S ee , Cassand a
Wo king Pape
Space ci izen: The gap be ween you, me and he
go e nance o space
CIGI Pape s, No. 314
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion (CIGI), Wa e loo, On a io
Sugges ed Ci a ion: S ee , Cassand a (2025) : Space ci izen: The gap be ween you, me and he
go e nance o space, CIGI Pape s, No. 314, Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion (CIGI),
Wa e loo (On a io)
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/311808
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025
Space Ci izen:
The Gap Be ween You, Me
and he Go e nance o Space
Cassand a S ee
CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025
Space Ci izen
The Gap Be ween You, Me
and he Go e nance o Space
Cassand a S ee
Abou CIGI
The Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion (CIGI) is an independen ,
non-pa isan hink ank whose pee - e iewed esea ch and us ed analysis
in luence policy make s o inno a e. Ou global ne wo k o mul idisciplina y
esea che s and s a egic pa ne ships p o ide policy solu ions o he digi al
e a wi h one goal: o imp o e people’s li es e e ywhe e. Headqua e ed
in Wa e loo, Canada, CIGI has ecei ed suppo om he Go e nmen o
Canada, he Go e nmen o On a io and ounde Jim Balsillie.
À p opos du CIGI
Le Cen e pou l’inno a ion dans la gou e nance in e na ionale (CIGI) es un g oupe
de é lexion indépendan e non pa isan don les eche ches é aluées pa des pai s
e les analyses iables inci en les décideu s à inno e . G âce à son éseau mondial de
che cheu s plu idisciplinai es e de pa ena ia s s a égiques, le CIGI o e des solu ions
poli iques adap ées à l’è e numé ique dans le seul bu d’amélio e la ie des gens du
monde en ie . Le CIGI, don le siège se ou e à Wa e loo, au Canada, béné icie du
sou ien du gou e nemen du Canada, du gou e nemen de l’On a io e de son onda eu ,
Jim Balsillie.
Copy igh © 2025 by he Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion
The opinions exp essed in his publica ion a e hose o he au ho and do no
necessa ily e lec he iews o he Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion
o i s Boa d o Di ec o s.
Fo publica ions enqui ies, please con ac [email p o ec ed].
The ex o his wo k is licensed unde CC BY 4.0. To iew a copy o his licence,
isi h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/.
Fo euse o dis ibu ion, please include his copy igh no ice. This wo k may
con ain con en (including bu no limi ed o g aphics, cha s and pho og aphs)
used o ep oduced unde licence o wi h pe mission om hi d pa ies.
Pe mission o ep oduce his con en mus be ob ained om hi d pa ies di ec ly.
Cen e o In e na ional Go e nance Inno a ion and CIGI a e egis e ed
adema ks.
67 E b S ee Wes
Wa e loo, ON, Canada N2L 6C2
www.cigionline.o g
C edi s
Managing Di ec o and Gene al Counsel Aa on Shull
Di ec o , P og am Managemen Dianna English
P og am Manage Jenny Thiel
Publica ions Edi o Ch is ine Robe son
Publica ions Edi o Susan Bubak
G aphic Designe Sepideh Shomali
Table o Con en s
i Abou he Au ho
i Ac onyms and Abb e ia ions
1 Execu i e Summa y
1 In oduc ion
2 Ac o s in he Space Scape
9 Building he Space Ci izen Model
13 Closing he Gap Be ween You, Me and he Go e nance o Space
17 Wo ks Ci ed
i CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025 • Cassand a S ee
Abou he Au ho
Cassand a S ee is chai and ounde o he
Aus alian Cen e o Space Go e nance, and
concu en ly depu y di ec o o he Aus alian
Na ional Uni e si y (ANU) Ins i u e o Space.
Globally ecognized o he expe ise in space
go e nance, space law and space secu i y, she
has published widely on hese opics, including
he applica ion o he law o a med con lic and
use o o ce in ou e space. She has se ed as a
consul an on hese issues o he Aus alian,
Canadian and US depa men s o de ence; he
Aus alian Space Agency; and he Aus alian
Depa men o Fo eign A ai s and T ade. She has
augh space law and space secu i y a McGill
Uni e si y, he ANU College o Law, he Na ional
Secu i y College and he Aus alian Wa College.
Cassand a is mul ilingual and has li ed and wo ked
in i e coun ies ac oss ou con inen s. She has
deg ees in philosophy, ci il law, in e na ional
law and in e na ional c iminal law, and aining
in common law, compa a i e law and space law.
She is a membe o he Aus alian Space Agency’s
Technical Ad iso y G oup o Space Si ua ional
Awa eness, an associa e expe on he Woome a
Manual on he In e na ional Law o Mili a y
Space Ope a ions, a membe o he Space T a ic
Managemen Commi ee o he In e na ional
Academy o As onau ics and a membe o
he In e na ional Ins i u e o Space Law.
Ac onyms and
Abb e ia ions
ASAT an i-sa elli e
COPUOS Commi ee on Peace ul
Uses o Ou e Space
EO Ea h obse a ion
ESA Eu opean Space Agency
ISS In e na ional Space S a ion
IT in e ne echnology
NATO No h A lan ic T ea y O ganiza ion
OEWG open-ended wo king g oup
OST Ou e Space T ea y
PNT posi ion, iming and na iga ion
SSA space si ua ional awa eness
UNGA UN Gene al Assembly
UNOOSA UN O ice o Ou e Space A ai s
1Space Ci izen: The Gap Be ween You, Me and he Go e nance o Space
Execu i e Summa y
Exis ing space go e nance ins i u ions and
mechanisms a e buil on a wen ie h-cen u y
eali y, when s a es we e he main ac o s and
he main, i only, subjec s o in e na ional law.
While in e na ional space law and mul ila e al
ins i u ions a e acing p essu es in he wen y-
i s -cen u y “spacescape,” hey should no be
dis ega ded o eplaced en i ely. The amewo k
hey p o ide is an impo an ounda ion. Ra he ,
wha is needed is an expansi e lens o wo k
owa d new app oaches o he wicked p oblems
o space go e nance, including sa e y, secu i y and
sus ainabili y. The numbe and ype o space ac o s,
he e e -inc easing na u e o human ac i i y in
space, he dual-use na u e o mos space se ices
and he ulne abili y o ci ilians in he e en o
a loss o space-based se ices: all o hese ac o s
c ea e wicked complexi ies. An expansi e cogni i e
app oach is p oposed: ha o he indi idual “space
ci izen.” Since we a e all dependen on space-
based echnologies, we all ha e a es ed in e es
in he good go e nance o he space en i onmen
and ou impac upon i . Exis ing no ions o he
“global ci izen” and “plane a y ci izen” should be
expanded o he “space ci izen,” so ha we can
ac i a e ou own indi idual pa icipa ion in new
go e nance app oaches ha a e mul i-s akeholde ,
mu i-domain, inclusi e and in e gene a ional.
In oduc ion
In 1987, au ho F ank Whi e (2014) coined he
e m “ he o e iew e ec ” o desc ibe he
pa adigma ic shi in pe spec i e and alues
ha many as onau s epo ed ollowing hei
space ligh expe iences. A numbe o as onau s
became commi ed en i onmen alis s, ha ing seen
om abo e he impac o he An h opocene on
ou plane , and epo ed emo ional and spi i ual
shi s ega ding hei sense o iden i y as global
o plane a y ci izens. Whi e asse ed ha his is a
cogni i e shi , possibly a nex s ep in collec i e
human de elopmen . He has also a gued ha
as mo e humans ha e access o his expe ience
h ough u u e space ou ism, mo e o us will
shi ou sense o iden i y away om na ional
limi a ions owa d being global ci izens, wi h a
sense o esponsibili y o ou plane . Simila ly,
he pho o known as “Ea h ise,” a iew o Ea h
ising o e he luna ho izon ha was aken in
1968 by one o he Apollo 8 c ew membe s om
wi hin hei capsule, is o en desc ibed as one o
he mos aluable a i ac s om his inaugu al
c ewed luna mission, and is a guably “ he mos
in luen ial en i onmen al pho og aph e e
aken.”1 C ew membe Bill Ande s (2018) has since
s a ed ha he Apollo 8 mission — he i s -e e
c ewed space ligh o lea e Ea h o bi — was
de ined by his momen : “We se ou o explo e
he Moon and ins ead disco e ed he Ea h.”
