Rica , Joan E.
A icle
Public-p i a e pa ne ships and sus ainable de elopmen :
Designing ela ional business models
Jou nal o Business Models (JOBM)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Aalbo g Uni e si y, Aalbo g
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rica , Joan E. (2024) : Public-p i a e pa ne ships and sus ainable de elopmen :
Designing ela ional business models, Jou nal o Business Models (JOBM), ISSN 2246-2465, Aalbo g
Uni e si y Open Publishing, Aalbo g, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp. 36-42,
h ps://doi.o g/10.54337/jbm. 12i1.8403
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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36
Jou nal o Business Models (2024), Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 36-42
Public-P i a e Pa ne ships and Sus ainable De elopmen –
Designing Rela ional Business Models
Joan E. Rica 1
Abs ac
The e a e emendous challenges in mee ing he 17 sus ainable de elopmen goals (SDGs) o Agen-
da 2030. A collabo a i e sea ch o solu ions is needed o ackle he complex and no el p oblems
a he c ux o hese challenges. This equi es local go e nmen and companies o join o ces wi h
o he s akeholde s. This collabo a ion usually akes he o m o new Public-P i a e pa ne ships
(PPPs) in eme ging inno a ion ecosys ems ocused on he SDGs. These ecosys ems a e in eg a -
ed h ough ela ional business models – mul isided pla o ms wi h he e ogeneous s akeholde s and
mul idimensional u ili ies. Using he newly de eloped s akeholde esou ce-based iew (SRBV), we
ha e iden i ied some cha ac e is ics o hese business models and o hei complex ela ional go -
e nance. We ecognize ha a lo o wo k is s ill needed o de ine he igh go e nance o PPPs.
Keywo ds: Rela ional business models; public-p i a e pa ne ships; inno a ion ecosys ems
Acknowledgmen s: This sho pape is he esul o many con e sa ions wi h P. Be one, Y. Snihu , and C. Ca asco, as well as edi o s
o he Jou nal o Business Models. Also, he au ho ecognizes he economic suppo o he Ca l Sch oede Chai in S a egic Man-
agemen and he IESE’s High Impac P ojec s ini ia i e (2017/2018).
Please ci e his pape as: Rica , J. E. (2024), Public-P i a e Pa ne ships and Sus ainable De elopmen – Designing Rela ional Busi-
ness Models, Jou nal o Business Models, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 36-42
1 Depa men o S a egic Managemen , IESE Business School, Ca e d’A nus i de Ga í, 3, 7, 08034 Ba celona (Spain);
Email: JERica @iese.edu.
In oduc ion
Despi e p og ess in imp o ing human wellbeing, he
wo ld s ill aces social ills, such as he clima e c isis,
u ban po e y, and g owing inequali y. To add ess
hese p oblems, he Uni ed Na ions adop ed 17
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) in Sep em-
be 2015. While he SDGs we e in ended o be in e-
g a ed in o he s a egic agenda o businesses, his
emains a challenge. Fi ms, howe e , mus engage
wi h he SDGs o ul il hei social con ac s, o which
hey a e o en legally, e hically, and economically
Jou nal o Business Models (2024), Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 36-42
37
37
bound. Reaching hese goals is a emendous e -
o , and one only possible wi h he collabo a ion o
public, p i a e, and social o ganiza ions, and he col-
lec i e e o o all ci izens in sol ing he complex,
in e connec ed p oblems1.
Sus ainabili y and Public-P i a e
Pa ne ships
Public-p i a e pa ne ships (PPPs) wo king owa ds
he SDGs o en encoun e p oblems, such as deca -
boniza ion o designing a new sus ainable ans-
po and mobili y sys em, ha do no ha e a clea
solu ion. They equi e he collabo a ion o di e en
s akeholde s o design no el business models (Ri-
ca and Rey, 2022) ha can co-c ea e a solu ion.
Some o hese g ea challenges a e global in na u e,
bu e en in hose cases, he solu ions a e easie i
p oblems a e localized. The e o e, ci ies a e impo -
an playe s in wo king owa ds he SDGs (Giuliodo i
e al., 2023), and need some o m o PPP business
model – speci ically PPP o he SDGs2 (Be one e al.,
2019)– o achie e his.
