe e Δ deno es he i s di e ence, y −1 is he c oss-sec ional
a e age o y −1, and
ε
i is he e o e m. Because he wo es s a e
ela ed, he CIPS s a is ic can be compu ed as:
CIPS =N−1∑
N
I=1
CADFI(7)
whe e CADFI is he s a is ics in he CADF.
3.3.3. Tes s o coin eg a ion
To in es iga e long- e m ela ionships, we u ilize he Ped oni (1999,
2004) and Kao (1999) panel coin eg a ion es s. Unlike adi ional
coin eg a ion es s, he Ped oni es accommoda es panel-speci ic ixed
e ec s and ime ends, allowing he au o eg essi e (AR) coe icien o
a y ac oss panels. This es p o ides bo h wi hin-dimension and
be ween-dimension s a is ics, which enhances he obus ness o ou
analysis. The Ped oni es is speci ied as ollows:
Yi =
α
i+δi +βiXi +∊i (8)
whe e Yi is he dependen a iable, Xi a e he independen a iables,
α
i
a e indi idual ixed e ec s, and δi cap u es de e minis ic ends. The
null hypo hesis o no coin eg a ion is ejec ed i he es s a is ics a e
signi ican . The Kao (1999) es , u he alida ing coin eg a ion while
accoun ing o he e ogenei y and CSD, ollows simila p inciples.
3.3.4. PCSE and FGLS es ima o s
This s udy employed wo ad anced econome ic echniques o es i-
ma e he long- un esul s: he PCSE es ima o , in oduced by Beck and
Ka z (1995), and he FGLS es ima o , ini ially de eloped by Pa ks (1967)
and la e e ined by Do an and Kmen a (1986). The PCSE app oach is
pa icula ly obus agains non-sphe ical e o s uc u es. I is well-
sui ed o la ge panels, as demons a ed in s udies by Whi e (1980),
Whi e and Domowi z (1984), and Liang and Zege (1986), which ocus
on da ase s wi h nume ous c oss-sec ional uni s and ela i ely sho ime
dimensions (N >T). Meanwhile, he FGLS es ima o inco po a es bo h
c oss-sec ional co ela ion and he e oscedas ici y in panel da a, which
assu es a ho ough ea men o panel-speci ic pa ame e a ia ions.
3.3.5. D iscoll-K aay s anda d e o s
To accoun o c oss-sec ional dependence, se ial co ela ion, and
he e oscedas ici y, he s udy u ilizes D iscoll-K aay s anda d e o s,
which p o ide consis en es ima es e en in he p esence o hese issues.
The a iance–co a iance ma ix wi h D iscoll-K aay s anda d e o s is
speci ied as ollows:
A.H. Abdi e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
5
Va (β) = (XʹX)−1(∑
T
=1∑
T
s=1
ω
s)(XʹX)−1(9)
whe e
ω
s ep esen s he co a iance be ween esiduals a imes and s.
3.3.6. Dumi escu-Hu lin causali y es
The e a e a ious bene i s o con as ing panel da a models wi h ime
se ies me hods o causali y es ing. C oss-sec ional da a can be
employed o iden i y po en ial causal connec ions (Heida ian & G een,
1989). In his con ex , he Dumi escu and Hu lin (2012) panel causali y
es is u ilized o de e mine he di ec ion o causali y be ween a iables,
assuming ha ce ain c oss-sec ions in he panel may be causally
ela ed, bu no necessa ily all. No ably, o he e ogeneous panels, he
Dumi escu-Hu lin panel causali y es is applicable o bo h N >T and
N <T. Using his app oach, he s udy examines he causa i e ela ion-
ships be ween globaliza ion, enewable ene gy consump ion, economic
g ow h, ade openness, popula ion densi y, ecological oo p in s, and
en i onmen al pollu ion. The es s a is ic is calcula ed as ollows:
yi =
α
i +∑
k
i=1
θ(k)
iyi, −k+∑
k
i=1
δ(k)
ixi, −k+
ε
i (10)
whe e θ(k)
i and δ(k)
i demons a es lag and slope pa ame e s ha a y
ac oss g oups, k signi ies he lag o de s and is conside ed o be he same
o all c oss-sec ions uni s, and
α
i deno es indi idual e ec s ha a e
in ended o be ixed in he ime dimension. Mo eo e , he null hy-
po hesis sugges s ha he e is no homogeneous causa ion ac oss all
c oss-sec ions, while he al e na i e hypo hesis indica es e idence o a
leas one causal linkage be ween he a iables. The null and al e na i e
hypo hesis o e alua ing he Dumi escu–Hu lin panel causali y is
exp essed as ollows:
H0:δi=0∀i=1,⋯,N
H1:δi=0∀i=1,⋯,N
H1:δi∕= 0∀i=N+1,N+2,⋯,N
(11)
4. Empi ical esul s and discussion
1.1. Desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ion analysis
Table 2 p esen s he desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ion analysis o
he s udy’s pa ame e s. The indings e eal ha economic g ow h has
he highes a e age alues, while ca bon emissions ha e he lowes .
