Women's perceptions of discrimination at work: Gender stereotypes and overtime. An exploratory study in Portugal

Rebelo, Gló ia; Delaunay, Ca a ina; Ma ins, Alexand e; Diaman ino, Ma ia
Fe nanda; Almeida, An ónio R.
A icle
Women's pe cep ions o disc imina ion a wo k: Gende
s e eo ypes and o e ime. An explo a o y s udy in
Po ugal
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rebelo, Gló ia; Delaunay, Ca a ina; Ma ins, Alexand e; Diaman ino, Ma ia
Fe nanda; Almeida, An ónio R. (2024) : Women's pe cep ions o disc imina ion a wo k: Gende
s e eo ypes and o e ime. An explo a o y s udy in Po ugal, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN
2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14, Iss. 8, pp. 1-14,
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Ci a ion: Rebelo, Gló ia, Ca a ina
Delaunay, Alexand e Ma ins, Ma ia
Fe nanda Diaman ino, and An ónio R.
Almeida. 2024. Women’s Pe cep ions
o Disc imina ion a Wo k: Gende
S e eo ypes and O e ime—An
Explo a o y S udy in Po ugal.
Adminis a i e Sciences 14: 188.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci14080188
Recei ed: 2 July 2024
Re ised: 13 Augus 2024
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Published: 21 Augus 2024
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adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
Women’s Pe cep ions o Disc imina ion a Wo k: Gende
S e eo ypes and O e ime—An Explo a o y S udy in Po ugal
Gló ia Rebelo 1,2,* , Ca a ina Delaunay 3, Alexand e Ma ins 3,4 , Ma ia Fe nanda Diaman ino 5
and An ónio R. Almeida 6
1Dinâmia’CET, Isc e-Ins i u o Uni e si á io de Lisboa, 1649-026 Lisbon, Po ugal
2Escola de Ciências Económicas e das O ganizações, Uni e sidade Lusó ona-Cen o Uni e si á io Lisboa,
1749-024 Lisbon, Po ugal
3
CICS.NOVA, Uni e sidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1069-061 Lisbon, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed] (C.D.);
[email p o ec ed] (A.M.)
4Ins i u o Poli écnico de Po aleg e, 7300-110 Po aleg e, Po ugal
5CEAUL, Faculdade de Ciências, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
6Legal Depa men , Uni e sidade Eu opeia, 1500-210 Lisbon, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: glo ia_ [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The aim o his s udy is o iden i y women’s pe cep ions o he main easons o disc im-
ina ion a wo k. Fu he mo e, he aim is o analyse he e ec s o public wo king ime policies on
gende equali y and hei impac on disc imina ion a wo k and on women’s ca ee pa hs. This a icle
p esen s a amewo k o he opic h ough an analysis o documen s and li e a u e, as well as an
explo a o y s udy ca ied ou in Po ugal. Wo king ime policies since 2011 in Po ugal a e examined
and h ough an empi ical s udy, he impac o o e ime on women’s wo k and ca ee s is analysed.
The documen a y analysis ca ied ou in Po ugal shows he di icul ies women ace in econciling
wo k wi h amily and pe sonal li e. While mos s udies ocus on job sa is ac ion and women’s will-
ingness o wo k long hou s o be e ca ee p og ession, his pape examines gende disc imina ion
a wo k associa ed wi h wo king ime policies. Gende equali y and women’s empowe men a e
among he goals se by he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen . This s udy, based on a su ey
comple ed by emale employees, concludes ha women eel disc imina ed agains in hei ca ee s
due no only o he pe sis ence o gende s e eo ypes bu also o long wo king hou s. S udying
women’s pe cep ions o he easons o disc imina ion a wo k, as well as he ela ionship be ween
wo king ime and equali y a wo k, can be impo an o unde s anding he unde - ep esen a ion o
women in leade ship posi ions and can help en ich public policies in his a ea.
Keywo ds: gende equali y a wo k; wo king ime; pe cep ions o disc imina ion; gende s e eo-
ypes; o e ime
1. In oduc ion
In an ‘always-on’ socie y, based on he ubiqui ous use o communica ion and in o ma-
ion echnologies (ICT), indi iduals a e able o keep in cons an con ac . Wi h he expansion
o ICT, new o ms o wo k and he use o elewo king o hyb id wo king, mo e and mo e
wo ke s ecognise ha hey emain elec onically connec ed o hei wo k e en when hey
ha e inished hei wo king hou s (Golden 2012;Haines e al. 2012;OECD 2016;Eu opean
Commission 2020). Consequen ly, some indi iduals ha e de eloped he habi o being pe -
manen ly connec ed wi h o he s. This si ua ion will pa icula ly a ec wo ke s who ha e
amily esponsibili ies, especially women (Bu chell and Fagan 2004;C omp on e al. 2007;
A azcoz and Gu ié ez Ve a 2012;Fagan e al. 2012;And inga e al. 2015;A azcoz e al.