One example is he de elopmen o new anspo
and mobili y in ci ies ha aims o be mo e a o d-
able, e icien , sus ainable, sa e, and esilien . Solu-
ions a e s ill eme ging, and many local au ho i ies a e
1 These p oblems a e usually e e ed as “wicked p oblems”. As
de ined on Wikipedia:” In planning and policy, a wicked p oblem
is a p oblem ha is di icul o impossible o sol e because o
incomple e, con adic o y, and changing equi emen s ha
a e o en di icul o ecognize. I e e s o an idea o p oblem
ha canno be ixed, whe e he e is no single solu ion o he
p oblem; and "wicked" deno es esis ance o esolu ion, a he
han e il. [1] Ano he de ini ion is "a p oblem whose social com-
plexi y means ha i has no de e minable s opping poin ". [2]
Mo eo e , because o complex in e dependencies, he e o
o sol e one aspec o a wicked p oblem may e eal o c ea e
o he p oblems. Due o hei complexi y, wicked p oblems a e
o en cha ac e ized by o ganized i esponsibili y.”
2 To help in he design o such a PPP, we ha e de eloped an
e alua ion sys em o PPPs in line wi h hei con ibu ions o
he SDGs. I has been used as s a ing poin o a mo e obus
and sophis ica ed e alua ion sys em, PIERS, de eloped by a
la ge pa icipa i e p ojec and app o ed by UNECE (h ps://
unece.o g/ppp/em). PPPs o he SDGs a e an impo an ins u-
men in he UN Agenda 2030.
expe imen ing wi h di e en pa ne ships wi h mul i-
ple and di e se s akeholde s in ol ed in building a Mo-
bili y as a Se ice (MaaS) sys em (Rica e al., 2022).
In 2014, o example, Vienna was among he i s ci -
ies o in eg a e public anspo se ices h ough
a digi al pla o m. In a h ee-yea EU- unded p o-
jec , he ede al ailway company ÖBB and he u il-
i y company Wiene S ad we ke pa ne ed wi h wo
echnology i ms o c ea e a pla o m ha would
in eg a e di e en mobili y se ices p o ided by
di e en s akeholde s. The esul ing SMILE app
enabled use s o plan ips, and hen be cha ged
o hem a he end o he mon h. As well as buses,
ains and ams, he sys em included op ions o
ca -sha ing, bike-sha ing, and axis, c ea ing an in-
eg a ed solu ion o mobili y.
Du ing i s ial pe iod, SMILE was a success, wi h 26
pe cen o use s saying hey we e using public ans-
po mo e equen ly and 21 pe cen saying hey we e
less likely o use hei ca s. Despi e his success, in
2015, ÖBB and Wiene S ad we ke decided o end
hei collabo a ion and he pla o m was e mina ed.
Bo h public companies s a ed o de elop hei own
in-house pla o ms and educed hei coope a ion
wi h one ano he . The end o he SMILE p ojec il-
lus a es ha , e en i he echnical in as uc u e
o MaaS is p esen , coope a ion be ween he s ake-
holde s is pa amoun i i is o be a success. Public
sec o companies wi h di e ing agendas can lead o
a mo e agmen ed anspo ecosys em ha limi s
he e iciency o MaaS (Audouin and Finge , 2019).
The Whim pla o m, launched in Helsinki by he ech
company MaaS Global in 2017, is ano he ecen ex-
ample o a MaaS sys em. The company de eloped
he pla o m, which uns in pa ne ship wi h HSL,
he egional anspo company. Whim allows use s
o plan ips and access public anspo . Paymen
is a la se ice ee a he end o he mon h, wi h a
su cha ge o ca en als and axi-hailing.
In i s i s wo yea s, Whim succeeded in inc easing
public anspo use om 48 pe cen o 63 pe cen
among i s use s. Howe e , Whim use s we e also
wice as likely o use axis, al hough hei sha e o his
mode o anspo was only 2 pe cen . The e was also
Jou nal o Business Models (2024), Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 36-42
38
38
a dec ease in walking and cycling, om 44 pe cen o
all ips o unde 30 pe cen . The numbe o daily ips
ac oss all anspo modes emained abou he same,
anging om 3.3 o 3.4. While Whim’s impac on pub-
lic anspo use was es ima ed o be posi i e, i may
also e lec a segmen o he popula ion al eady mo e
likely o use public anspo han he na ional a e age
(h ps://kollek i a ikk.no/app/uploads/2021/04/
Ramboll_whimpac -2019.pd ).