No ably, he ecological oo p in and globaliza ion display ela i ely
s able ends, wi h minimal s anda d de ia ions o 0.182 and 0.099,
espec i ely. In con as , popula ion densi y exhibi s signi ican
a iabili y, indica ed by he highes s anda d de ia ion o 0.586. Mos
a iables, excep o ecological oo p in s, ca bon emissions, and eco-
nomic g ow h, a e nega i ely skewed. Addi ionally, all a iables exhibi
posi i e excess ku osis. The Ja que-Be a es esul s indica e ha he
assump ion o no mal dis ibu ion o hese pa ame e s canno be
con i med. All obse a ions in he da ase a e consis en , wi h a o al o
952 da a poin s o each a iable. In he co ela ion analysis p esen ed in
Table 2 Panel B, globaliza ion (0.675), economic g ow h (0.939), and
ade openness (0.464) a e posi i ely co ela ed wi h ca bon emissions.
Con e sely, enewable ene gy consump ion (−0.729) and popula ion
densi y (−0.187) a e nega i ely co ela ed wi h ca bon emissions.
Fu he mo e, all explana o y a iables, excep enewable ene gy con-
sump ion and popula ion densi y, exhibi a posi i e co ela ion wi h he
ecological oo p in . This sugges s ha inc eases in hese explana o y
a iables gene ally deg ade en i onmen al sus ainabili y, whe eas in-
c eases in enewable ene gy consump ion and popula ion densi y
imp o e i .
1.2. C oss-sec ional dependence es and he e ogenei y es
The ini ial and c ucial s ep in panel da a analysis is o de e mine he
p esence o CSD among he se ies. I he se ies exhibi s CSD, adi ional
uni oo es s, which assume c oss-sec ional independence, yield alse
and un eliable esul s. Consequen ly, his in es iga ion employed
se e al es s o de ec CSD: he B eusch and Pagan (1980) LM es , he
bias-co ec ed LM es , he Pesa an (2004) scaled LM es , and he
Table 2
Desc ip i e summa y and co ela ion analysis.
Panel A: Cha ac e is ics o he da a
lnEF lnCO
2
lnGLO lnREC lnGDP lnTO lnPD
Mean 0.131 −0.531 1.642 1.810 3.040 1.749 1.594
Maximum 0.605 0.927 1.857 1.993 4.040 2.245 2.802
Minimum −0.248 −1.662 1.360 0.881 2.280 0.616 0.277
S d. De . 0.182 0.582 0.099 0.224 0.388 0.207 0.586
Skewness 0.583 0.421 −0.539 −2.230 0.649 −0.691 −0.202
Ku osis 2.686 2.585 3.094 7.936 2.622 5.079 2.642
Ja que-Be a 57.758 34.962 46.368 1755.474 72.433 247.224 11.570
P obabili y 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003
Panel B: Co ela ion analysis
lnEF 1.000
lnCO
2
0.679 1.000
lnGLO 0.310 0.675 1.000
lnREC −0.687 −0.729 −0.572 1.000
lnGDP 0.712 0.939 0.668 −0.691 1.000
lnTO 0.394 0.464 0.423 −0.333 0.490 1.000
lnPD −0.411 −0.187 0.155 0.038 −0.190 −0.215 1.000
Table 3
C oss-sec ional dependence es ou comes.