2016;A azcoz 2021). Some ecen s udies epo , long hou s o paid wo k a e associa ed
wi h a wo se wo k-li e balance (Eu o ound 2018;Eu o ound 2021a). Bu chell and Fagan
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14080188 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188 2 o 14
(2004) show ha wo k in ensi y has a nega i e e ec on wo k-li e balance, wi h his e ec
being s onge in women han in men.
Women’s massi e access o he labou ma ke has been widesp ead in Eu opean
coun ies. Two ou o e e y h ee ne new jobs in he EU o e he las wo decades
ha e been illed by women, and al hough he esul has been a educ ion in he gende
employmen gap, i s ill pe sis s in almos all EU Membe S a es (Eu o ound 2021a). This
happens, especially, as gende s e eo ypes pe sis (Mahon 1998;Eu opean Commission
2009;Bain and Masselo 2012). In s udying he o igins o he EU’s gende equali y policy,
Bain and Masselo (2012) emphasise ha he e has been a poli ical consensus among
Membe S a es o ele a e gende equali y o a undamen al p inciple bu ha he issue
o wo k-li e balance is s ill a conce n o many Eu opeans and ha measu es mus be
aken o s eng hen women’s employmen . A gende s e eo ype is a gene alised (and
b oad) iew o a se o cha ac e is ics (o oles) a ibu ed o a ce ain pe son. Wi h ega d
o women in pa icula , gende s e eo yping is ha m ul when i limi s hei abili y o
de elop hei p o essional ca ee s. In many cases, hese s e eo ypes associa e women wi h
amily esponsibili ies and, as such, wi h less ime a ailable o wo k (especially wo king
o e ime). S e eo ypes a e ubiqui ous and con inue o in luence beha iou . I is, he e o e,
e y di icul o de e mine o wha ex en hey ep esen genuine p e e ences, o wha
ex en hey exp ess a social p e e ence, and o wha ex en hey a e a way o exp essing
an opinion (Eu opean Commission 2009). As he EIGE epo (EIGE 2018) s a es, gende
seg ega ion educes li e and employmen op ions, leads o inequali ies, and u he ein o ces
gende s e eo ypes while pe pe ua ing unequal powe ela ions be ween men and women. To
ul il he gende and employmen a ge s se ou in he Eu opean Pilla o Social Righ s Ac ion
Plan, women’s employmen condi ions mus emain a p io i y (Eu opean Commission 2015).
Some s udies e eal a double e ec : de eloped wel a e s a es acili a e women’s access
o he labou o ce bu no oo powe ul and desi able posi ions (Mandel and Semyono
2006). How i is ecognised, gende equali y is a mul i ace ed issue, pa icula ly wi h
ega d o gende s e eo ypes. The main ques ion when analysing gende s e eo ypes is he
ex en o which men and women di e in e ms o job quali y when all dimensions and
sub-dimensions (including wo king ime) a e conside ed simul aneously (Eu o ound 2020).
Fo example, he ques ion o gende s e eo yping a ises abo e all in ela ion o mo he hood.
Some au ho s ha e examined he link be ween mo he hood and occupa ional seg ega ion,
concluding ha mo he s a e mo e likely han women wi hou child en o be o e - and
unde - ep esen ed in ce ain p o essions (Hook and Pe i 2016).
The li e a u e shows ha seg ega ion in he labou ma ke is pa icula ly in ense in
he case o adi ionally male-domina ed p o essions (Eu o ound 2010), and he di e -
ences be ween men and women a e s ill e iden , pa icula ly in employmen pa e ns
and wo king condi ions, which e lec pe sis en seg ega ion be ween men and women
(Eu o ound 2013a). Th ough Di ec i e 2006/54/EC o he Eu opean Pa liamen and o he
Council he applica ion o he p inciple o equal ea men o men and women in ma e s o
employmen and occupa ion has been s eng hened (Eu opean Pa liamen & he Council o
he Eu opean Union 2006). In his line, he Eu opean Gende Equali y S a egy 2016–2019
concluded, among o he hings, ha he e is a need o implemen a cohe en amewo k o
gende equali y policies in Membe S a es (Eu opean Commission 2015).
