Me awe, Mohamed
A icle
Populism and domes ic/in e na ional poli ics: Theo y and
p ac ice
Re iew o Economics and Poli ical Science (REPS)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Cai o Uni e si y, Cai o
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Me awe, Mohamed (2024) : Populism and domes ic/in e na ional poli ics: Theo y
and p ac ice, Re iew o Economics and Poli ical Science (REPS), ISSN 2631-3561, Eme ald, Bingley,
Vol. 9, Iss. 3, pp. 194-211,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/REPS-11-2019-0146
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Populism and domes ic/
in e na ional poli ics: heo y
and p ac ice
Mohamed Me awe
Depa men o Poli ical Science, Facul y o Economics and Poli ical Science,
Cai o Uni e si y, Giza, Egyp
Abs ac
Pu pose –This pape aims o con end ha populism is damaging o bo h domes ic and in e na ional
poli ics; no only does i e ode libe al democ acy in es ablished democ acies bu also uels au ho i a ianism in
despo ic egimes and agg a a es conflic s and c ises in in e na ional sys em.
Design/me hodology/app oach –The esea ch is di ided in o wo main sec ions. Fi s , i examines
how populis mobiliza ion a ec s libe al democ acy, and e u es he claims ha populism is beneficial and
ein o cing o democ acy. Second, i a emp s o demons a e how populism is damaging o domes ic poli ics
(by unde mining libe al democ acy and suppo ing au ho i a ianism) as well as in e na ional ela ions (by
making in e s a e conflic s mo e likely o ma e ialize). Theo e ically, populism is assumed o be a s a egy
used by poli icians o maximize hei in e es . Hence, populism is a s a egy used by poli icians o mobilize
cons i uen s using he main ea u es o populis discou se.
Findings –The esea ch a gues ha populism has de imen al consequences on bo h domes ic and
in e na ional poli ics; i unde mines libe al democ acy in democ a ic coun ies, upsu ges au ho i a ianism in
au oc a ic egimes and heigh ens he le el o conflic and c ises in in e na ional poli ics. Populism can lead o
au ho i a ianism. The e is one majo undemoc a ic ai sha ed by all populis wa es a ound he wo ld,
pa icula ly democ acies; ha is an i-plu alism/an i-ins i u ions. Populis leade s pe cei e o eign policy as
he con inua ion o domes ic poli ics, because hey conside hemsel es as he only ue ep esen a i es o he
people. The e o e, populis ac o s abandon any poli ical opposi ion as necessa ily illegi ima e, wi h
epe cussions on o eign policy.
O iginali y/ alue –Some schola s a gue ha populism ein o ces democ acy by unde pinning i s abili y
o include ma ginalized sec o s o he socie y and o dec ease o e apa hy, he esea ch e u ed hese
a gumen s. Populism is des uc i e o wo ld democ acy; populis s a e eluc an o emb ace he idea o ull
in eg a ion wi h o he na ions. Populis s ejec he idea o open bo de s, and eckon i an appa en h ea o
hei na ional secu i y. The esea ch concludes ha populis s conside maximizing hei na ional in e es s on
he in e na ional le el by ollowing con on a ional policies ins ead o coope a i e ones.
Keywo ds Poli ics, Democ acy, Populism, T ump, Mul ila e alism, Fo eign policy
Pape ype Resea ch pape
In oduc ion
Populism is no a new phenomenon; i came in o schola ly a en ion in he 1960s and 1970s,
as i ose and p e ailed in he La in Ame ican poli ics, and hen came back in o ocus in he
© Mohamed Me awe. Published in Re iew o Economics and Poli ical Science. Published by Eme ald
Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is published unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0)
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legalcode
REPS
9,3
194
Recei ed 15 No embe 2019
Re ised 11 Janua y 2020
Accep ed 4 Feb ua y 2020
Re iew o Economics and Poli ical
Science
Vol. 9 No. 3, 2024
pp. 194-211
Eme ald Publishing Limi ed
e-ISSN: 2631-3561
p-ISSN: 2356-9980
DOI 10.1108/REPS-11-2019-0146
The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a :
h ps://www.eme ald.com/insigh /2631-3561.h m
1990s. Once again, and pe haps mo e ehemen ly han e e , populism is coming back o he
o e o poli ical analysis; la gely due o he ise o a numbe o populis leade s wo ldwide.