H
0
: No c oss-sec ion dependence
Va iable B eusch-Pagan
LM
Pesa an scaled
LM
Bias-co ec ed
scaled LM
Pesa an
CD
lnEF 3485.165 87.298 86.669 11.398
[0.000] [0.000] [0.000] [0.000]
lnCO
2
5982.909 161.866 161.236 23.171
[0.000] [0.000] [0.000] [0.000]
lnGLO 12175.64 346.744 346.115 109.534
[0.000] [0.000] [0.000] [0.000]
lnREC 6376.420 173.614 172.984 37.681
[0.000] [0.000] [0.000] [0.000]
lnGDP 7689.635 212.819 212.189 46.332
[0.000] [0.000] [0.000] [0.000]
lnTO 3116.097 76.280 75.650 9.760
[0.000] [0.000] [0.000] [0.000]
lnPD 15390.250 442.714 442.084 124.045
[0.000] [0.000] [0.000] [0.000]
No e: The alues in he pa en hesis […] indica e he p- alues.
A.H. Abdi e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
6
Pesa an (2015) CD es . Table 3 p esen s he ou comes o hese c oss-
sec ional dependence analyses. The esul s indica e ha he null hy-
po hesis o no c oss-sec ional dependence is ejec ed a he 1 % signi -
icance le el o all se ies, which p o ides s ong e idence o c oss-
sec ional dependence among he coun ies unde s udy. On he o he
hand, he s udy u ilized he Pesa an and Yamaga a (2008) es o assess
whe he he slope coe icien s a e homogeneous o he e ogeneous in
hei dis ibu ion. Recognizing slope he e ogenei y is essen ial, as i s
neglec can a ec eg ession esul s and lead o e oneous hypo hesis
es ing. The indings, p esen ed in Table 4, align wi h he conclusions o
Chen e al. (2022) and Ahakwa (2023), which demons a es ha he null
hypo hesis o slope homogenei y o bo h models is ejec ed. Conse-
quen ly, he es o he esea ch employs econome ic echniques obus
o slope he e ogenei y and c oss-sec ional dependence.
1.3. Panel uni oo analysis
Gi en ha adi ional uni oo es s a e inadequa e o add essing
CSD among pa ame e s, his s udy employed he CIPS and CADF panel
uni oo es s, as ou lined by Pesa an (2014), which accoun o CSD.
Table 5 p esen s he esul s o hese es s. The indings indica e ha all
a iables, excep lnEF, lnCO
2
, lnGLO, and lnTO, a e non-s a iona y a
le el I(0). Howe e , a hei i s di e ence (I(1)), all a iables become
s a iona y. This sugges s ha he se ies has he po en ial o become co-
in eg a ed o e ime.
1.4. Panel coin eg a ion es s
The s udy employed he Ped oni and Kao coin eg a ion es s o
e alua e he long- un ela ionships among he a iables. As illus a ed in
Table 6, he esul s o he Ped oni es indica e a coin eg a ion ela-
ionship in Models I and II, as he null hypo hesis o no coin eg a ion is
ejec ed unde all me hods. This is e idenced by he p obabili y alues
o he modi ied PP, PP, and ADF s a is ics being less han he 1 % sig-
ni icance le el. Addi ionally, he Kao coin eg a ion es , which accoun s
o he e ogenei y and c oss-sec ional dependence, co obo a es he
Ped oni es esul s, con i ming he coin eg a ion ela ionship among
he se ies. The o e all esul s sugges ejec ing he null hypo hesis o no
coin eg a ion be ween he ecological oo p in , en i onmen al pollu-
ion, and he independen a iables, in a o o he al e na i e hypo h-
esis ha hey a e coin eg a ed. The con i ma ion o long- un
coin eg a ing ela ionships mee s he equi emen o es ima ing he
long- un elas ici ies o bo h models. The e o e, he main es ima ions
ollow he coin eg a ion analysis.
1.5. Model es ima ions – PCSE, FGLS, and D iscoll-K aay s anda d e o s
esul s
Tables 7 and 8 p esen he e ec s o he long- un elas ici y o he
independen a iables on he dependen a iables o he ecological
oo p in and ca bon emission models. We employ h ee dis inc
es s—PCSE, FGLS, and D iscoll-K aay s anda d e o s— o ensu e obus
esul s, wi h he la e wo enhancing he obus ness o he PCSE esul s.