Since he end o he las cen u y and he beginning o his cen u y, wo king ime has
become one o he main elemen s o Eu opean employmen policies since ime can be a
s uc u ing elemen in he o ganisa ion o wo k (Adne and Ha dy 2001;Bosch and Lehndo
2001;Askenazy 2004,2013). In he las h ee decades, companies ha e implemen ed inc easing
lexibili y in e ms o wo k managemen — ega ding wo king ime—in o de o gua an ee
he pu sui o hei business objec i es (ILO 2005;Eu o ound 2006). Howe e , wo king ime
managemen di ec ly impac s pe sonal in e es s (wo k-li e balance and he igh o es and
leisu e) and wo ke s’ heal h igh s (Ge shuny 2000;Dembe e al. 2005;Hein 2005;Fagan
e al. 2012;Gans e e al. 2018).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188 3 o 14
In he 1970s, deba es on wo king ime de eloped, linking his issue o he massi e
en y o women in o he labou ma ke (Ga nsey 1978;Ro hwell 1981;Rube y e al. 1998,
1999). S udying he cases o B i ain, F ance, he USA and Scandina ia, Ga nsey (1978)
ques ioned why so much ime is spen esea ching “new wo k pa e ns” when a numbe
o hese al eady exis in women’s wo king li es. In addi ion, since he 1990s, wi h he
de elopmen o ICT, new wo king me hods ha e eme ged, especially a e he nego ia ion
o he Wo king Time Di ec i e. Since hen, he p ocess o making wo king ime mo e
lexible has inc eased, wi h a iew o o ganising wo k in socially digni ied condi ions and
making i possible o combine wo k, amily, and pe sonal li e.
Companies ha e been mo e conce ned wi h ensu ing a wo k- amily balance (pa ic-
ula ly in iew o issues such as ma e ni y, childca e, and ca e o he elde ly) and, o his
ex en , wo king ime managemen policies should be gea ed owa ds mi iga ing wo k-
amily con lic s (Calm o s 1985;F eeman 1998;T zcinski and Hols 2011). Hence, wo king
ime lexibilisa ion policies ha e expanded o mee bo h wo ke s’ and employe s’ in e es s.
In addi ion, o e he las h ee decades, we ha e expe ienced a social p ocess o inc easing
lexibili y. This lexibilisa ion can lead o ei he a educ ion o an inc ease in wo king
hou s (Askenazy 2004;Adăscăli
,
ei e al. 2022). The inc easing de egula ion o he labou
ma ke —and he lexibilisa ion o wo king ime leading o wo k o e load— ela ed o he
combina ion o employmen and domes ic wo k may explain he ela ionship be ween
poo heal h s a us and poo psychological well-being in bo h sexes, bu mainly among
women in con inen al and sou he n Eu opean coun ies (A azcoz e al. 2016).
As has been ecognised, unde s anding how he o ganisa ion o wo king ime a ec s
he balance be ween wo k and p i a e li e is o undamen al impo ance (Eu o ound 2013b).
In 2013, on he basis o da a om Eu o ound’s i h Eu opean Wo king Condi ions Su ey
(EWCS), based on in e iews wi h mo e han 38,000 esponden s in 34 coun ies, Eu o ound
analysed he ela ionship be ween wo k and li e balance and p e e ences ega ding he
o ganisa ion o wo king ime.
O he s udies conside ha due o lexible wo king p ac ices, he e has been an
in ensi ica ion o wo k, wi h signi ican social consequences such as income inequali y and
longe wo king hou s (Hewle and Luce 2006;Russell e al. 2009;Kellihe and Ande son
2010;OECD 2015;Adăscăli
,
ei e al. 2022). Kellihe and Ande son (2010) examine employees’
expe iences o wo king om home o pa o he week and wo king educed hou s, show
how wo k in ensi ica ion impac s employees, and seek o explain he esponses o lexible
wo ke s. These au ho s iden i y ha inc eased e o may be imposed, allowed, o may be
a ecip ocal ac by employees in exchange o disc e ion o e wo k a angemen s.
Howe e , his lexibilisa ion has, in many cases, led o an inc ease in wo king hou s,
leading o o e ime (Golden 2012). As poin ed ou by se e al in e na ional o ganisa-
ions, he inc ease in wo king ime di ec ly impac s wo ke s’ wo king condi ions, con-
sequen ly a ec ing hei wo k pe o mance (Eu o ound and ILO 2017). Fu he mo e,
an inc ease in no mal wo king hou s does no ansla e in o be e wo king condi ions
(Eu o ound 2009,2016).
The e is, howe e , li e a u e on he bene i s o long wo king hou s ha sugges s ha
people who wo k longe hou s—as well as bene i om highe wage income—may bene i
om be e ca ee p ospec s. Using he B i ish Household Panel Su ey, Boo h e al. (2002)
ound e idence ha employees who wo ked mo e hou s pe week o o e ime signi ican ly
inc eased hei chances o p omo ion. Scase e al. (1999) concluded ha long-hou wo ke s
ha e access o be e jobs wi h highe wages. On he o he hand, he s udy o S ep oe e al.
(1998) sugges s ha educing paid wo king hou s could cause s ess o employees, as
i could lead o a educ ion in income. On he o he hand, s udies ha e been de eloped
ha analyse, namely, he ela ionship be ween gende di e ences, long wo king hou s
and he ype o con ac , assessing psychosocial and heal h isks (Dembe 2009;Be niell
and Bien enbeck 2017). Acco ding o he s udy by A azcoz and Gu ié ez Ve a (2012),
wo king up o 60 h a week was associa ed wi h job dissa is ac ion in bo h sexes and in
women wi h ne ous diso de s/dep ession. The au ho a gues ha long wo king hou s
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188 4 o 14
a e associa ed wi h p eca ious con ac s and mo e psychosocial isks, especially among
women. In a ecen s udy, he au ho concludes ha , al hough in ecen yea s, in e es in
heal h p oblems ela ed o long wo king hou s has inc eased, he e a e pe sis en gaps in
he li e a u e in es iga ing his ela ionship and he ac o s in ol ed (A azcoz 2021).