This pape a gues ha he nex s age o human
cogni i e de elopmen mus expand on he
no ion o “global ci izen,” o e en “plane a y
ci izen,” o a wide no ion o “space ci izen.” Jus
as ou in e na ional in e ac ions and economies,
digi al echnologies and en i onmen al impac s
upon ou plane a e d i ing he no ion o global
ci izenship, ou echnological dependencies in,
in e ac ions wi h and impac s on space simila ly
equi e us o shi ou cogni i e iden i ies o
encompass no only ou plane , bu also ou nea -
Ea h space en i onmen . We mus expand ou
sphe e o awa eness o include he na u al space
en i onmen wi hin which ou Ea h sys em and
c i ical echnologies ope a e: an en i onmen upon
which we depend o ou indi idual, na ional and
global needs, and ye one on which we a e al eady
making a conce ning en i onmen al impac . The
“space ci izen” concep o iden i y can lead o close
indi idual, communi y and social engagemen
wi h hese issues, and an unde s anding ha
good space go e nance is in e wined wi h
he issues we ace on Ea h in he wen y- i s
cen u y, especially clima e change, he digi al
di ide, ood secu i y and geopoli ical ensions.
This expanded cogni i e amewo k a emp s o
co ec he cu en gene al lack o unde s anding
in he wide public and among decision make s
globally as o how much we al eady depend on
he space domain. Failing o adop his expanded
amewo k would con ibu e o a cu en
downwa d spi al in e ms o he sa e y, secu i y
and sus ainabili y o he space domain — including
cis-luna space. Con inuing o igno e ou ole as
space ci izens would deny in e gene a ional access
o and bene i s om space-based echnologies.
1 See www.abc.ne .au/science/moon/ea h ise.h m.
2CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025 • Cassand a S ee
Cu en global space go e nance mechanisms
a e buckling unde he p essu es o apid
echnological, poli ical, comme cial and mili a y
de elopmen s. Whe eas space ac i i ies in he
wen ie h cen u y we e p edominan ly go e nmen
ope a ed, and in ol ed a small numbe o s a es,
oday space is a mul i-s akeholde domain ha
includes comme cial se ice p o ide s, as well as
indi iduals, communi ies and socie ies who depend
on space-based se ices. In addi ion, he wo ld is
in a mul i-pola poli ical e a, which means ha
di e en poli ical, legal and go e nance solu ions
a e needed om hose ha we e success ul in he
la e wen ie h cen u y. Ins i u ions and ins umen s
ha ocus only on s a e in e ac ions c ea e an
un enable gap be ween space go e nance on
he one hand, and he wo ld’s popula ion on he
o he hand: bo h cu en and u u e gene a ions,
who a e dependen on he exis ence o a s able,
sa e and sus ainable space en i onmen .
The poli ical and go e nance landscape — o
“spacescape” — o he wen y- i s cen u y is as ly
di e en om ha o he wen ie h cen u y, which
ga e bi h o ou cu en global space go e nance
mechanisms. We need o unde s and wha exis ing
in e na ional space law and mul ila e alism can
and canno do, and o decide wha o do abou new
and di e en ac o s in he poli ical spacescape.
Adop ing he expanded cogni i e lens o he “space
ci izen” can con ibu e o e aming adi ional
app oaches o space law and space go e nance.
This pape does no p opose speci ic ins i u ional
solu ions o he p oblems o global space
go e nance. Ra he , i asse s ha in o de o ind
such solu ions, and ackle he mul iple in e wined
challenges o go e ning space, an expanded
amewo k is needed as o who should be making
decisions and how hey should be made. A “space
ci izen” amewo k begins wi h indi idual and
socie al shi s in awa eness o include space
in ou en i onmen al iden i y — i is a call o
each o us o iden i y as ha ing an indi idual
ela ionship wi h space because o ou collec i e
dependency on i and, as a esul , o ca e abou
wha happens in ou nea -Ea h en i onmen .
This amewo k leads o an expanded inclusion
o ac o s in decision-making p ocesses, as well
as clea no ma i e p inciples o unde pin ha
decision making. In some ways, i is a call o
pa icipa o y decision making on a plane a y scale.
Ac o s in he Space
Scape
Space echnologies a e ubiqui ous in ou daily li es,
and c i ical o na ional secu i y, economies and
well-being. They a e also ho oughly implica ed in
ansna ional economics, geopoli ical in e ac ions
and wa a e. The inc ease in global dependencies on
se ices om space sys ems has led o an un enable
inc ease in space a ic, and wi h i an inc ease in
space deb is, isking i e e sible impac s on ou
nea -Ea h en i onmen , as well as loss o se ice
a any gi en momen , due o collisions. The e a e
also inc eased isks o ci ilians o loss o c i ical
se ices due o delibe a e a ge ing du ing mili a y
g ey zone ope a ions and a med con lic on Ea h.
The mechanisms o go e ning hese inc eased
complexi ies in space emain e y much ocused on
he ole o s a es, bu he e a e se ious limi a ions
o his app oach. Mul ila e al discussions on space
a ms con ol and measu es o go e ning he
sus ainabili y o space a e s ymied by geopoli ical
jos ling, and he e ha e been calls o he UN
sys em o unde go majo e o m o some ime.
Meanwhile, some s a es insis ha ci il socie y
g oups and non-go e nmen expe s should no
be pa o hese impo an discussions (Hi chens
2022), and ye he p i a e sec o , ci il socie y and
academia seem o be mo ing owa d solu ions o
ill he gaps whe e s a es canno seem o ag ee. Add
o all o his he o e whelming comme cializa ion
o space, which has dis up ed he economic and
na ional secu i y models o in e ac ing wi h
comme cial p o ide s, and we ha e a coalescence
o ac o s making go e nance o space echnologies
and o he space en i onmen an o e whelming
challenge: Who is go e ning whom, and a e we
eally ackling he big issues in space apidly
enough? One o he bigges challenges is he change
in he na u e and numbe o ac o s engaged in
space ac i i ies o e ecen decades, dis up ing
adi ional app oaches o global space go e nance.
F om Space 1.0 o Space 4.0
In he la e hal o he wen ie h cen u y, his
poli ical landscape — o spacescape — was
also compe i i e, bu simple . The e we e ewe
playe s in he o iginal “Space Age,” and hey we e
all geopoli ically dominan s a es. Only weal hy
s a es had he economic and echnological
9Space Ci izen: The Gap Be ween You, Me and he Go e nance o Space
o he OST, bu a he new app oaches o ensu ing
hese alues and p omises a e enac ed and ul illed
o cu en and u u e gene a ions. A ci izen-
based app oach, buil om he indi idual up.
Building he Space Ci izen
Model
The gap be ween exis ing ins i u ions and
mechanisms ha we e es ablished o a wen ie h-
cen u y spacescape and wha is needed bo h now
and going o wa d ep esen s a democ a ic gap.
The implica ions o who has access o space-based
echnologies and se ices — and who has he
powe o go e n hose echnologies — a e el in he
s abili y o he global economy, he digi al gap o
mino i ized o disad an aged g oups, and he li es
o communi ies and indi iduals dependen on hese
echnologies. New and comp ehensi e go e nance
esponses a e needed ha include mul idisciplina y
and mul i-s akeholde engagemen , while also
building on he ounda ions o wen ie h-cen u y
solu ions. This is p ecisely he easoning behind
he case o he “space ci izen,” which is no only
a no ma i e and ins i u ional app oach, bu a he
a cogni i e one ha s a s wi h he indi idual.