The mos p ominen cha ac e is ic o all he schola ly wo k done on populism is ha i lacks
a cohe en , uni e sal defini ion o he concep . The e is an old-new deba e going on in
academic li e a u e on how o app oach such a phenomenon, and wha can be desc ibed as
being “populis ”[1]. Howe e , he e is a se o ce ain hemes and cha ac e is ics ha a e
cons an ly asc ibed o populism ega dless o he app oach h ough which he phenomenon
is handled. Th ee co e hemes a e usually unde lying any populis he o ic: he fi s heme
has o do wi h he no ion o he “people”–a e m e e ing o a i uous, homogenous, bu
o en ambiguous majo i y –who sha e he same in e es s and desi es. The enemies o he
“people”( he “o he s”) a e ying o disman le o des oy hei in e es wi h he help o hei
allies ( he powe ul and co up eli es). The second co e heme o any populis he o ic is he
depic ion o he poli ical game as a s uggle o us s hem –o he “people”and hei enemies
who a e usually a mino i y g oup ha is po ayed as suppo ed by he powe ul and
co up eli e. The hi d unning heme is populism’s an ies ablishmen discou se and/o
a i ude; he idea o b inging p o ound changes o –o e en des oying – he cu en
es ablishmen and pu ing o wa d a new, mo e i uous one ha mani es s he good o he
people (Oli e and Rahn, 2016).
Apa om hose co e hemes, ce ain cha ac e is ics a e o be ound in he populis
he o ic a any ime. Fi s , populism is o en di ec ed owa ds ma ginalized sec o s o he
socie y, who a e less well-o economically, and unde p i ileged socially, in an a emp o
alo ize hem and hence gain hei suppo . As populism is cen e ed on such concep s as he
“majo i y”and he “people”, and is di ec ed o he less well-o g oups, he language used o
deli e such message has o be comp ehensible by he majo i y o he people. When in use,
he populis he o ic pu s he blame o he main dilemmas aced by he majo i y on hei
enemies, while “ he people”a e good, i uous, and do no dese e wha is happening o
hem (Van D oogenboeck e al.,2016).
In a li e a u e e iew conduc ed by Wea he head Cen e o Ha a d Uni e si y, populism
was di ided in o h ee main app oaches. The fi s app oach conside s populism as an
ideology. In his sense, populism can be used o desc ibe a ce ain pa y o a poli ician
(whe eupon an indi idual o a pa y can be called a populis ). The second app oach defines
populism as a discu si e s yle, in which case populism can be used o desc ibe ce ain
inciden s, in which he populis he o ic is employed, and no a pe son o a pa y. The hi d
app oach emb aces populism as a poli ical s a egy used o policy choices, poli ical
o ganiza ion and/o poli ical mobiliza ion. In his la e sense, populism can nei he be a
mo emen o pa y ype, no a egime ype o a pe sonal discu si e s yle, bu a he a se o
poli ical ac i i ies ha include mobiliza ion and discu si e p ac ices aiming a gene a ing
legi imacy and suppo by alo izing and mobilizing ma ginalized social sec o s in o public
and isible poli ical p ac ice (Jansen, 2011a). In hei ques o mobilize hose ma ginalized
sec o s, populis s use a di ec , simplis ic language ha implica es he o he wo co e hemes
o populism: placing a i uous majo i y in conflic wi h co up eli e, and he u ge o al e
he cu en es ablishmen (Bonikowski and Gid on, 2016). This esea ch emb aces he hi d
app oach: populism as a poli ical s a egy used by poli icians wo ldwide o maximize hei
poli ical gains in pu sui o powe and influence.