Also, Pa y e al. (2021) s udy he expe ience o wo king om home in he UK a
an indi idual and o ganisa ional le el, and, in ano he s udy, Rube y and Ta o a (2021)
iden i y ac o s o ensu e equali y be ween men and women in he con ex o he COVID-19
pandemic. These au ho s a gue ha he COVID-19 expe ience can be used o s eng hen
he gende dimension a wo k.
O he s udies highligh he gende issue, ocusing especially on women wi h young
child en a home. The s udy o And inga e al. (2015)—de eloped in 23 Eu opean coun ies—
shows ha he e is a s onge nega i e associa ion wi h women who ha e young child en a
home and ha e adi ional gende a i udes compa ed o women wi h egali a ian a i udes.
On he o he hand, Kay (2020) discusses he e olu ion o wo king ime in he UK and he
ac ha ull- ime wo ke s in he UK wo k he mos hou s in any EU coun y, seeking
o s udy he e olu ion o he leng h o he wo king week in he UK (Kay 2020). On he
o he hand, he li e a u e indica es ha gende s e eo ypes a ec women’s pe o mance
(Neschen and Hügelschä e 2021).
I should also be no ed ha ecen ly, Di ec i e (EU) 2024/1500 o he Eu opean Pa -
liamen and o he Council o 14 May 2024 lays down ules applicable o bodies o
equal ea men and oppo uni ies o women and men in ma e s ela ing o employmen
(Eu opean Pa liamen & he Council o he Eu opean Union 2024) As his Di ec i e s a es,
in o de o p omo e equal ea men and, in pa icula , o p e en disc imina ion, i is
impo an ha equali y bodies pay special a en ion o in e sec ional disc imina ion, unde -
s ood as disc imina ion based on a combina ion o sex and any o he g ound o g ounds
o disc imina ion.
A e he concep ual amewo k p esen ed in his In oduc ion—in which he li e a u e
ela ed o gende equali y and i s e ec s on women’s wo k and ca ee s and wo king ime
was analysed— he esea ch me hods o an explo a o y s udy ca ied ou in Po ugal a e
desc ibed, and he esea ch esul s a e p esen ed, ollowed by a discussion. The a icle ends
wi h conclusions and ecommenda ions o u u e wo k.
2. Me hods
2.1. A P e ious S udy and an Explo a o y Su ey Ca ied Ou in 2021
The aim o his a icle was o iden i y women’s pe cep ions o he main easons o
disc imina ion a wo k and in hei ca ee s and unde s and how wo king ime impac s he
li es o women wi h labou con ac s. To his end, his a icle also analyses wo king ime
policies in Po ugal in he las decade. As some s udies ecognise, he di e en gene a ions
ha e been socialised in o belie ing ha s a es ensu e gende equali y—no leas because i
s ems om na ional egula ions—bu he way in which di e en gene a ions o women
con inue o expe ience pe sonal gende inequali y in e e yday li e poin s o a pa adox
(Melby e al. 2008). Fo his eason, when designing he me hodology o his s udy, i
was c ucial o iden i y women’s pe cep ions o disc imina ion, hei iew o hemsel es as
indi iduals (Fische and Holz 2007), and hei p oblems wi h ca ee p og ession. Th ee
esea ch ques ions guided his s udy: RQ1—Wha do women employees pe cei e o be he
main easons o disc imina ion a wo k and in hei ca ee s? RQ2—A e he main easons
o disc imina ion a wo k associa ed wi h women wi h amily esponsibili ies, namely
child en? RQ3—Is he e a speci ic associa ion be ween disc imina ion agains women wi h
child en and hei lack o ime o wo k ou side o wo king hou s?
This s udy sough o emphasise he impo ance o s udying he ela ionship be ween
wo king ime and gende equali y a wo k, speci ically conside ing ha he li e a u e shows
ha women a e unde mo e p essu e o combine wo k and amily li e. As men ioned in he
In oduc ion, he li e a u e has pa icula ly assessed he impac o wo king ime on wo ke s’
heal h and sa e y, wages, and wo k- amily balance bu has no del ed in o he impo ance

Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188 5 o 14
o he link be ween wo king ime policies and gende equali y a wo k, especially he
assessmen o i s impac on he ca ee s o women wi h child en. Thus, his a icle explo es
he po en ial o s eng hening he link be ween wo king ime and gende equali y a wo k
and highligh s his associa ion based on an empi ical s udy conduc ed in Po ugal. Fi s ,
an assessmen o public policies in Po ugal was made o e he las decade h ough a desk
e iew o da a p esen ed by he OECD and Eu o ound on wo king ime in Po ugal, as
well as by he Po uguese Minis y o Labou (MTSSS). Based on a p e ious s udy—ca ied