A guably, he e ha e been gene a ional shi s o e
he las se e al decades om ha ing p ima ily local
o na ional iden i ies owa d holding egional o
global iden i ies. While his may no be ue in all
cul u es, he e is no doub ha he ad en o he
in e ne and he “in o ma ion age” impac ed he
way ha indi iduals ela e o e en s happening
a ound he wo ld. Access o in o ma ion when we
wan i , in nea - eal ime, has mean ha egional
shi s in he ea ly wen y- i s cen u y ha e all
occu ed in ou own digi al backya ds ins ead o
in a - lung co ne s o he globe; hese include he
b eakup o Eas e n Eu ope, he des abiliza ion o
he Middle Eas in he wake o he US esponse o
he Sep embe 11 a acks in 2001, he c ea ion and
hen agmen a ion o he Eu opean Union, he ise
o India and e-eme gence o China leading o he
beginning o he Asian cen u y and he decline o
he Ame ican cen u y, he powe shi s in A ica,
he Uk ainian esis ance o Russia’s de iance,
and he expansion o he No h Ame ican T ea y
O ganiza ion (NATO). Simila ly, echnopoli ics has
in o med us o decades ha access o da a can
change he way ha ci izens in e ac wi h and
impac hei poli ical and physical en i onmen s
(Ku ban, Peña-López and Habe e 2017; Milan
and Gu ie ez 2018). And he eali ies o clima e
change can be el locally and also wi nessed on
ou sc eens as na u al disas e s un old ac oss he
plane . As a esul , he en i onmen al man a o
he la e 1990s and ea ly 2000s o “ hink globally,
ac locally” la e mo phed in o “ hink globally, ac
globally,” as ci izens ha e mobilized in he ace o
global go e nance ailu es. “Global ci izenship” has
become a e m ha we all ecognize, and he e a e
e en calls o “plane a y ci izenship” as an e hical
amewo k o en i onmen al and clima e ac i ism
(Hende son and Ikeda 2004; Thompson 2001).
Mo e ecen ly, he COVID-19 pandemic c ea ed a
momen in ime when he popula ion o he en i e
plane was impac ed in my iad ways by a single
disease. While inequali ies became e en mo e
appa en in he wake o COVID-19, we will only
begin o unde s and i s long- e m gene a ional and
socie al e ec s o e ime. Bu i has been a de ining
momen o he cen u y, which has u he impac ed
how indi iduals iden i y wi hin hei communi ies
and beyond na ional bounda ies. Now we need o
ake a u he leap in ou cogni i e awa eness and
iden i ies o include ou nea -Ea h en i onmen .
The shi om “global ci izen” o “space ci izen”
is no so abs ac as i may seem a i s glance.
Because o ou dependency on space-based
echnologies in daily li e; ou economic and
poli ical in e ac ions; and ou na ional, egional
and in e na ional secu i y in e es s, we a e
al eady in e ac ing wi h he en i onmen jus
beyond ou plane a y bounda ies. And we a e
doing so p ecisely in he cou se o dealing wi h
ou o he local, egional and global c ises. We a e
al eady dependen on he good go e nance o his
en i onmen , as well as on i s echnologies and
ac i i ies. We a e he e o e al eady es ed in he
mechanisms, decisions and decision make s being
i o pu pose: we a e al eady space ci izens. The
ques ion is how o mo e owa d uly iden i ying
as space ci izens, and how his concep o iden i y
can c ea e a new amewo k o space go e nance.
An Indi idual Awa eness
A g ea e deg ee o awa eness is needed abou how
ulne able he s abili y and sus ainabili y o he
nea -Ea h en i onmen is, as well as he impac
his ulne abili y has on ou e es ial exis ence,
10 CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025 • Cassand a S ee
gi en how much space-based echnologies and
se ices pe mea e ou li es. This is a big ask when
he e is al eady so much in o ma ion and so
many global issues compe ing o ou a en ion,
bu hese issues a e all in e wined. EO da a,
elecommunica ions and access o he in e ne
and p ecision PNT a e all c i ical inpu s o ou
ea hly go e nance challenges. I we wish o
espond o clima e change, sol e housing needs,
ensu e ood secu i y, con ibu e o lou ishing
democ acies, p o ec cul u al he i age, inc ease
gende equi y, moni o bo de s and ishe ies,
and s abilize egional and in e na ional secu i y,
a signi ican piece o he puzzle o all o hese
issues comes om sa elli es. As UNOOSA
poin s ou , space echnologies con ibu e o all
17 o he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals.17
I is also a big ask o u n ou indi idual
a en ion o space issues when unde s anding
he poli ical, economic and echnological
con ex is mo e complex han i was jus a ew
decades ago. Howe e , his is also ue o all
global issues and is exac ly he eason why he
no ion o “space ci izen” needs o be ac i a ed.
E en he no ion o Space 4.0 may be limi ing, since
i lea es ou he indi idual — i is a desc ip ion
o in e ac ions be ween en i ies (companies, ci il
socie y g oups, s a es) and echnologies. I could
also be seen as a Eu ocen ic p ojec , as i is a
e m ha was coined by he ESA and assumes
a non-exis en equali y be ween pa icipan s
in he discou se on u u e space go e nance.
Space 4.0 unde pins he ESA no ion o “Moon
Village,” which is in ended o be “a p ocess a he
han a p ojec and…is mean o ini ia e a global
con e sa ion on humani y’s u u e on he Moon”
(Köpping A hanasopoulos 2019). This idea ga e
bi h o he Moon Village Associa ion, a non-
go e nmen o ganiza ion ha aims o “[ os e ]
coope a ion be ween go e nmen space agencies,
comme cial space en i ies, and academia o
ad ance humani y’s p esence on he Moon.”18 While
laudable in hei aspi a ions and s i ing o be
open and pa icipa o y, hese p ojec s s ill assume
equal access o he echnologies, ins i u ions
and discussions aking place, which is no he
s a us quo. The e is a isk ha hese p ojec s will
expe ience a simila unin ended Eu ocen ism,
17 See www.unoosa.o g/oosa/en/ou wo k/space4sdgs/index.h ml.
18 See h ps://moon illageassocia ion.o g/abou .
which was a majo pa o he down all o he
code o conduc in 2015 (S ee 2019, 757).
Some schola s ha e ad oca ed o applying
go e nance heo ies ha ha e eme ged om
en i onmen al and socio-ecological s udies, such
as polycen ic go e nance. Polycen ic go e nance
explains he mul iple laye s o go e nance
ins umen s and mechanisms ha ha e a isen o e
ecen decades and he ange o ac o s in ol ed in
hei incep ion and applica ion. Some see a hope
in his app oach o a i ing a use ul measu es o
sa e y, secu i y and sus ainabili y (Shackel o d 2014;
Mo in and Richa d 2021). Bu he inhe en challenge
is agmen a ion and possible compe i ion
be ween compe ing go e nance egimes. As Ey an
Teppe (2021) pu s i , “ he ini ial monocen ic,
quasi-hie a chic s uc u e o space go e nance is
expe iencing a slow-mo ion big bang, by which
he basic building blocks a e s ill he ea ly ones
p esen ed abo e, bu subsequen expansion and
e olu ion o space go e nance is decen alized. The
ine i able u u e o space go e nance is by a ious
o a o decision-making cen e s (‘go e nance
cen e s’), wi h a ious pa icipan s in oducing
a ious ou pu s in dis inc sub-issue-a eas.”
Simila ly, adap i e go e nance is a model ha
pu po s o be su icien ly lexible and agile o
adap o changing en i onmen al sys ems and
high le els o unce ain y. Michael R. Migaud,
Robe A. G ee and Jus in B. Bullock (2021, 6)
a gue ha space go e nance would bene i om
an adap i e go e nance model ha en ails: “(1)
an inclusi e dialog be ween esou ce use s; (2)
complex, edundan , and laye ed ins i u ions;
(3) mixed ins i u ional s yles (including ma ke
based and s a e based); and (4) ins i u ional
designs ha acili a e expe imen a ion, lea ning,
and change.” Bu while hese models can be
use ul ools in e hinking app oaches o space
go e nance, he isk o agmen a ion is high
and i appea s he e is insu icien coo dina ion
and pa icipa ion o communi ies o hem o
p o ide success ul models. One impo an ac o
is absen om hem bo h, namely, he indi idual
and hei place in communi ies and socie ies.
While we con inue o assume ha he only
s akeholde s in space a e he dominan ac o s
in i s physical domain (s a es, in e na ional and
egional o ganiza ions and comme cial en i ies),
we will con inue o ha e inadequa e esponses
o he challenges o space go e nance. Ra he , we
need a b oade , mo e inclusi e and in e ac i e
11Space Ci izen: The Gap Be ween You, Me and he Go e nance o Space
model ha in i es eal pa icipa ion by a wide
ne o s akeholde s (W igh Nelson 2024, 415).