The essen ial cha ac e is ic o he con empo a y wa e o populism is ha in many cases
i has igh -wing na ionalis ic ideas. Wi h he inc easing yielding o powe o sup ana ional
ins i u ions, he hi ing global economic c ises, and he unceasing influx o immig an s and
e ugees om he de eloping o he de eloped wo ld, a - igh poli ics is becoming mo e and
mo e popula (Kazin, 2016). Howe e , his is no always he case – he cu en G eek uling
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eli e employed a populis mobiliza ion s a egy o ge o powe e en hough he coali ion has
le is iews. Populis mobiliza ion is no longe confined o de eloping coun ies, he mos
p ominen his o ical case being La in Ame ica, bu has inc easingly become mo e and mo e
popula in de eloped libe al democ a ic s a es, and is p oli e a ing among he wo ld’s oldes
and mos consolida ed democ acies (Van D oogenboeck e al., 2016).
Resea ch ques ion
This esea ch a gues ha populism has de imen al consequences on bo h domes ic and
in e na ional poli ics; i unde mines libe al democ acy in democ a ic coun ies, upsu ges
au ho i a ianism in au oc a ic egimes, and heigh ens he le el o conflic and c ises in
in e na ional poli ics. As o domes ic poli ics, he ques ion which looms among he
academic ci cles is: how does he use o populis he o ic o mobiliza ion fi in he con ex o
a libe al democ acy? This is one o he mos deba ed opics among schola s o populism.
Schola s such as Kal wasse , Mudde and Pos el ega d populism as a phenomenon ha
ein o ces democ acy and democ a ic alues. Gi en he declining mobiliza ion and public
pa icipa ion a es on he one hand, and he widening scope o social ma ginaliza ion in he
democ a ic wo ld, wi h he ep esen a ion gap and democ a ic defici i p oduces, on he
o he hand, he a o esaid schola s main ain ha he co e idea o democ acy –unde s ood in
e ms o popula so e eign y –is being los . To pu i di e en ly, hey a gue ha populis
mobiliza ion b idges he ep esen a ion gap, and eins a es he e y essence o democ acy:
he ule o he people. Besides, hey a gue, i is a ool o ansla ed he majo i y’s will in o
poli ical eali y. The cu en wa e o populism, hus iewed, is unde s ood as a ool o he
e i al o di ec democ acy –a end o hough ha has been g owing du ing he pas
decade among he exponen s o populism (Bonikowski and Gid on, 2016).
On he o he side o he spec um, he e a e schola s such as Ba loni, Le i sky and
Lox on who p esen he coun e a gumen ha populism is damaging o libe al democ acy.
F om his s andpoin , libe al democ acy is cen e ed on libe al p inciples (significance o he
indi idual, ci il libe ies, e c.) inasmuch as i is cen e ed on he co e democ a ic no ion o he
ule o he majo i y. I ollows ha populism could be seen o blemish he libe al aspec o
democ acy by a aching he o emos significance o “ he people” a he han he indi idual,
and by c ea ing he idea o he enemy –o en a sec o o he socie y whose ci il libe ies
become, mo e o en han no , suscep ible o denial o in ingemen , a leas e bally, by he
populis s. Such in ingemen is highly des uc i e o he libe al aspec in any s a e
emb acing libe al democ acy. The populis claim o gi ing oice o “ he people”and he
ma ginalized silen majo i y could a guably u n in o –o e en se e as a euphemism o –
y anny o he majo i y, as ci il libe ies and igh s o he mino i y a e c ushed. In ce ain
cases, he populis p ac ices ha e amoun ed o an un-ambi alen a ack on libe al
democ a ic ins i u ions and no only he eli es. This, howe e , is a e, and none o such cases
has succeeded in consolida ed democ acies. On he in e na ional le el o analysis, populism
is des uc i e o wo ld democ acy, as populis s a e agains he idea o ull in eg a ion wi h
o he na ions. As seen by populis s, in eg a ion is a h ea o he na ional cul u e and
iden i y. In addi ion, populis s ejec he idea o open bo de s, on he g ound ha i poses an
ob ious h ea o hei na ional secu i y (Bonikowski and Gid on, 2016).