ou in 2015 on gende equali y in he Po uguese banking sec o —o 30 semi-s uc u ed
in e iews wi h emale wo ke s which indi ec ly analysed he impac o o e ime on
wo k (Rebelo 2019), a su ey (non-p obabili y sample) on wo king ime in 2021. The
su ey, answe ed by 155 women wi h an employmen con ac , was a ailable online om
15 No embe o 16 Decembe 2021.
2.2. A Desk Re iew in Po ugal
A amewo k was c ea ed by analysing documen s and li e a u e on wo king ime
policies o e he las decade in he Po uguese labou con ex , i.e., he policies adop ed since
he Economic and Financial Assis ance P og amme was implemen ed in Po ugal in 2011.
The e o e, his a icle p o ides a comp ehensi e analysis o wo king ime and labou law
e o ms in Po ugal since hen, as well as iden i ying assessmen s made na ionally (by he
Po uguese Minis y o Labou ) and in e na ionally by he ILO on he inc ease in long
wo king hou s in Po ugal. A di e se documen a y analysis was ca ied ou o unde s and
he policies ha ha e been implemen ed in he Po uguese labou ma ke since 2011.
OECD poin s ou ha Po ugal was one o he Eu opean coun ies expe iencing one o
he mos se ious declines in a ious indica o s o well-being, mainly due o job unce ain y,
as well as he inc ease in long wo king hou s (OECD 2017). Fo i s pa , Eu o ound (2019)
highligh s ha in 2018, Po ugal was among he EU coun ies wi h he longes wo king
hou s. In addi ion, in a p e ious epo , Eu o ound unde lined ha a he Eu opean le el,
women con inue o spend mo e ime in wo k ac i i ies han men. In 2015, women spen ,
on a e age, 58 h on paid and unpaid wo k (domes ic wo k, ca e o child en and o he
household membe s), and men only 52.5 h. A he same ime, he di e ence be ween ac ual
and p e e ed hou s o wo k is g ea e o men, especially i hey a e in he pa en ing phase
o hei li es (Eu o ound 2017). Thus, he da a om his su ey co obo a e he need o an
analysis ha links o e ime o equali y be ween men and women a wo k.
Gende equali y and he empowe men o women a e among he 17 Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals es ablished by he 2030 Agenda o Sus ainable De elopmen (UN
2006;UN 2015). The ac o s ha explain he dispa i ies be ween men and women mus
be well analysed and unde s ood in o de o imp o e na ional public policies (ILO 2020).
Also, as emphasised in he Global Wage Repo 2018/19, he analysis mus be placed in
he b oade con ex o o he dimensions o inequali y be ween women and men, including
ca ee p og ession (ILO 2018b). As his epo emphasises, a “glass ceiling” pe sis s in
Po ugal ha p e en s women om ha ing equal access o op posi ions (ILO 2018b, p. 121),
and policies ha elimina e dispa i ies be ween men and women mus be s eng hened
(ILO 2018b).
As highligh ed, long wo king hou s ha e inc eased in Po ugal since 2011. In 2011,
changes o he Po uguese Labou Code we e mainly linked o wo ag eemen s: he MoU
(Memo andum o Unde s anding on Economic Policy Condi ionali y, signed wi h he Eu o-
pean Commission) and he Commi men o G ow h, Compe i i eness and Employmen ,
a social dialogue ag eemen be ween he go e nmen , employe con ede a ions, and he
ade union cen e União Ge al de T abalhado es/UGT. These p o isions amended a ious
pa s o he Labou Code, including legal p o isions on wo king ime, wi h he aim o
inc easing he lexibili y o wo king ime by ein o cing some o he changes in he 2009
Labou Code (ILO 2018a, p. 74). As is emphasised in his documen , i is impo an o
conside he e olu ion o wo king hou s in his las decade because while in 2016, in he
EU, an a e age o 40.3 h was wo ked du ing a no mal wo king week, in Po ugal, his
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188 6 o 14
a e age inc eased o 41 h pe week in ha same yea (ILO 2018a, p. 76). As his epo
no es, based on Eu os a da a, om 2009 o 2016, Po ugal was one o he EU Membe
S a es wi h he highes a e age numbe o weekly wo king hou s. This epo s esses ha
he ise in wo king hou s happened in he “ ime pe iod a e he legal changes in oduced
in 2011” (ibidem). Acco ding o Eu o ound da a in 2018, in he EU28, he usual wo king
week was 40.2 h, he same as in 2017 and 0.1 h sho e han in 2016. In he EU15, he
wo king week was 40.1 h, 2.7 h longe han he a e age ag eed hou s in he same g oup
o coun ies (Eu o ound 2019, p. 14). Denma k (37.8 h), No way (38.5 h), I aly and he
Ne he lands (bo h wi h 39 h) we e he coun ies wi h he sho es weekly wo king hou s.