This is why he “space ci izen” model s a s wi h
an indi idual cogni i e shi . I is ela ional in
he i s place, which equi es beginning wi h
ou indi idual iden i ies. Mo ing om “global” o
“plane a y” ci izen o space ci izen may be easie
o younge gene a ions, who ha e g own up wi h
an unp eceden ed access o in o ma ion abou he
wo ld and he plane , and o whom he clima e
c isis is hei bigges conce n. Bu his cogni i e
shi also equi es hose wi h decades o expe ience
in space go e nance challenges o look up and ou .
This is an oppo uni y o an indi idual ela ionship
wi h he space en i onmen , which equi es
lis ening o and p o iding guidance on wha has
and has no wo ked in he pas . Because we a e all
consume s o he bene i s o space echnologies,
he e is a esponsibili y o be an engaged ci izen in
his high- ech age. The space ci izen unde s ands
ha ou e es ial well-being in he wen y-
i s cen u y canno be di es ed om ce ain
echnology needs ela ed o communica ions,
closing he digi al di ide, and accessing
educa ion and da a o in o m clima e- esponse
decisions and manage ou wa e , ai and o he
na u al esou ces. The space ci izen is he e o e
conce ned wi h he esponsible managemen
o his na u al en i onmen al esou ce.
F om his indi idual cogni i e shi , a wide space
ci izen go e nance amewo k mus hen be:
→ mul i-s akeholde and mul i-domain;
→ global and inclusi e; and
→ in e gene a ional.
A Mul i-s akeholde and
Mul i-domain App oach
Fi s , his lens is necessa ily a mul i-s akeholde
app oach. C ea ing new go e nance mechanisms,
o ganiza ions and ins umen s ha a e su icien ly
agile and a he same ime p o ide su icien
ce ain y equi es a e aming o who he ac o s
a e ha ha e es ed in e es s and esponsibili ies.
The space ci izen app oach is inhe en ly
“bo om up,” which makes i possible o us
each o pa icipa e mo e ac i ely in he decision
making ha impac s ou space en i onmen
and he echnologies ha ope a e he e.
T adi ional space go e nance ins i u ions a e s ill
e y much op down, depending on he s a e o
implemen ules and legal amewo ks o es ain
go e nmen and non-go e nmen ac i i ies in
space. And o e all, hey a e insu icien ly inclusi e
o he p i a e sec o , despi e comme cial en i ies
domina ing he space economy and d i ing
echnological inno a ion. Buy-in om comme cial
space ac o s equi es hei inpu , and o en hey
can be e guide wha kinds o ules, p inciples,
bes p ac ices and s anda ds a e easible and
can assis in how o upda e hem o e ime.
Twen y- i s -cen u y space go e nance also
equi es c ea i e solu ions beyond adi ional
s a e-based mul ila e al o bila e al in e ac ions
and ag eemen s. As he Uni ed Na ions s uggles
unde i s own geopoli ical weigh and as
geos a egic ela ions shi , a mul i-s akeholde
app oach o space go e nance is he only
way o c ea e su icien escape eloci y om
cu en poli ical deadlocks. This includes gi ing
c edible weigh o ci il socie y and academic
expe ise, including om non-space- ela ed ields
such as nuclea a ms con ol, peace s udies,
cybe secu i y, en i onmen al s udies, Ea h-
sys em poli ics, ci cula economies, pa icipa i e
democ acy and a ange o o he ields dedica ed
o ackling he wicked p oblems o ou cen u y.
The e is al eady some ecogni ion o he ac
ha no ms and s anda ds en e ing in o space
go e nance ha e a mul i-s akeholde p o enance.
This is wha he schola ship on polycen ic
go e nance demons a es: ha we can obse e
mul iple decision-making o a wi h di e en g oups
o ac o s in e ac ing. Legal plu alism is a simila
desc ip i e aming; as one schola pu s i : “ he
space egime is plu alis ic no jus because he
e m encompasses local, na ional, and in e na ional
laws, and bo h binding ules and non-binding
ules. I is plu alis ic because i con ains a se ies
o o e lapping, unc ional no ma i e o de s
and a wide ange o s a e and non-s a e ac o s
ha shape i ” (W igh Nelson 2024, 362). The
esul ing plu alism may be p oblema ic i he e
a e no sha ed alues unde pinning each o hese
go e nance ini ia i es, o i he e a e insu icien
a enues o in e ac ion be ween all s akeholde s.
In his sense, he space ci izen app oach is also,
by de ini ion, mul i-domain. Space echnologies
equi e mul iple physical domains o hei
ope a ions, om land-based (and soon ma i ime-
based) launch, o impac ing ai a ic, o emo e
12 CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025 • Cassand a S ee
and cybe ope a ions. Space-based se ices a e
also mul i-domain, assis ing us in managing lands,
wa e s and skies. And mili a y h ea s o space
sys ems a e mul i-domain, wi h he da a links,
cybe in e e ences and po en ial a acks on g ound
s a ions being he g ea es ulne abili ies. Expe ise
om all hose domains is he e o e equi ed. And
concei ing o solu ions o space go e nance as pa
o a sys em o sys ems, a he han as some hing
only o specialis s, is he only way o wa d.
A Global and Inclusi e Lens
Second, since he space ci izen app oach is mul i-
s akeholde and mul i-domain, i mus also apply
a global lens and no one domina ed by Wes e n
poli ical alues o in e es s. This app oach has
implica ions o ou p ecious “in e na ional ules-
based o de ,” which is an inhe en ly Wes e n-d i en
agenda. We need o look beyond he “g ea powe s”
and see wha adi ional middle powe s and
ising powe s a e doing, as well as hei combined
impac wi h smalle na ions and non-aligned
egional in e es s, and mul ila e al diplomacy’s
desi e o ind sha ed in e es s be ween Wes e n
and non-Wes e n na ions. This p ocess builds
on decades o ad ocacy including he UNOOSA
Bene i s Decla a ion, which called on s a es o ake
in o pa icula accoun he needs o de eloping
coun ies as space ac i i ies expand,19 as well as
a body o schola ship ha iden i ies he need o
educe he inequali y in e ms o access o space-
based se ices, which would con ibu e o g ea e
s abili y in democ a ic, economic and e en ually
well-being me ics (Aganaba-Jean y 2016a,
2016b; an Eijk 2022; S ee 2019; T e ino 2020).
In doing so, he e is he po en ial o impac
domes ic and global space law and go e nance.
The ole o middle powe s and smalle na ions
has inc eased in his mul ipola e a. The e is
he e o e an oppo uni y o in o med ci izens
o impac wise space in es men decisions
on he pa o hei indi idual go e nmen s,
and o smalle na ions and middle powe s
o use space echnology coope a ion as a
policy le e o p o ec egional in e es s.
19 Decla a ion on In e na ional Coope a ion in he Explo a ion and Use
o Ou e Space o he Bene i and in he In e es o All S a es, Taking
in o Pa icula Accoun he Needs o De eloping Coun ies. GA Res
51/122, UNGAOR, 1997, online: <www.unoosa.o g/oosa/en/ou wo k/
spacelaw/p inciples/space-bene i s-decla a ion.h ml>.
The space ci izen lens is also inclusi e.
Decen alized o polycen ic app oaches can
be challenging and can lead o agmen a ion.
Mechanisms o space go e nance a e al eady
becoming agmen ed and di e se in na u e,
o m, sou ce and audience. The ask is o ensu e
ha he unde lying impe a i es and alues
a e simila enough ha compe i ion can be
educed. This can only be achie ed h ough
su icien oppo uni ies o co-design, including
comme cial p o ide s, ci il socie y, academic
expe s and a ange o communi y s akeholde s.
Because he space ci izen has a cogni i ely enla ged
iden i y ha expands ou wa ds o include he
space en i onmen as ou own en i onmen ,
i mus also, by de ini ion, be inclusi e o he
ange o exis ing iden i ies ha in e ac wi h and
depend upon space a he indi idual, communi y,
socie al, na ional, egional and global le els. This
concep means u he expanding who is included
in his mul i-s akeholde app oach and which
pe spec i es and lenses can be applied using i .
Fo example, Indigenous communi ies mus
ha e co-go e nance o e g ound in as uc u e
de elopmen on hei lands and da a so e eign y
when i comes o EO da a ha obse es hei
cul u al he i age and can augmen hei
managemen and use o lands and wa e s.