Jelbi, hough o be he la ges MaaS sys em cu -
en ly in ope a ion, was launched in Be lin in 2019. I
includes a wide ange o mobili y op ions, including
ains, ams, me o, and e ies, as well as sha ed-
mobili y op ions such as bikes, scoo e s, ca -sha -
ing, and axis. The pla o m was launched h ough a
wo-yea pa ne ship be ween he Li huanian i m
T a i and he public anspo company BVG. The
b ead h o op ions on Jelbi es i ies o he ela i ely
low agmen a ion o he public anspo sys em,
wi h BVG unning mos o he modes.
The Jelbi pla o m cen alizes paymen , bu unlike
Helsinki’s Whim, use s pay o each mode as hey
use i . Howe e , BVG al eady had a sys em ha con-
solida ed a es o a la daily ee. While Jelbi’s ex-
pe imen is s ill ecen , he as deploymen o he
sys em – wi hin six mon hs o he p ojec ’s ini ia ion
– speaks o he ad anced p e-exis ing ins i u ional
in as uc u e and Be lin’s e icien public anspo
sys em (Audouin and Finge , 2019).
Thanks o ad ances in in o ma ion and communi-
ca ion echnology (ICT), many new digi al business
models eme ging in ci ies ake he o m o pla o m-
sha ing. Ini ially, hese sha ing models we e seen as
socially good, associa ed wi h he ci cula economy,
and e en a democ a iza ion o en s. Consequen ly,
hese sha ing models ha e g own e y quickly o
many economic ac i i ies.
Ai BnB, o example, s a ed wi h he epu a ion o
almos a social business, allowing hos s o ea n ex a
money by en ing ooms, and o e ing gues s sho -
e m a o dable accommoda ion. This epu a ion
s a ed o change, howe e , as some ci ies – Ba celona
is a no able example – dec ied he e ec on hei p op-
e y ma ke (Ca asco e al., 2022). Ano he example is
Ube which, a e success ully en e ing many ci ies,
s a ed o engende nega i e eac ion om i s own
d i e s, axi associa ions, and egula o s.
Mos o hese collabo a ions in ci ies ake he o m
o eme ging ecosys ems coo dina ed on digi al pla -
o ms, showing ha sus ainabili y goes hand-in-hand
wi h digi al ans o ma ion (See he epo a h ps://
hough labg oup.com/building-a- u u e- eady-ci y/).
These examples indica e ha we will no be able o
p og ess owa ds he SDGs wi hou new echnology-
based collabo a i e business models.
While a aining he SDGs equi es collabo a ion om
a di e se se o s akeholde s, acili a ed by digi al
business models, an aspec ha is o en o e looked
o no su icien ly ecognized is he impo ance o
go e nance. Go e nance is de ined as he way ules,
no ms and ac ions a e s uc u ed, sus ained, egu-
la ed, and allow o accoun abili y.
PPPs ha e eme ged as a pi o al ins umen o
ackling complex socie al challenges, ca alyzing
in as uc u e de elopmen , and os e ing inno a-
ion ac oss sec o s (Quélin e al., 2017; Geo ge e
al., 2023). Some o he inhe en challenges in mul-
i-s akeholde collabo a ions, such as powe im-
balance, in o ma ion asymme y, lack o us , and
p oblems o agency, a e equen ly in ensi ied in
PPPs compa ed o p i a e-only collabo a ions. Con-
sequen ly, con en ional go e nance mechanisms
o en p o e insu icien in add essing hese com-
plexi ies (Bacq and Aguile a, 2022).
The ollowing sec ion in oduces he no ion o he
ela ional business model (RBM) as a design ool o
dealing wi h he challenges o hese mul i-sided
complex collabo a ions. The concep is i s iewed
in he con ex o esis ance o some digi al pla o ms
in ci ies and is hen applied o go e nance design o
PPPs o SDGs.
Rela ional Business Models
In Rica e al. (2020), we aimed o unde s and he
g ass oo s esis ance o ce ain digi al pla o ms
and wha ecommenda ions could be made o hese
Jou nal o Business Models (2024), Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 36-42
39
39
pla o ms o a oid o alle ia e nega i e eac ions.
We iden i ied he condi ions ha ga e ise o hese
eac ions:
Physical asse digi al pla o ms: When he pla o m
opened new p o i able ma ke oppo uni ies o lo-
cal and sca ce physical asse s, as was he case o
Ai BnB in Ba celona, ou side s akeholde s, such as
ci izens o ganized o con on he inc ease in p ices
and he dec ease o supply.