On he o he hand, Po ugal (40.8 h) was one o he coun ies wi h he longes weekly
wo king hou s (ibidem).
In Po ugal, acco ding o o icial da a om he Minis y o Labou , he ac i i y a e o
women is a ound 73%, abo e he Eu opean a e age o app oxima ely 68%, and close o he
male ac i i y a e o 78% (MTSSS 2021, p. 95). A he same ime, women ep esen 50% o
employmen in Po ugal, while he Eu opean a e age a e o eminisa ion o employmen is
s ill 46%, and only 11% o women wo k pa - ime (ibidem). As his epo shows, al hough
women and men alue paid wo k equally, i is s ill women who ha e he mos di icul y
in econciling wo k wi h amily and pe sonal li e (MTSSS 2021, p. 96). On he o he hand,
almos 40% o women say ha hey ha e al eady in e up ed hei ca ee s o ca e o
hei child en, compa ed o jus o e 8% o men. Fu he mo e, he majo i y o in o mal
ca e s, i.e., people who p o ide assis ance o amily membe s in si ua ions o agili y
o dependency, a e women (ibidem). In Po ugal, he unde - ep esen a ion o women in
leade ship and decision-making posi ions pe sis s (MTSSS 2021, p. 106). As conside ed
in his documen , he balanced managemen o ime appea s as a decisi e a iable in
he condi ions o concilia ion be ween wo k and amily li e, and i is, he e o e, a c i ical
elemen om he poin o iew o imp o ing he demog aphic p ospec s o he coun y.
Gi en he o e load o which women a e s ill subjec ed, he issue o wo king ime eme ges
ans e sally as a c i ical elemen o measu es o encou age bi h a es in Po ugal.
Acco ding o he 2018 ad hoc module o he Po uguese Employmen Su ey, dedica ed
o he econcilia ion o wo k and amily li e, 22.4% o ca egi e s epo ha ing obs acles
in hei wo k ha condi ion econcilia ion, he mos ele an being he unp edic abili y
o he schedule o a ypical schedule (6.8%) (MTSSS 2021, pp. 96–97). Fu he mo e, in
Po ugal, employe s we e less inclined o he educ ion o wo king ime and mo e in a ou
o combined o ms o ex ension o wo king hou s (Eu o ound 2021b).
The legisla ion in Po ugal o mally ensu es he equali y o men and women in he
labou ma ke . The Cons i u ion o he Po uguese Republic— h ough A icle 13 (unde
he i le P inciple o Equali y and Non-Disc imina ion)— ejec s he possibili y o any
disc imina ion be ween people based on sex, gua an eeing espec o he equal ea men
o men and women. A e wa ds, and ollowing he p inciple laid down in pa ag aph (a) o
no. 1 o A icle 59 o he Po uguese Cons i u ion ha “ o equal wo k, equal pay”—and
emphasising ha di e ences in emune a ion do no cons i u e disc imina ion i based
on objec i e c i e ia common o men and women— he Po uguese Labou Code ensu es
equal wo king condi ions, pa icula ly o male and emale wo ke s [A icle 28(1)]. In he
Po uguese Labou Code, he legal limi is a maximum o eigh hou s o wo k pe day up
o a maximum o 40 h pe week [A icle 203(1)], bu indi idual ag eemen o collec i e
labou ag eemen s may se di e en maximum limi s, admi ing he p ac ice o no mal
daily wo king pe iods o up o 12 h.
Despi e se ing maximum limi s on wo king hou s, Po uguese labou law es ablishes
se e al mechanisms o making he o ganisa ion o wo king ime mo e lexible. The e o e,
hese lexible wo king a angemen s can lead o an inc ease in no mal wo king hou s o
a maximum o 10 o 12 h pe day and 50 o 60 h pe week. The e was a sha p inc ease o
21% in he numbe o employees in he “Indi idual Adap abili y Scheme” be ween 2010
and 2014 (MTSSS 2016, p. 267), a o m o wo king ime managemen ha allows no mal
weekly wo king pe iods o 50 h. As s a ed in his documen om he Minis y o Labou ,
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188 7 o 14
he ac ha in Po ugal “76.3% o wo ke s wi h employmen con ac s a e co e ed by a
lexible way o o ganising wo king ime” demons a es he impac o hese wo king ime
a angemen s in oduced in 2009 and 2012 in Po uguese law (MTSSS 2016, p. 268). Also,
acco ding o he epo Gende Equali y Index 2019, in Po ugal, gende inequali ies a e
mos p onounced in he domains o powe (46.7 poin s) and ime (47.5 poin s), and p og ess
has s alled in he domains o ime (+0.2 poin s) (EIGE 2019).