Indigenous pe spec i es mus also be aken
in o accoun wi h he impac o he expansion
o space ac i i ies on Ea h and in space,
including mega-cons ella ions in he nigh
sky, as well as impending impac s on he
luna en i onmen (Mi chell e al. 2020).
In addi ion, he e is a s ong body o schola ship
eme ging ha demons a es ha eminis lenses
can bene i echnology design and accessibili y
o he bene i o space echnologies, as well as
imp o e domes ic and in e na ional space policy
solu ions (Go man e al. 2024; Li in 1997; Oman-
Reagan 2016; S ee 2021; Whi man Cobb 2023; Wes
and Panchanadam 2024). Ensu ing mo e equal
access o space-based se ices can assis in closing
he digi al di ide and imp o ing accessibili y
o educa ion o gi ls, which has been shown o
con ibu e o s able socie ies. To ensu e a mo e
inclusi e lens on he design, de elopmen and
deploymen o space echnologies, he gende
gap in he space wo k o ce needs o be closed,
which will also assis in illing he skills sho age
in he space sec o (S ephenson and S ee 2023;
S ephenson 2023; UN A ai s 2021). Simila ly,
13Space Ci izen: The Gap Be ween You, Me and he Go e nance o Space
he UN Women, Peace and Secu i y agenda
equi es mo e women in mili a y space ca ee s;
his agenda can help guide he deploymen o
space se ices o suppo he igh s o gi ls and
women in con lic scena ios, and equi es ha
he po en ial impac s on gi ls and women be
aken in o accoun i a dual-use space sys em is
a ge ed (Dha mapu i and Johnson-F eese 2018;
S ee and S ephenson 2022; T ue 2019). The space
ci izen lens di ec s space secu i y deba es o lea n
lessons om eminis o eign policy and in eg a e
expe ise om ci il socie y and academia.
In e gene a ional Responsibili y
Finally, he space ci izen mus ha e an
in e gene a ional lens in o de o build on
inclusi i y and mul i-s akeholde go e nance,
as a esponsibili y o u u e gene a ions is
simply he nex s ep o inclusi i y. The e is an
a gumen o be made ha he OST i sel con ains
an in e gene a ional obliga ion, since a icle I
equi es ha space “shall be ee o explo a ion
and use by all S a es wi hou disc imina ion o
any kind, on a basis o equali y and in acco dance
wi h in e na ional law, and he e shall be ee
access o all a eas o celes ial bodies.”20 The e is
no end poin a which his is ul illed — i is an
ongoing obliga ion. Simila ly, he no ion ha
space is he p o ince o all (hu)mankind is ongoing
and unending, o he wise i is meaningless.
The e is a ise o clima e li iga ion a ound he
wo ld ha is holding go e nmen s esponsible
o p o ec ing he igh s o u u e gene a ions
and inding hem in b each o his obliga ion i
hei cu en clima e policies a e sho sigh ed
(Gonzalez-Ricoy and Rey 2019; Slobodian 2019;
Sulyok 2024; UN De elopmen P og amme 2023).21
Wales has e en in oduced a minis e o u u e
gene a ions (Balch 2019), and he Uni ed Na ions is
a emp ing o open i s s a e-based bu eauc acy o
a mo e inclusi e, in e gene a ional app oach wi h
he Summi o he Fu u e.22 Gi en ha he space
20 T ea y on P inciples Go e ning he Ac i i ies o S a es in he Explo a ion
and Use o Ou e Space, including he Moon and O he Celes ial
Bodies, 27 Janua y 1967, Res 2222 (XXI) (en e ed in o o ce 10 Oc obe
1967), online: <www.unoosa.o g/oosa/en/ou wo k/spacelaw/ ea ies/
ou e space ea y.h ml>.
21 Decla a ion on he Responsibili ies o he P esen Gene a ions Towa ds
Fu u e Gene a ions, UNESCOR, 29 h Sess, UN Doc 29 C/Resolu ions +
CORR (1997), online: <h ps://en.unesco.o g/abou -us/legal-a ai s/
decla a ion- esponsibili ies-p esen -gene a ions- owa ds- u u e-
gene a ions>.
22 See www.un.o g/en/summi -o - he- u u e.
ci izen is awa e o ou impac on ou na u al space
en i onmen , he e is an impe a i e o p o ec his
en i onmen , and he bene i s om echnologies
ha a e space-based, o u u e gene a ions.
Ou dependencies a e only going o g ow in he
decades o come, and ou abili y o sol e ou
e es ial p oblems will depend mo e and mo e
upon hese space-based echnologies and da a.
The expansi eness o his amewo k may seem
o e whelming o excessi ely aspi a ional. The
poin , howe e , is no ha adop ing his lens will
lead o ins an o simple solu ions. Ra he , wi hou
such a lens, we a e jus chipping away a he edges
o he wicked p oblems o space go e nance, a
a pace a oo slow o he changes in echnology
and global poli ics and in ways ha a e dwa ed
by he p oblems hemsel es. Widening ou lens
and becoming ela ionally engaged wi h ou space
en i onmen , ou uses o space echnologies and
ou es ed in e es in he good go e nance o space
is he only way o mo e owa d collec i e solu ions.
In o e coming he challenges o land wa a e —
including any u u e wa wi h Russia, China, o
e en I an o No h Ko ea — s and-o wa a e,
p ecision s ikes and long- ange i es would
only play small suppo ing oles. The majo i y
o comba would occu on he g ound be ween
land o ces, which means ha he ic o would
ha e o be capable o su moun ing he se en
challenges o land wa a e ou lined wi hin his
pape . In achie ing a clea ic o y using he
me hods ou lined abo e, he winning o ces would
simpli y diplomacy o NATO policy make s.
Closing he Gap Be ween
You, Me and he
Go e nance o Space
Tha he e is a gap be ween exis ing go e nance
app oaches and wha is needed, be ween who
is impac ed and who (o wha ) appea s o be
empowe ed o ac , is undeniable. As deba es
abou how o go e n a i icial in elligence, social
media and o he i e a ions o big ech su ound
us, i is appa en ha his gap is simila o much
o ech go e nance. Technology is mo ing as e
han egula ion, go e nance o policy can, which
14 CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025 • Cassand a S ee
can lea e us eeling powe less o o e whelmed.
While i may no be easy, his is p ecisely one o
he easons o he ocus on an indi idual cogni i e
shi owa d iden i ying as a space ci izen.
Jus as comme cial en i ies ha e a es ed in e es
in space emaining s able and accessible, since
hei business models depend on i , so oo do
we all ha e indi idual, communi y and socie al
es ed in e es s. As hea y use s o space da a
and se ices, we ha e a socie al as well as
an indi idual esponsibili y o ensu e good
go e nance o ou nea -Ea h en i onmen , and
o ecognize ha we a e all, al eady, ac o s in he
economic, poli ical and go e nance spacescape.
Ac i a ing an In eg a ed
App oach om he Bo om Up
The ques ion is how we can ac i a e his
s a us as space ci izens o impac global space
go e nance in o he wen y- i s cen u y. This
emains a challenge as long as he ocus is
on adi ional s a e-based ins i u ions, bu
we canno simply blame hese ins i u ions
o dec y he poli ical will o s a es.
Ins ead, we can ake lessons om he shi ha has
aken place o e he las 10 yea s wi h ega d o
cybe secu i y. A decade ago, in e ne echnology
(IT) was he bailiwick o a highly specialized
wo k o ce and some hing mos people only hough
abou when he e was a echnical b eakdown o
some so . Go e nance o new IT de elopmen s was
assumed o be he sole esponsibili y o policy and
law make s. Today, wi h he h ea o cybe a acks
and cybe aud in luencing e e y hing om
na ional secu i y o one’s pe sonal banking
in o ma ion, we a e all awa e o he impo ance o
cybe hygiene and o how in eg a ed ou digi al,
i ual li es a e wi h he economy, heal h ca e,
poli ics and e en he elec o al sys em. The e is
he e o e an awa eness ha while op-down
measu es a e necessa y — such as egula ions
and s anda ds o cybe secu i y, cybe ha dening
o c i ical in as uc u e and law en o cemen
agains cybe aud — we all ha e an indi idual
esponsibili y o ac esponsibly and wi h cau ion
in ou online in e ac ions a he same ime. We
ha e o p o ec ou own in o ma ion and each he
nex gene a ion how o be good digi al ac o s and
p e en unwan ed incu sions. And when he op-
down measu es p o e o be insu icien , we mus
push back and demand be e , because ou well-
being depends on good cybe go e nance. We do
no ha e o be IT specialis s, o o unde s and he
bi s and by es, o ac i a e wha some ha e asse ed
is a igh o cybe secu i y (Papakons an inou 2022;
Shackel o d 2021). In a simila way, we need o
in eg a e an awa eness abou ou dependencies
on space-based se ices and ou impac s on he
space en i onmen in o e e y hing we do: in o
ou indi idual daily li es, ou ac i ism ega ding
clima e change, ou local u ban planning and
ou na ional c i ical in as uc u e planning.