The esul s indica e ha globaliza ion signi ican ly lowe s he ecological
oo p in in SSA coun ies. Speci ically, a 1 % inc ease in globaliza ion is
associa ed wi h a 0.519 % imp o emen in en i onmen al quali y a he
1 % le el o signi icance. The indings indica e ha globaliza ion
signi ican ly con ibu es o en i onmen al sus ainabili y in SSA coun-
ies. Con e sely, globaliza ion has been shown o ha e a signi ican
posi i e impac on ca bon emissions. A 1 % inc ease in globaliza ion will
inc ease ca bon emissions by 0.496 % a he 1 % signi icance le el.
These esul s align wi h s udies by (Ahmed e al., 2019) and (Shahbaz
e al., 2018), who epo ha globaliza ion inc eases CO
2
emissions. The
duali y o hese indings ea u es he sophis ica ion o globaliza ion’s
impac on he egion, wi h posi i e e ec s on sus ainable p ac ices
con as ing wi h he en i onmen al cos s o economic expansion. This
balance sugges s ha he dynamics o globaliza ion in SSA a e shaped by
ac o s such as he na u e o impo ed echnologies, he s uc u e o
ade, and he ene gy mix d i ing indus ial g ow h.
Simila ly, enewable ene gy consump ion demons a es a signi ican
nega i e impac in bo h models ac oss all es ima o s. Speci ically, in he
ecological oo p in and ca bon emissions models, a uni inc ease in
enewable ene gy consump ion educes he ecological oo p in by 0.
386 % and ca bon emissions by 0.373 %, espec i ely, a he 1 %
h eshold le el. This p oposes he ans o ma i e po en ial o enewable
ene gy adop ion in SSA, whe e ene gy sys ems ha e adi ionally been
domina ed by ossil uels such as coal, oil, and na u al gas. The ansi ion
o enewable ene gy in SSA could d i e subs an ial en i onmen al
bene i s, including educ ions in g eenhouse gas emissions and im-
p o emen s in ai quali y. Addi ionally, by di e si ying ene gy sou ces,
enewable ene gy adop ion can con ibu e o building mo e esilien and
sus ainable ene gy sys ems in he egion. These indings a e consis en
wi h hose o Sahoo and Se hi (2021) o de eloping coun ies, Usman
and Makhdum (2021) o he BRICS-T egion, Abdi (2023) in he SSA
coun ies, and Ansa i e al. (2021) o leading enewable ene gy coun-
ies. Fo SSA, whe e many coun ies ace ene gy po e y and in a-
s uc u e limi a ions, in es ing in enewable ene gy no only suppo s
en i onmen al sus ainabili y bu also p omo es ene gy access and eco-
nomic g ow h.
Fu he mo e, all es ima o s in bo h models consis en ly show ha
economic g ow h signi ican ly nega i ely impac s en i onmen al qual-
i y in SSA coun ies. Speci ically, a 1 % inc ease in economic g ow h
leads o a 0.233 % ise in he ecological oo p in and a 1.171 % inc ease
Table 4
He e ogenei y es esul s.
Model I: lnEF Model II: lnCO
2
H
0
: coe icien slopes a e homogeneous
S a is ic P- alue S a is ic P- alue
Δ19.177 0.000 29.005 0.000
Δ Adjus ed 22.143 0.000 33.493 0.000
Table 5
Second-gene a ion uni oo es s.
Va iables Le el 1s Di e ence
CIPS CADF CIPS CADF
lnEF −2.390*** −1.951 −5.796*** −4.183***
lnCO
2
−2.442*** −2.357*** −4.846*** −3.878***
lnGLO −2.907*** −2.699*** −4.814*** −3.972***
lnREC −1.922 −1.801 −4.695*** −3.431***
lnGDP −1.710 −1.726 −4.159*** −2.996***
lnTO −2.185** −2.166*** −5.058*** −3.665***
lnPD −2.023 −3.128*** −2.374*** −2.725***
No e: ***, **, * deno e signi icance le els a 1%, 5% and 10%, espec i ely.
Table 6
Ped oni and Kao coin eg a ion es esul s.