The a gumen emb aced by his s udy uns as ollows: al hough populism is being
depic ed as suppo i e o democ acy and he democ a ic essence, he consequences o such a
phenomenon could be e y dange ous, especially on he long un. As opposed o he
a gumen made by some schola s ha populism may succeed in mobilizing he
ma ginalized sec o s, and in filling he ep esen a ion gap ha is le hal o democ acy, his
s udy a gues ha he cen al hemes o populism c ea e an an i-democ a ic a mosphe e ha
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pu s he socie y in a s a e o cons an conflic be ween hose who a e “ i uous”and hose
who a e “co up ”, wi h he “ i uous”empowe ed o ansg ess o in inge he igh s and
libe ies o he “co up ”. One can’ bu wonde i libe al democ acy can su i e in such an
a mosphe e; o e ime, leads o he decay o he libe al democ a ic alues in bo h ci il and
s a e ins i u ions. Populism also leads o bu essing au ho i a ianism in au oc a ic egimes.
This esea ch a emp s o p o ide pieces o e idence mean o e u e he a gumen ha
populism ein o ces democ acy, as well as o p o e ha i has des uc i e amifica ions on
domes ic poli ics (mos no ably unde mining libe al democ acy, and inc easing
au ho i a ianism), and he in e na ional poli ics as well. The e o e, he key ques ion o he
s udy is: Why is populism des uc i e o domes ic and in e na ional poli ics, despi e he ac
ha i is o en being po ayed o be ein o cing and e i ing he ue essence o democ acy?
This esea ch main ains ha populism in inges ci il libe ies h ough limi ing o
a emp ing o e ec i ely limi he eedoms o poli ical opposi ion, ansg ess indi idual
libe ies, enc oach on p ess eedom, as well as igh ening censo ship on se e al le els.
Populism also a ec s he anspa ency and compe i i eness o elec ions, and a emp s o
concen a e powe in he hands o execu i e b anch o go e nmen , hence es aining he
cons i u ional sepa a ion o powe s. Agains his backd op, he esea ch is di ided in o wo
main sec ions. Fi s , i examines how populis mobiliza ion a ec s libe al democ acy, and
e u es he claims ha populism is beneficial and ein o cing o democ acy. Second, i
a emp s o demons a e how populism is damaging o domes ic poli ics (by unde mining
libe al democ acy and suppo ing au ho i a ianism) as well as in e na ional ela ions (by
making in e s a e conflic s mo e likely o ma e ialize).
The esea ch is based on a heo e ical pe spec i e in which populism is assumed o be a
s a egy used by poli icians o maximize hei in e es . Hence, populism is s a egy used by
poli icians a a specific pe iod o ime o mobilize cons i uen s using he main ea u es o
populis discou se: an appeal o he “people”(a “good”, unified and so e eign body wi h a
common in e es and a gene al will), an appeal o he co up eli e who a e conspi ing
agains he “people”, an an agonis ic ela ion be ween he “people”and he eli e, exclusion o
a ce ain g oup o g oups ( he “o he s”), claiming ha he “o he s”a e allied wi h he co up
eli e, and he desi e o he populis s o eplace he cu en “co up ”o de wi h a new one
ep esen ing he “people”(Hanspe e and Pappas, 2015).
Populism and domes ic poli ics: heo e ical pe spec i e
Populism as a poli ical s a egy is made up o a se o ideas, pa ially making i an ideology.
Those ideas mani es hemsel es in a discu si e s yle which is used wi hin a s a egy o
mobilize suppo e s and cons i uen s (Jansen, 2011b). The libe al democ a ic s a e has a
du y o p o ec indi idual igh s om any in ingemen s o ansg essions, whe he by a
hi d pa y o he s a e i sel . The ou ounda ions on which a libe al democ a ic s a e is
based a e uni e sal su age, allowing o compe i i e and ai elec ions based on a plu alis
concep ion o poli ics; ule o law, p o ec ing agains he iola ion o indi iduals’ igh s by
s a e and non-s a e ac o s; defini ion and di ision go e nance oles be ween he execu i e,
legisla i e and judicia y b anches o go e nmen ; and he scope and eedoms enjoyed by
indi iduals and he ci il socie y. The ole o ci il socie y is i al o libe al democ acy; as i
encou ages pa icipa ion and ac s as a sphe e ha connec s indi iduals o s a e ac o s and
ice e sa (Gals on, 2018).