Because space-based se ices a e al eady
in e wined in ou wen y- i s -cen u y
in e ac ions, his amalgama ed app oach b ings
wi h i be e in eg a ion o space go e nance wi h
o he go e nance decisions. We canno e ec i ely
plan o ood secu i y wi hou space da a, no can
we p o ide educa ion and connec i i y o emo e
communi ies o ac oss ci ies wi hou sa elli e-
based in e ne and elecommunica ions. We canno
p edic wild i es o loods, no unde ake be e
u ban planning in he ace o clima e-induced
na u al disas e s wi hou sa elli e da a. Ou
mili a ies canno ope a e wi h necessa y p ecision
wi hou sa elli e se ices, no can we espond
o humani a ian disas e s in a imely manne
wi hou hem. Wi h an in eg a ed awa eness
comes in eg a ed go e nance solu ions om
he bo om up, as well as demands upon senio
decision make s o in eg a ed op-down policies.
Unde s anding Wicked P oblems
A space ci izen amewo k also assis s in building
an in eg a ed unde s anding o he key issues
o space go e nance. Cu en ly, hese issues a e
desc ibed as sepa a e p oblems, coming unde
he esponsibili y o sepa a e in e na ional and
domes ic en i ies and equi ing sepa a e solu ions.
Fo example, a common way o concei e o space
go e nance p io i ies is h ough he sepa a e lenses
o “sa e y, secu i y and sus ainabili y.” Howe e ,
i is impossible o sol e one o hese challenges
wi hou impac ing on one o bo h o he o he s,
and as each o hese challenges wo sens, so do he
o he s. A key ac o is hei in e ela ed na u e:
hey a e p oblems ha exis as symp oms o each
o he , o quin essen ial “wicked p oblems.”
The no ion o wicked p oblems was i s in oduced
by poli ical scien is s Ho s W. J. Ri el and Mel in
M. Webbe in 1973, when hey a gued ha complex
social p oblems could no be “ amed” by adi ional
policy app oaches, which a e o en pa ial,
ideologically pa isan and empo a y a he han
15Space Ci izen: The Gap Be ween You, Me and he Go e nance o Space
endu ing (Ri el and Webbe 1973). While he e is
no consensus on he de ini ion o wicked p oblems,
he e m is widely used o desc ibe issues ha
ha e no simple end poin (in o he wo ds, he e is
no poin in ime when he p ocess o add essing
he p oblem is comple e) and o which he e is
no limi o possible solu ions, wi h each p oblem
ac ing as a symp om o ano he p oblem (Ri el and
Webbe 1973; Lönng en and an Poeck 2021). This
is exac ly he case o space go e nance issues.
A space ci izen amewo k accep s he wicked,
in e wined na u e o hese issues o space
sa e y, secu i y and sus ainabili y. The sa e y o
space ope a ions can no longe be concei ed
o as sepa a e om he sus ainabili y o he
space en i onmen , no om sus ainabili y
equi emen s in he design o space sys ems.
The cu en impac o he An h opocene upon
he space en i onmen — and soon on he luna
en i onmen — has implica ions o he sa e y o
cu en space ope a ions and o he sus ainabili y
o space ac i i ies o e ime o u u e gene a ions.
The sus ainabili y o space ope a ions also has o
ake in o accoun he impac on ou e es ial and
a mosphe ic en i onmen . Wi h mo e launches
globally, he de elopmen o mo e space po s
in e na ionally and he es ablishmen o mo e
g ound s a ions o se ice space echnologies,
he e is a oo p in impac on Ea h and a poo ly
unde s ood impac on he uppe a mosphe e om
ocke uels as well as bu n-up o space objec s
upon e-en y. A he same ime, sus ainabili y
e o s on Ea h depend, in la ge pa , on space
da a, including esponding o clima e change
and unde s anding he impac s o di e en
kinds o ene gy in as uc u e. The e o e, as
p essu es on he sa e and sus ainable ope a ions
o sa elli es inc ease, we need o ocus on
space sus ainabili y in o de o p o ec he e y
sou ces o da a o e es ial sus ainabili y.
The e is also an in eg a ed eedback loop be ween
comme cializa ion, sus ainabili y and secu i y.
As discussed abo e, he comme cializa ion o
space has led o unmanageable le els o space
a ic, which is con inuing o g ow exponen ially.
The isk o collisions wi h deb is o o he space
objec s is bo h a sa e y issue o mili a y space
dependencies and a majo secu i y issue. Wha
makes his an e en mo e wicked p oblem is he
o e whelmingly dual-use na u e o space se ices
o e ed by comme cial p o ide s, which means
ha hese se ices a e inc easingly unde h ea
as space sys ems a e a ge ed in he cou se o
g ey zone ope a ions du ing con lic , lea ing he
c i ical in as uc u e needs o ci ilians ulne able.
A key example is he cybe a ack by Russia on
he comme cially owned Viasa communica ions
sys em in ea ly 2022, which had he desi ed e ec
o limi ing communica ions among Uk ainian
o ces, bu a he same ime mean ha ci izens
in a con lic zone los hei communica ions as
well—as did many ci izens in neighbou ing neu al
coun ies (Page 2022; Teppe 2022; S ee 2023a).
Exis ing s a e-based go e nance solu ions con inue
o ea hese as sepa a e issues o be deal wi h as
di e en ins i u ional esponsibili ies. A he Uni ed
Na ions, sa e y and sus ainabili y a e conside ed
he pu iew o COPUOS, while he UNGA has had
he “p e en ion o an a ms ace in ou e space”
on i s agenda since 1981. As discussed abo e, he
Con e ence on Disa mamen has aced decades-
long poli ical s asis due o he di ision be ween
hose s a es ha a e commi ed o a ea y banning
weapons in space, and hose e using o en e
in o any ea y. Meanwhile, he concen a ion o
space a ic managemen has la gely been in he
hands o US Ai Fo ce Space Command o many
yea s due o hei SSA capabili y. While ecen ly
his ask has been passed o he US Depa men
o Comme ce, he ansi ion has been slow and
in e ope abili y wi h o he sou ces o space-
acking da a, such as om he ESA, Russia
and comme cial en i ies, has been di icul ..
Un il hese issues a e seen as in e ela ed, he
solu ions will be piecemeal and insu icien .
B inging a Space Ci izen
F amewo k o he Fo e on
The space ci izen amewo k b ings an in eg a ed
lens o hese wicked p oblems — which is no o
say ha he solu ions will immedia ely become
e iden . Indeed, wicked p oblems may no be
sol able as such, bu hey can be managed in
a sus ainable, endu ing way h ough inclusi e,
collabo a i e p ocesses ha in ol e a wide
ange o s akeholde s (Al o d and Head 2017;
DeF ies and Nagend a 2017; Head 2019).
One example may be in he OEWG on Reducing
Space Th ea s, which was uly open ended. O he
115 en i ies aking pa , jus unde 68 pe cen we e
s a es; he emaining 32 pe cen we e in e na ional
o ganiza ions, comme cial en i ies, membe s o
ci il socie y and academics (O ega and E ickson
2024, 12). The UN Ins i u e o Disa mamen
16 CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025 • Cassand a S ee
Resea ch held a consul a ion wi h comme cial
and ci il socie y ac o s, in be ween o icial OEWG
mee ings, o unde s and he iews o hese en i ies
and inc ease he ole ha hey can play in space
secu i y (Blanca o , E ickson and O ega 2023). The
chai o he OEWG also in i ed a ange o indi idual
subjec ma e expe s om a ound he wo ld, and
om a ange o academic ins i u ions and p i a e
en i ies, o gi e p esen a ions o he delega es
abou echnical, legal and policy challenges as well
as exis ing possible solu ions. The geog aphical,
gende and discipline di e si y o hese expe s
was delibe a ely cul i a ed, which ensu ed
he absence o poli ical bias in he in o ma ion
p esen ed and p o ided an oppo uni y o space
ci izens o be di ec ly in ol ed in he diploma ic
p ocess. As a esul , he ime a ailable o s a es
o en e in o poli icized deba es was cu in hal ,
and discussions became much mo e subs an i e,
as he e was a sha ed le el o unde s anding.