Model I: lnEF Model II: lnCO
2
S a is ic p- alue S a is ic p- alue
Ped oni es o coin eg a ion
Modi ied Phillips-Pe on 3.178 0.001 4.530 0.000
Phillips-Pe on −8.842 0.000 −3.031 0.001
Augmen ed Dickey-Fulle −9.695 0.000 −4.542 0.000
Kao es o coin eg a ion
Modi ied Dickey-Fulle −2.615 0.005 −1.335 0.091
Dickey-Fulle −3.416 0.000 −2.946 0.002
Augmen ed Dickey-Fulle −1.099 0.136 −0.019 0.493
Unadjus ed modi ied Dickey-Fulle −9.214 0.000 −2.848 0.002
Unadjus ed Dickey-Fulle −6.454 0.000 −3.788 0.000
A.H. Abdi e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
7
in CO
2
emissions, bo h a he 1 % signi icance le el. This e lec s he
en i onmen al cos s associa ed wi h economic expansion, as many SSA
coun ies ely hea ily on na u al esou ce exploi a ion and ene gy-
in ensi e ac i i ies o d i e g ow h. These p ac ices, while p omo ing
economic de elopmen , o en esul in highe pollu ion le els, inc eased
ene gy consump ion, and exace ba ed clima e change, he eby deg ad-
ing o e all en i onmen al quali y. This s esses he elen less ension
be ween economic g ow h and en i onmen al sus ainabili y, pa icu-
la ly in egions like SSA, whe e de elopmen p io i ies o en o e -
shadow ecological conside a ions. The subs an ial en i onmen al
impac o economic expansion emphasises he c i ical necessi y o
adop ing sus ainable g ow h s a egies ha mi iga e en i onmen al
ha m while os e ing economic p og ess. Ou s udy’s indings a e
consis en wi h nume ous empi ical s udies om a ious coun ies,
including Danish e al. (2019) o BRICS economies, As¸ici and Aca
(2015) o de eloping coun ies, Ansa i e al. (2021) o op enewable
ene gy coun ies, and Des ek (2020) o Cen al and Eas e n Eu opean
coun ies. This displays he global na u e o he g ow h-en i onmen
ade-o . In he con ex o SSA, his accen ua es he essence o
combining en i onmen ally conscious p ac ices in o de elopmen
amewo ks o ensu e long- e m sus ainabili y.
Addi ionally, ade openness is ound o ha e a signi ican dual
impac on en i onmen al indica o s in SSA. A 1 % inc ease in ade
openness leads o a 0.052 % ise in he ecological oo p in a he 1 %
signi icance le el. This e lec s he en i onmen al p essu es o he e-
gion’s esou ce-in ensi e expo s and he ecological cos s o impo ed
goods. These ade ac i i ies con ibu e signi ican ly o he ecological
oo p in , bo h wi hin SSA and in i s ading pa ne s, as he en i on-
men al bu dens o p oduc ion and consump ion a e sha ed ac oss bo -
de s. Fo SSA, whe e expo s a e p edominan ly aw ma e ials and
na u al esou ces, he en i onmen al s ain is ampli ied, u he exac-
e ba ing esou ce deple ion and ecological deg ada ion. This inding is
consis en wi h he esul s o (Kongbuamai e al., 2020b) o Thailand
and (Imamoglu, 2018) o Tu key. Con e sely, ade openness has a
nega i e and signi ican e ec on ca bon emissions, wi h a 1 % inc ease
in ade openness esul ing in a 0.036 % educ ion in CO
2
emissions.
This educ ion could be a ibu ed o he di usion o cleane echnolo-
gies and p ac ices h ough in e na ional ade, as well as a shi in
p oduc ion p ocesses owa ds lowe -emission me hods. In SSA, his may
e lec he g owing adop ion o ene gy-e icien p ac ices and echnol-
ogies in indus ies ca e ing o global ma ke s, d i en by in e na ional
en i onmen al s anda ds and egula ions. These esul s a e consis en
wi h he indings o (Dogan & Seke , 2016b; Jebli e al., 2013), which
indica e ha ade can acili a e en i onmen al imp o emen s in e ms
o ca bon emissions, e en as i imposes b oade ecological p essu es. Fo
SSA, balancing hese opposing e ec s is c ucial o le e aging ade as a
d i e o sus ainable de elopmen .