3. Resul s and Discussion
This a icle seeks o emphasise he impo ance o s udying he link be ween wo king
ime and gende equali y a wo k and he need o assess hei impac on women’s ca ee
pa hs. This is a way o ob ain mo e comple e knowledge o he condi ions o equali y
be ween women and men a wo k. The e o e, in o de o ga he in o ma ion o diagnose
and cha ac e ise his pu pose, in 2021, a s udy ca ied ou in Po ugal by Rebelo (2019)
was complemen ed and upda ed. This s udy was ca ied ou h ough 30 in e iews wi h
emale bank employees. The impac o long wo king hou s on women’s wo k-li e balance
was assessed, pa icula ly in e ms o ca ee p omo ions and access o op posi ions in
companies. This s udy concluded ha he inc ease in long wo king hou s s ongly a ec s
women, as hey a e he mos equen amily ca e s. I was possible o g oup hemes o
analysis, speci ically conside ing he need o econcile wo k and amily: o ganisa ion o
wo king ime, pe o mance e alua ion and ca ee p og ession. Wo king ime s ood ou as a
majo ac o in econciling wo k and amily li e and in pe o mance wi hin he o ganisa ion.
The main conclusion o his s udy was ha all he women in e iewed conside ed ha
he longe wo king hou s c ea ed by he measu es o make wo king ime mo e lexible
inc eased gende disc imina ion in pe o mance app aisals since i is women who p o ide
mo e amily ca e.
Thus, in addi ion o hese in e iews, in No embe 2021, a “wo king ime su ey”
was launched on he In e ne , aimed a women wi h an employmen con ac h oughou
he coun y. This su ey explained, in he in oduc ion, ha he aim was o ind ou abou
he condi ions unde which wo king women o ganise hei wo king ime in Po ugal. The
ex also ensu ed he con iden iali y o he answe s (used solely o s a is ical pu poses),
gua an eeing anonymi y. Pa icipa ion was olun a y and p eceded by in o med con-
sen , which consis ed o eading and accep ing he decla a ion a he s a o comple ing
he ques ionnai e.
Mo e speci ically, bo h he in o ma ion ga he ed sough o iden i y he main con-
s ain s o women in wo k/ amily balance, pa icula ly in e ms o he o ganisa ion o
wo king ime. Taking in o conside a ion he mul idimensional na u e o he issue and i s
in e connec ions by delimi ing he objec i es o he esea ch, he pu pose was o unde s and
he e ec s o wo king ime public policies, in pa icula , on he econcilia ion o wo k and
amily li e o women. A s a is ical analysis was applied o his su ey, and ca ego ical
a iables a e p esen ed as equencies (pe cen ages). The associa ion be ween ca ego ical
a iables was analysed using he Chi-squa ed es . Values o p< 0.05 we e conside ed
signi ican . S a is ical analysis was ca ied ou using he IBM SPSS S a is ics o Windows
p og amme, e sion 27.0. The “2021 wo king ime su ey”, wi h 16 ques ions (closed,
some o hem allowing o mul iple answe s), was s uc u ed in wo pa s: he i s one
conce ning he pe sonal and con ac ual p o ile o he esponden s—age (Q.1), ma i al
s a us (Q.2), numbe o child en (Q.3), le el o educa ion (Q.4), p o essional ca ego y (Q.5),
employmen con ac (Q.6) senio i y (Q.7) and esidence (Q.8)—and he o he pa ela ing
o wo king ime and wo king condi ions, namely (Q.9), pe cep ion o disc imina ion a
wo k and in p o essional ca ee s (Q.10), main easons o eeling disc imina ed agains and
(Q.11) main easons o di icul ies in ca ee p og ession. In his s udy, i was pa icula ly
in e es ing o analyse he esul s o hese h ee ques ions. Q.12 o Q.16 o his su ey
ocused on he speci ic a icula ion o wo king ime and elewo king, an issue ha will
be analysed in ano he esea ch. O he 155 women su eyed, 56.1% we e ma ied o
li ing in ci il pa ne ships. As o he numbe o child en, 36.1% o he esponden s had
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 188 8 o 14
no child en, 31% o he women su eyed had one child, 28.4% o he esponden s had
wo child en, and 4.5% o he women had h ee o mo e child en. When asked i hey had
e e el disc imina ed agains in hei p o essional ca ee (Q.9), he majo i y o women
answe ed yes. The answe s o Q.9 we e analysed by compa ing he women who said hey
el disc imina ed agains (63.9%) wi h hose who had said hey did no eel disc imina ed
agains (36.1%). The compa ison is made by aking in o accoun age, numbe o child en
and educa ion (Table 1).
Table 1. Pe cep ion o disc imina ion a wo k and in p o essional ca ee s (Q.9).