Some s a es acknowledged he impo ance o
including a ange o s akeholde s and began o
ecognize he in e connec ed na u e o ques ions
o sa e y, sus ainabili y and secu i y in hei
w i en and e bal submissions (Wes 2024, 15).
Ano he example is he inclusion o he p i a e
sec o in de eloping new no ms and go e nance
mechanisms. This is impe a i e, no only o
gua an ee buy-in and compliance, bu also o
ensu e ha hose no ms a e e lec i e o cu en
and o eseeable capabili ies. The p i a e sec o has
a es ed business in e es in he sa e y, secu i y
and sus ainabili y o hei ope a ions in space.
The In e na ional Telecommunica ions Union,
whose adi ional egula o y ask has o do
wi h spec um alloca ion and he managemen
o geos a iona y o bi al slo s, has included he
p i a e sec o among i s membe s o many
yea s, and has ecen ly u ned i s a en ion o
“sus ainabili y” (Fous 2023). Simila ly, domes ic
law make s in some coun ies consul he p i a e
space sec o as hey de elop space sus ainabili y
equi emen s in hei licensing laws, a p ocess
ha mus always seek o s ike a balance
be ween ensu ing comme cial iabili y and ue
sus ainabili y measu es (S ee and S ong 2022).
And a inal example, al hough pe haps an ou lie ,
is he imp essi e wo k o a single indi idual
in con ibu ing o he manageabili y o hese
wicked p oblems. While s a es may be e icen o
sha e SSA da a due o secu i y conce ns, making
space a ic managemen e en mo e di icul ,
Jona han McDowell’s “Space Repo ” o en se es
as an open-sou ce c oss- e e ence o SSA da a.23
His online da abase and wee s on social media
ha e con ibu ed mo e han once o space sa e y
esponses and o cla i ying he na u e o a space
objec when he e ha e been aspe sions cas as
o whe he a gi en objec is a po en ial weapon.
I is ue ha some indi iduals will ha e mo e
oppo uni ies han o he s o ac i a e hei s a us as
space ci izens. This has o do wi h exis ing p i ilege,
including access o educa ion and ins i u ions
o powe . We canno all build open-sou ce ools
o acking space ac i i ies o p esen iews o a
global delega ion o s a e ep esen a i es. The poin
is o build on an indi idual ela ional app oach,
in eg a e space in o wha e e exp essions o
ci izenship may al eady be ac i e and hand
his awa eness on o he nex gene a ion. Only
by app oaching hese challenges om a space
ci izen lens can we hope o manage hem, and
he eby manage humani y’s impac on he
nea -Ea h en i onmen we all depend upon.
As we expand ou en i onmen al impac in o
ou nea -Ea h o bi s and he luna en i onmen ,
global space go e nance mechanisms mus become
inclusi e and mul i-s akeholde by design and ake
in o accoun a b oade mul i-gene a ional “space
ci izen” amewo k. We ha e an in e gene a ional
esponsibili y o ensu e ha ou impac s a e
minimal and ha space emains accessible.
The space ci izen has an enla ged cogni i e
iden i y and an awa eness ha we a e loca ed in
space and bo h impac ing and dependen upon
i . Bu we all do no need o a el o space o
access his awa eness. The o e iew e ec may be
accessible o us al eady h ough li es eams om
he ISS, he inc easing a ailabili y o EO images
o ou plane o e en popula cul u e, such as he
eco ding ha as onau Ch is Had ield made o
himsel singing Da id Bowie’s “Space Oddi y”
du ing his mission on he ISS (Ra e Ea h 2013).
In many ways, he no ion ha we will some day
become an o -wo ld species is a dis ac ion om
he ac ha we a e al eady space ci izens. We
a e al eady in space and dependen on i ; bo h
ac o s impac he space en i onmen , making
us ulne able o he isks we ha e c ea ed o
ou sel es. Space-based se ices a e in e wined
23 See h ps://plane 4589.o g.
17Space Ci izen: The Gap Be ween You, Me and he Go e nance o Space
wi h e es ial wicked p oblems such as clima e
change, ood and wa e secu i y and a ms con ol.
And jus as indi iduals and ci il socie y ha e
a g owing ole o play in impac ing he global
go e nance o hese wicked p oblems, we need o
close he gap be ween ou sel es a an indi idual
and socie al le el on one hand and global space
go e nance mechanisms on he o he . App oaching
his sha ed esponsibili y as space ci izens is he
only way o wa d in he wen y- i s cen u y. Ou
cu en and u u e gene a ions depend upon i .
Wo ks Ci ed
Aganaba-Jean y, Timiebi. 2016a. “In oducing he Cosmopoli an
App oaches o In e na ional Law (CAIL) Lens o Analyze
Go e nance Issues as They A ec Eme ging and
Aspi an Space Ac o s.” Space Policy 37: 3–11.
———. 2016b. “Space Sus ainabili y and he F eedom
o Ou e Space.” As opoli ics 14 (1): 1–19.
———. 2019. “Towa ds ealising a egional A ican space
p og amme.” Policy Commons, Ma ch 26.
h ps://policycommons.ne /a i ac s/1443694/ owa ds-
ealising-a- egional-a ican-space-p og amme/2075426/.
Al o d, John and B ian W. Head. 2017. “Wicked and Less
Wicked P oblems: A Typology and a Con ingency
F amewo k.” Policy and Socie y 36 (3): 397–413.
Ande s, Bill. 2018. “50 Yea s A e ‘Ea h ise,’ a Ch is mas
E e Message om I s Pho og aphe .” Space.com,
Decembe 24. www.space.com/42848-ea h ise-
pho o-apollo-8-legacy-bill-ande s.h ml.
An oni, N o ina, Maa en Ad iaensen and Ch is ina Giannopapa.
2019. “Space and secu i y in he e a o Space 4.0.” In
A Eu opean Space Policy: Pas Consolida ion, P esen
Challenges and Fu u e Pe spec i es, edi ed by Thomas Hoe be
and Sa ah Liebe man, 96–115. Abingdon, UK: Rou ledge.
Balch, Oli e . 2019. “Mee he Wo ld’s Fi s ‘Minis e
o Fu u e Gene a ions.’” The Gua dian, Ma ch 2.
www. hegua dian.com/wo ld/2019/ma /02/mee -
he-wo lds- i s - u u e-gene a ions-commissione .
Blanca o , Manon, Sa ah E ickson and Almudena Azcá a e O ega.
2023. Comme cial Ac o s and Ci il Socie y Consul a ion
Repo : How Can Non-Go e nmen al En i ies Con ibu e o
Reducing Th ea s o Ou e Space Sys ems? UN Ins i u e o
Disa mamen Resea ch. h ps://unidi .o g/publica ion/
comme cial-ac o s-and-ci il-socie y-consul a ion-
epo -how-can-non-go e nmen al-en i ies-con ibu e-
o- educing- h ea s- o-ou e -space-sys ems/.
Boyle, Alan and Ch is ine Chinkin. 2007. The Making o
In e na ional Law. Ox o d, UK: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Da is, Chelsey and Ma k J. Sundahl. 2017. “The Hague Wo king
G oup on Space Resou ces: C ea ing he Legal Building
Blocks o a New Indus y.” Ai & Space Law 30 (3): 7–11.
DeF ies, Ru h and Ha ini Nagend a. 2017. “Ecosys em
Managemen as a Wicked P oblem.” Science 356 (6335):
265–70. h ps://doi.o g/10.1126/science.aal1950.
Dha mapu i, Sahana and Joan Johnson-F eese. 2018.
“Expanding Space Secu i y Op ions h ough
Gende Pe spec i es.” SpaceNews, Decembe 5.
h ps://spacenews.com/op-ed-expanding-space-
secu i y-op ions- h ough-gende -pe spec i es/.