Fu he mo e, he coe icien o popula ion densi y demons a es a
nega i e and signi ican e ec on bo h ecological oo p in and ca bon
emissions in SSA. Speci ically, a 1 % inc ease in popula ion densi y is
associa ed wi h a 0.075 % and a 0.049 % educ ion in he ecological
oo p in and CO
2
emissions, espec i ely. This ou come may s em om
he concen a ion o popula ions in u ban a eas, which os e s he
de elopmen o e icien in as uc u e, compac li ing spaces, and
sha ed public se ices. The obse ed dec ease in he ecological oo p in
and en i onmen al pollu ion wi h ising popula ion densi y sugges s
ha well-managed u baniza ion can se e as a ca alys o en i on-
men al imp o emen in SSA. This inding aligns wi h he esul s o As¸ici
and Aca (2015) and Dogan e al. (2020), which ein o ces he po en ial
en i onmen al bene i s o u ban concen a ion. Howe e , i con as s
wi h he conclusions o Sahoo and Se hi (2021) and Ohlan (2015), who
epo ed a posi i e associa ion be ween popula ion densi y and CO
2
emissions. In he con ex o SSA, whe e u baniza ion is apidly
expanding, hese esul s unde line he signi icance o s a egic u ban
planning and in es men in sus ainable in as uc u e o exploi he
en i onmen al ad an ages o highe popula ion densi ies. The obus -
ness o hese indings is u he suppo ed by he R-squa e alues o he
models, which s and a 0.717 o he ecological oo p in model and
0.898 o he CO
2
emissions model. This indica es a s ong explana o y
powe o he independen a iables in cap u ing he a ia ions in
Table 7
Resul s om he PCSE, FGLS, and D iscoll-K aay es ima o s (Model I: lnEF).
PCSE FGLS D iscoll-K aay S.E
Coe . s d. e . z-s a . Coe . s d. e . z-s a . Coe . s d. e . -s a .
lnGLO −0.519*** 0.037 −13.880 −0.497*** 0.027 −18.430 −0.519*** 0.076 −6.800
lnREC −0.386*** 0.013 −30.570 −0.421*** 0.011 −37.400 −0.386*** 0.016 23.720
lnGDP 0.233*** 0.010 22.360 0.216*** 0.009 23.720 0.233*** 0.023 10.270
lnTO 0.052*** 0.015 3.550 0.069*** 0.011 6.370 0.052* 0.028 1.850
lnPD −0.075*** 0.004 −19.400 −0.088*** 0.004 −21.770 −0.075*** 0.006 12.280
Cons an 1.002*** 0.073 13.770 1.069*** 0.051 20.810 1.002*** 0.077 13.020
Obs. 952 952 952
R
2
0.717 0.717
Coun ies 34 34 34
No e: ***, **, * deno e signi icance le els a 1%, 5% and 10%, espec i ely. Coe . and s d e . a e he coe icien s and s anda d e o s, espec i ely.
Table 8
Resul s om he PCSE, FGLS, and D iscoll-K aay es ima o s (Model II: lnCO
2
).
PCSE FGLS D iscoll-K aay S.E
Coe . s d. e . z-s a . Coe . s d. e . z-s a . Coe . s d. e . -s a .
lnGLO 0.496*** 0.097 5.110 0.358*** 0.061 5.840 0.496*** 0.178 2.790
lnREC −0.373*** 0.019 −19.170 −0.444*** 0.027 −16.430 −0.373*** 0.023 16.060
lnGDP 1.171*** 0.022 53.080 1.152*** 0.018 65.080 1.171*** 0.053 22.030
lnTO −0.036** 0.016 −2.260 −0.034 0.024 −1.430 −0.036 0.025 −1.430
lnPD −0.049*** 0.007 −6.650 −0.029*** 0.009 −3.390 −0.049*** 0.016 −3.000
Cons −4.090*** 0.162 −25.180 −3.710*** 0.112 –33.070 −4.090*** 0.182 22.470
Obs. 952 952 952
R
2
0.898 0.898
Coun ies 34 34 34
A.H. Abdi e al.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 10 (2025) 100273
8