Labo digi al pla o ms: When a pla o m en e s local
and p eca ious labo ma ke , he e may be a eac ion
om he inside s akeholde s, as was he case wi h
Ube d i e s o deli e y pa ne s wo king o Glo o.
Fo bo h he abo e ypes o pla o ms, he likelihood
and in ensi y o collec i e esis ance inc eases
compa ed o digi al asse pla o ms, as digi al as-
se s a e no usually local o sca ce.
Digi al pla o ms can espond, alle ia e, o e en p e-
en his collec i e ac ion by unning a co-c ea ion
o alue exe cise wi h s akeholde go e nance, us-
ing wha we call a ela ional business model (RBM)
design cha ac e ized by h ee elemen s:
S uc u e: A mul i-sided pla o m, including he local
communi y and inco po a ing all po en ial s akehold-
e s, inside s, o ou side s. I we omi s akeholde s
who may be a ec ed by he ope a ion, we may en-
coun e g ass oo s esis ance o he pla o m.
Con en : Inclusi e s akeholde alue p oposi ions
o each s akeholde , ideally using mul iple o ms o
alue. Fo ins ance, some s akeholde s may alue
social o en i onmen al issues mo e han o he s.
Go e nance: Ecosys em-cen e ed go e nance o
imp o e alignmen and balance powe di e ences
among he pa ne s, ocusing e e yone on alue-
c ea ion (and dis ibu ion) by inc easing en ep e-
neu ship and inno a ion.
The e o e, RBM design is a ool o deal wi h he mul-
i-sided ela ional p oblems associa ed wi h some
digi al pla o ms. These p oblems, hough, a e also
p esen in PPPs wo king owa ds he challenge o
ou cen u y – he sus ainable de elopmen goals.
The SDGs in ol e complex and no el p oblems, wi h
high le els o unce ain y, mul iple ex e nali ies,
and possibly common goods, and hese models, e-
sponding o communi y needs, play an impo an
ole in he go e nance o eme ging ci y ecosys ems
and new Public-P i a e pa ne ships.
The S akeholde Resou ce-Based
View
S oelho s (2023) de eloped a s akeholde esou ce-
based heo y ha can help us be e cha ac e ize
he go e nance elemen s o he ela ional business
model applied o PPPs o SDGs. His s a ing poin
was he need o eamwo k and inno a ion. In e ms
o go e nance, Alchian and Demse z (1972) ga e
con ol and esidual igh s o he en ep eneu (and
CEO) o a simple i m. S oelho s (2023) ex ended
his idea o he mode n co po a ion and conside ed
i he go e nance s uc u e needed o a icula e he
necessa y collabo a ion among he di e en s ake-
holde s, as alue could only be c ea ed by wo king
oge he . He u he de eloped he ules o dis ib-
u e he alue c ea ed in a way ha encou aged all
needed s akeholde s o pa icipa e.
Using he same logic, we can cha ac e ize he PPP
as a go e nance s uc u e o acili a e s akeholde
coope a ion in eam p oduc ion and inno a ion.
The e o e, a PPP is a coali ion o s akeholde s, all
needed o join alue c ea ion, b inging he nec-
essa y knowledge, esou ces, labo o capi al. This
join alue c ea ion is essen ial in PPPs o SDGs.
As PPPs need o be designed, ini ia ed, and ope a ed
o he long- e m, hei go e nance should conside
he collec i e and dynamic na u e o alue c ea-
ion. Fu he mo e, as PPPs inco po a e e y di e se
s akeholde s, hey should conside he di e en
dimensions o alue – economic, social o en i on-
men al – ele an o each s akeholde , and use hem
in he p ocess o app op ia ion by each s akeholde
in a way ha jus i ies hei willingness o en e and
s ay in he coali ion.
Based on his concep , PPPs “allow s akeholde s o
c ea e alue by o e ing a go e nance o m o esol e
Jou nal o Business Models (2024), Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 36-42
40
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he pu e ba gaining o e he su plus c ea ed by eam
p oduc ion and eam inno a ion” (P inciple 3, e e -
ing o i ms in page 1499, S oelho s (2023)). Due
o he he e ogenei y o esou ce bundles and indi-
idual esou ces associa ed wi h each s akeholde ,
en s a e de i ed by compe i i e ba gaining in ac-
o ma ke s, while p o i s a e dis ibu ed subjec o
pu e ba gaining, hanks o he go e nance s uc u e
in place.