ESA. 2023. “Ze o Deb is Cha e : Towa ds a Sa e and
Sus ainable Space En i onmen .” h ps://esoc.esa.in /
si es/de aul / iles/Ze o_Deb is_Cha e _EN.pd .
Fous , Je . 2023. “ITU emphasizes impo ance o space
sus ainabili y.” SpaceNews, Sep embe 11.
h ps://spacenews.com/i u-emphasizes-
impo ance-o -space-sus ainabili y/.
Gonzalez-Ricoy, Inigo and Felipe Rey. 2019. “En anchising
he Fu u e: Clima e Jus ice and he Rep esen a ion
o Fu u e Gene a ions.” Wiley In e disciplina y
Re iews: Clima e Change 10 (5): e598.
Go man, Alice, Ca he ine G ace, Cassand a S ee , Elise S ephenson
and S ephanie Wan. 2024. “How can we build capaci y o
ad ance gende equali y in he space sec o ?” Global Ins i u e
o Women’s Leade ship, Aus alian Na ional Uni e si y.
Feb ua y 14. h ps://giwl.anu.edu.au/news/how-can-we-
build-capaci y-ad ance-gende -equali y-space-sec o .
Gua dian s a and agencies. 2024. “Russia e os UN esolu ion o
p e en nuclea a ms ace in space.” The Gua dian, Ap il25.
www. hegua dian.com/wo ld/2024/ap /25/ ussia-
e os-un- esolu ion-nuclea -weapons-space-a ms- ace.
Head, B ian W. 2019. “Fo y Yea s o Wicked P oblems
Li e a u e: Fo ging Close Links o Policy S udies.”
Policy and Socie y 38 (2): 180–97.
Hende son, Hazel and Daisaku Ikeda. 2004. Plane a y
Ci izenship: You Values, Belie s, and Ac ions Can Shape a
Sus ainable Wo ld. San a Monica, CA: Middleway P ess.
High Rep esen a i e o he Union o Fo eign A ai s and Secu i y
Policy. 2023. “Join Communica ion o he Eu opean Pa liamen
18 CIGI Pape No. 314 — Janua y 2025 • Cassand a S ee
and he Council: Eu opean Union Space S a egy o Secu i y
and De ense.” Oc obe 3. h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/ anspa ency/
documen s- egis e /de ail? e =JOIN(2023)9&lang=en.
Hi chens, The esa. 2022. “No lo e om Russia o UN mili a y
space no ms mee ing.” B eaking De ense, Feb ua y 9.
h ps://b eakingde ense.com/2022/02/no-lo e-
om- ussia- o -un-mili a y-space-no ms-mee ing/.
Jakhu, Ram S., Bhupend a Jasani and Jona han C. McDowell.
2018. “C i ical issues ela ed o egis a ion o space objec s
and anspa ency o space ac i i ies.” Ac a As onau ica 143:
406–20. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ac aas o.2017.11.042.
Köpping A hanasopoulos, Ha ald. 2019. “The Moon Village and
Space 4.0: The ‘Open Concep ’ as a New Way o Doing
Space?” Space Policy 49: 101323.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.spacepol.2019.05.001.
Ku ban, Can, Ismael Peña-López and Ma ía Habe e .
2017. “Wha is echnopoli ics? A concep ual schema
o unde s anding poli ics in he digi al age.” Re is a
de In e ne , De echo y Polí ica 24: 3–20.
Le May, S., B. A. Ca e , S. Gehly, S. Flegel and M. Jah. 2020.
“Rep esen ing and que ying space objec egis a ion da a
using g aph da abases.” Ac a As onau ica 173: 392–403.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ac aas o.2020.04.056.
Li in, Ka en T. 1997. “The Gende ed Eye in he Sky: A
Feminis Pe spec i e on Ea h Obse a ion Sa elli es.”
F on ie s: A Jou nal o Women S udies 18 (2):
26–47. h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/3346964.
Lönng en, Johanna and Ka ien an Poeck. 2021. “Wicked p oblems:
A mapping e iew o he li e a u e.” In e na ional Jou nal o
Sus ainable De elopmen & Wo ld Ecology 28 (6): 481–502.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/13504509.2020.1859415.
Migaud, Michael R., Robe A. G ee and Jus in B. Bullock.
2021. “De eloping an Adap i e Space Go e nance
F amewo k.” Space Policy 55: 101400.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.spacepol.2020.101400.
Milan, S e ania and Mi en Gu ie ez. 2018. “Technopoli ics in he
Age o Big Da a.” In Ne wo ks, Mo emen s and Technopoli ics
in La in Ame ica, edi ed by F ancisco Sie a Caballe o and
Tommaso G a an e, 95–109. Cham, Swi ze land: Sp inge .
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-319-65560-4_5.
Mi chell, Aud a, Sa ah W igh , Sandie Suche -Pea son,
Ka e Lloyd, Laklak Bu a wanga, Ri jilili Ganamba ,
Me kiyawuy Ganamba -S ubbs e al. 2020. “Duka
Laka ama: Lis ening o Guwak, Talking Back o Space
Coloniza ion.” Poli ical Geog aphy 81: 102218.
Mo in, Jean‐F édé ic and Benjamin Richa d. 2021. “As o‐
En i onmen alism: Towa ds a Polycen ic Go e nance
o Space Deb is.” Global Policy 12 (4): 568–73.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/1758-5899.12950.
Oman-Reagan, Michael P. 2016. “Unmanning Space Language.”
SAPIENS, Ma ch 7. www.sapiens.o g/column/
wande e s/ou e -space-and-gende ed-language/.
O ega, Almudena Azcá a e and Sa ah E ickson. 2024.
OEWG on Reducing Space Th ea s: Recap Repo . UN
Ins i u e o Disa mamen Resea ch. Feb ua y. Gene a,
Swi ze land: Uni ed Na ions. h ps://unidi .o g/publica ion/
oewg-on- educing-space- h ea s- ecap- epo /.
O ega, Almudena Azcá a e and Hellmu Lagos Kolle .
2023. “The Open-Ended Wo king G oup on Reducing
Space Th ea s Th ough No ms, Rules and P inciples
o Responsible Beha iou s: The Jou ney so Fa , and
he Road Ahead.” Ai and Space Law 48 (special):
19–40. h ps://kluwe lawonline.com/api/P oduc /
Ci a ionPDFURL? ile=Jou nals AILA AILA2023029.pd .
Page, Ca ly. 2022. “Russia Blamed o Viasa Cybe a ack.”
TechC unch (blog), May 10. h ps:// echc unch.com/
2022/05/10/ ussia- iasa -cybe a ack/.
Papakons an inou, Vagelis. 2022. “Cybe secu i y as p axis and as
a s a e: The EU law pa h owa ds acknowledgemen o a new
igh o cybe secu i y?” Compu e Law & Secu i y Re iew 44:
105653. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.cls .2022.105653.
Ra e Ea h. 2013. “Space Oddi y.” May 12. YouTube ideo,
5:30. www.you ube.com/wa ch? =KaOC9danxNo.
Ri el, Ho s W. J. and Mel in M. Webbe . 1973. “Dilemmas in a
Gene al Theo y o Planning.” Policy Sciences 4 (2): 155–69.
Rome, P imož. 2023. “E e y Sa elli e O bi ing Ea h and Who
Owns Them.” DEWESo , Feb ua y 9. h ps://deweso .com/
daq/e e y-sa elli e-o bi ing-ea h-and-who-owns- hem.
Samson, Vic o ia and B ian Weeden. 2024. Global
Coun e space Capabili ies: An OpenSou ce
Assessmen . Ap il. B oom ield, CO: Secu e Wo ld
Founda ion. h ps://sw ound.o g/coun e space/.
Shackel o d, Sco J. 2014. “Go e ning he Final F on ie : A
Polycen ic App oach o Managing Space Weaponiza ion and
Deb is.” Ame ican Business Law Jou nal 51 (2): 429–513.
———. 2021. “Should cybe secu i y be a human igh ? Explo ing
he ‘sha ed esponsibili y’ o cybe peace.” In Music, Business
and Peacebuilding, edi ed by Cons ance Cook Glen and
Timo hy L. Fo , 174–97. Abingdon, UK: Rou ledge.