Al hough populism dec eases he ep esen a ion gap [2], and inc eases pa icipa ion in
he sho - un, i s long- e m e ec s a e bound o unde mine he libe al elemen in a libe al
democ a ic s a e. To s a wi h, populis he o ic is p emised upon “ he people”–a no ion
which implies a collec i i y as he basis o socie y, as opposed o libe alism’s emphasis on
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indi idualism. Collec i e and g oup discou se des oys indi idualism, and hence, he
ounda ional idea o populism ( he collec i i y o an implied majo i y –“ he people”)
con adic s he co e concep o libe alism ( he indi idual).
The e a e h ee illibe al consequences associa ed wi h populism. Fi s , i ejec s he
checks and balances ha a e essen ial in any libe al democ a ic s a e. In o he wo ds, i is
inconsis en wi h he cons i u ionalis dimension o democ acy. As he populis leade is
en isioned as he embodimen o he collec i e will o he majo i y, his/he suppo e s a e
o en willing o ole a e he concen a ion o powe in his/he hands, as opposed o he
cons i u ional checks and balances implica ed by libe al democ acy. Second, i ejec s any
in e media ies be ween he people and he decision-make s, including poli ical pa ies and
o he o ms o ci il-socie y o ganiza ions. Thi d, i s iew o he will o he people as
p ede e mined and unanimous denies any oom o plu alism, which is he d i ing o ce
behind any libe al democ acy (Hanspe e and Pappas, 2015).
In addi ion o he o egoing, he main b each o he cons i u ionalis dimension o
democ acy occu s h ough he concen a ion o powe in he execu i e b anch, and o en in
he figu e o he leade . Populis s a e mos e ec i e when in powe , and a ec ing he
democ a ic ins i u ions o en akes ime and mul iple e ms in o fice. Re-elec ion o en shows
popula app o al, which allows o he implemen a ion o mo e con o e sial polices. The
ac o using a populis s a egy o en looks o a p e ex o consolida e his/he au ho i y and
popula i y ha enables him/he o al e democ a ic ins i u ions, causing hem o emphasize
pola iza ion and conflic be ween he “people”and he “o he s”. Fu he mo e, he
concen a ion o powe in he execu i e b anch is u he exace ba ed when he populis
ac o is a poli ical ou side . In ha case, he ou side populis o en lacks he linkages and
connec ions wi h o he pa ies and es ablished poli icians ha would ease he nego ia ion
p ocess wi h poli ical opponen s. As a esul , hey choose he easie ou e o “ci cum en ing”
he o he b anches o go e nmen , and unning di ec ly h ough he execu i e.
Mo eo e , populis s seem o concep ualize he poli ical game in e ms o a mo al s uggle
be ween a i uous body o people whose wills a e embodied by he populis leade on he
one hand, and co up eli e ha assis an amo al sec o o he socie y and ac in his
mino i y’s in e es while igno ing he in e es o he majo i y. F om he populis ’s
pe spec i e, he co up eli e ha e los hei igh o be pa o he poli ical scene, because
hey abused hei oles by ac ing agains he common good. The e o e, he eli e and hei
mino i y o suppo e s should be pe sis en ly sc u inized and moni o ed. Such
demo aliza ion (o e en demoniza ion) jus ifies he use o undemoc a ic p ocedu es when
dealing wi h he opposi ion, including he iola ion o he indi idual ci il libe ies o hose
who belong o he demo alized mino i y. Ci il igh s in ingemen s include enc oaching on
he eedom o he poli ical opposi ion by es ic ing he eedom o assembly and
associa ion, and inc easing censo ship while cons aining he eedom o p ess. Indica o s
such as inc eased media censo ship and high a es o imp isoned jou nalis s a e key signs o
he coun ies whe e populis s ha e long been in powe (F eybu g e al.,2019).