Q.9 (n= 155) Age G oup n(%)
N.º o Child en
n(%) Educa ion Le el n(%)
18–35 11 (11.1) None 30 (30.3) Up o he 9 h g ade 2 (0.02)
Yes 36–50 52 (52.5) One 28 (28.3) Up o he 12 h g ade 19 (19.2)
99 (63.9%) ≥51 36 (36.4) Two 37 (37.4) Deg ee 31 (31.3)
Th ee o mo e 4 (0.04) P-g ad./mas e ’s/doc . Deg ee 47 (47.5)
18–35 21 (0.4) None 26 (46.4) Up o he 9 h g ade 0 (0)
No 36–50 24 (42.9) One 20 (35.7) Up o he 12 h g ade 9 (16.1)
56 (36.1%) ≥51 11 (19.6) Two 7 (0.1) Deg ee 31 (55.4)
Th ee o mo e 3 (0.05) P-g ad./mas e ’s/doc . Deg ee 16 (26.6)
In Q.9, by he numbe o child en, o he esponden s who answe ed who el dis-
c imina ed agains , he majo i y o women (65.7%) had child en: 37.4% o women had
wo child en, and 28.3% had one child. As o he women who said hey did no eel
disc imina ed agains , he majo i y o women had no child en (46.4%), and 35.7% had one
child (Table 1). Especially conside ing he answe s o Q.9 and no ing ha 63.9% o he
women say hey eel disc imina ed agains , we ied o ind ou whe he his eeling is
associa ed wi h hei age, whe he o no hey ha e child en and hei le el o educa ion.
Th ee analyses we e ca ied ou . I was possible o conclude ha eeling disc imina ed
agains was associa ed wi h age (
χ2
2=
16.044), p- alue < 0.001). Rega ding he ques ion o
whe he eeling disc imina ed agains is independen o ha ing child en, we obse ed ha
69.7% o he women in e iewed conside ed ha hey el disc imina ed agains o ha ing
child en (Figu e 1).
Adm.Sci.2024,14,xFORPEERREVIEW9o 16



Figu e1.Pe cei eddisc imina iona wo k o ha ingchild en.
I waspossible oconclude ha  eelingdisc imina ionisno independen o ha ing
child eno no (𝜒
 4.031),p‐ alue=0.045.Thismayindica e ha womenwi h amily
esponsibili ies,who end oa oido e ime, eeldisc imina edagains in hei pe o ‐
mancep eciselybecause hey econcilewo kand amilyli e.I waspossible oconclude
ha  he ac  ha awoman eelsdisc imina edagains isassocia edwi hhe age(𝜒

16.044,p‐ alue<0.001),wi h he ac o ha ingo no ha ingchild en(𝜒
 4.031,
p‐ alue=0.045)andwi hhe le elo educa ion(𝜒
 8.802,p‐ alue=0.012).
WhenanalysingQ.10,o  hosewomenwhoanswe edwho el disc imina ed
agains (Q.10,wi hmul ipleanswe s),69.7%conside ed ha i wasdue ogende s e e‐
o ypes,18.2%answe ed ha  heyhadsmallchild en oassis ,and14.1%said ha  hey
didno ha e imea ailableou sidewo kinghou s.I weconside  heselas  wo easons,
32.3%o  emale esponden s ecognise helacko a ailabili yo women o o e ime.
Thewomenwho esponded ha i wasdue ogende s e eo ypes(69.7%,n=69in99
womenwhoanswe edyes)we eanalysedin e mso age,numbe o child enandedu‐
ca ion(Table2).Whenanalysing hisques ionby henumbe o child en,i canbeseen
ha  hemajo i yo  esponden s(66,7%)ha echild en:39.1%ha e wochild en,23.2%
ha eonechild,and4.4%ha e h eeo mo echild en.
These esul sco obo a e hes udiesbyA azcozandGu ié ezVe a(2012),A ‐
azcoze al.(2016),A azcoz(2021),And ingae al.(2015)andGans e e al.(2018)ei he 
byshowing ha  he eisanassocia ionbe weeno e imeandlongwo kinghou sand
womenwi hyoungchild en,o bydemons a ing ha  hesehou sha e epe cussionson
women’s econcilia ionwi h hei  amilyli es.
Table2.Gende s e eo ypesasa eason obedisc imina edagains (Q.10,wi hmul ipleanswe s).
Q.10(yes,n=99) Age
G oupn(%)N.ºo 
Child enn(%)Educa ionLe eln(%)
 18—357(10.1)None23(33.3)Up o he9 hg ade2(2.9)
ʺgende 
s e eo ypesʺ 36—5040(58.0)One16(23.2)Up o he12 hg ade14(20.3)
69(69.7%)>=5122(31.9)Two27(39.1)Deg ee20(29.0)
   Th eeo 
mo e3(4.4)P‐g ad./mas e ʹs/doc .
Deg ee33(47.8)
Figu e 1. Pe cei ed disc imina ion a wo k o ha ing child en.
I was possible o conclude ha eeling disc imina ion is no independen o ha ing
child en o no (
χ2
1=
4.031), p- alue = 0.045. This may indica e ha women wi h amily
esponsibili ies, who end o a oid o e ime, eel disc imina ed agains in hei pe o mance