S oelho s (2023) s a ed: “S akeholde paymen s a e
he sum o (1) oppo uni y cos s, (2) en paymen s
(e iciency and ma ke powe ), and (3) he ou come
o pu e ba gaining o e economic p o i s (associ-
a ed o no el y, unique complemen a i ies and/o
scale ad an ages)” (Combining p inciples 6 and 7
om S oelho s , 2023). In ou case, s akeholde s in
he PPP app op ia e (mul idimensional) alue abo e
hei oppo uni y cos , adding addi ional en s due
o e iciency o ma ke powe , and sha e in p o i s as
an ou come o he pu e ba gaining embedded in he
go e nance o he PPP. The ac o s iden i ied abo e
o no el y, complemen a i y o scale a e impo an
ones, bu pe haps no he only ones, in he ba gain-
ing powe o each s akeholde . The nego ia ion
among he di e en s akeholde s is mo e complex
and in eg a i e as public good, common goods, and
p i a e goods a e in ol ed as well as mul i-dimen-
sional u ili ies.
The go e nance o RBM is e y complex and equi es
cons an adap a ion as pa ne s lea n abou each
o he and abou he alue being c ea ed. The e-
o e, he cons i u ion o he PPP equi es a heu is ic
sea ch combined wi h ela ional coo dina ion (Nick-
e son and Zenge , 2004). The sea ch p ocess in i es
s akeholde s, based on he knowledge o he o ches-
a o (usually he public sec o ) o hei expe ience
and epu a ion. As i is di icul , ex-an e, o de ine
he incen i es ( alue-dis ibu ion), he o ches a-
o de ines an ecosys em-go e nance de ining he
alue loops among he di e en pa ne s, cap u ing
he insigh s o he s akeholde s a egy, and e lec -
ing i s ealized s a egy in he design o he business
model (Casadesus-Masanell and Rica , 2010). In
o he wo ds, he business model de ines how alue
will be dis ibu ed in expec ed con ingencies and
go e ned in unexpec ed ones. Gi en he na u e o
hese PPPs, he ecosys em-cen e ed go e nance
would usually include o mal and in o mal con ac-
ual as well as o mal and in o mal ela ional go e n-
ance mechanisms o be able o deal wi h complexi y
and no el y a he same ime. Mo e wo k is needed
o iden i y he igh mechanisms o hese complex
go e nance.
As a eminde o he complexi ies in ol ed in his
ecosys em-cen e eden e go e nance, SMILE in Vienna
is a good example. The ini ial app was de eloped in
a Eu opean p ojec ha p o ided he unding and
incen i es o all pa ne s o pa icipa e unde he
collegial go e nance o he p ojec . Once he wo k
was success ully inished, each main pa ne had
he incen i e (and knowledge) o de elop hei own
p op ie a y app and o pa ne s o s op hei col-
labo a ion, b eaking down his ecosys em.
Conclusion
While he sus ainable de elopmen goals a e a -
eaching and global in na u e, wo k owa ds achie -
ing hem o en needs o be localized. To mee he
sus ainabili y goals, ci ies and companies should
join o ces wi h o he s akeholde s in a collabo a i e
sea ch o solu ions o he complex and no el p ob-
lems a he hea o he SDG challenge. This akes he
o m o new PPPs o SDGs and eme ging inno a ion
ecosys ems, in eg a ed h ough ela ional business
models. We ha e iden i ied some cha ac e is ics
o hese digi al business models and o complex
ela ional go e nance, ecognizing ha wo k is s ill
needed o de ine he igh go e nance o each PPP.
Jou nal o Business Models (2024), Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 36-42
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ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. p o.2019.09.003.
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Abou he Au ho s
Joan E. Rica , Fellow o he SMS and EURAM, is p o esso o S a egic Managemen
and Ca l Sch oede Chai o S a egic Managemen a IESE Business School. In
his school, he has been Di ec o o he Doc o al P og am (1995-2006), Associa e
Dean o Resea ch (2001-2006), Associa e Di ec o o Facul y and Resea ch
(2006-2014), and Chai man o he S a egic Managemen Depa men (1993-2016).