Schola s who asse ha populism s eng hens o co ec s democ acy equen ly adop
he ollowing main a gumen s o suppo hei claim. Fi s , hey a gue ha populism
includes p e iously excluded sec o s o he socie y, whe he such exclusion is on an
economic, poli ical o a social/cul u al basis. Second, hey a gue ha populism is able o
“heal”democ acy ha has been de e io a ing due o he dec ease in o e u nou and
poli ical apa hy. Populism, hence, e i es people’s in e es in poli ics, inc easing
mobiliza ion o cons i uen s and, hence, he o e u nou . Thi d, hey a gue ha populism
ein o ces democ acy when hey include subs an ial sec o s o he socie y in he poli ical
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p ocess, and o e u nou inc eases, all o which leads o enhanced ep esen a ion in he
democ a ic ins i u ions (F eybu g e al.,2019).
These claims abou he posi i e e ec s o populism on cons i uen mobiliza ion and
inclusion can be e u ed as ollows: fi s , al hough populism does succeed in including
ma ginalized sec o s o he socie y in o he poli ical game, he eby deepening democ acy in
hese coun ies and b oadening he e ec o di e en social g oups on he policies
implemen ed, such inclusion, in many cases, p o es o be coun e -p oduc i e; i may lead o
adeficiency in public con es a ion, as i demo alizes o he g oups, and cu bs he plu ali y
deemed o be essen ial o a unc ioning democ acy. E en in La in Ame ica, whe e populism
succeeded in including p e iously excluded sec o s o he socie y, almos all La in Ame ican
populis leade s sha e he habi o iewing poli ical compe i ion as a ully fledged wa
be ween “ he people”and hei enemies. Fo ins ance, be o e winning he p esiden ial
elec ions in Boli ia, P esiden E o Mo ales said, “The elec ions a e going o be an a m
w es ling be ween consciousness and money”(Mudde and Kal wasse , 2017), endowing his
ollowe s wi h i ue, and dismissing his opponen s as dishones . In o he wo ds, he mo al
ca ego iza ion o he people o mobilize hem in he ace an immo al, demonized enemy
c ea es a public discou se ha di ides people in o wo main g oups ( he “good” e sus he
“e il”). This logic, hus iewed, unde mines plu alism ha is essen ial o he quali y and
su i al o democ acy, and diminishes espec o he ules o he democ a ic game a la ge
(Ro i a Kal wasse , 2012).
Second, populism is seen as ela ed o poli ical apa hy. In his pu iew, populism
eme ges du ing imes o widesp ead poli ical apa hy and is able o “heal” his apa hy by
mobilizing hose who we e eeling apa he ic. Howe e , he wo claims made in his sen ence
a e nega ed by empi ical e idence. The fi s claim is ha populism eme ges du ing imes o
widesp ead poli ical apa hy. In eali y, he igh -wing populis pa ies in he No dic
coun ies (Sweden, Finland, Denma k and No way) we e able o gain inc easing suppo in
elec ions du ing he pas decade e en hough hose coun ies do no su e om poli ical
apa hy; as o e u nou is high in hose coun ies, and o e s belie e ha hei oices will
be hea d.
The second claim is ha populism inc eases mobiliza ion and dec eases poli ical apa hy.
Al hough poli ical pa icipa ion is no limi ed o o ing in elec ions, he la e is s ill a key
ac o in measu ing how apa he ic he masses a e. Howe e , empi ical e idence does no
necessa ily suppo his claim. Populism may c ea e an incen i e o o e o indi iduals who
would no ha e o ed o he wise and now explici ly o e o pa ies/indi iduals wi h an i-
libe al, an i-democ a ic and an i-plu alis ideas. The mos esonan populis success
nowadays is ha o Donald T ump’s ic o y in he 2016 US p esiden ial elec ions. Donald
T ump employed wha is an ina guably populis he o ic in a coun y which has been
su e ing om a declining end in o e u nou . As opposed o he asse ion ha populism
enhances mobiliza ion and is a emedy o poli ical apa hy, he 2016 Ame ican p esiden ial
elec ion es ima es show ha 57.9% o eligible o e s pa icipa ed in he elec ions, down om
58.6% in 2012 and 61.6% in 2008. I no hing else, he es ima es p o e ha populis
mobiliza ion does no necessa ily en ail inc eased mobiliza ion. In addi ion, he la es F ench
elec ion wi nessed he success o Ma ine Le Pen in o he second ound bu did no wi ness
he success. E en in he F ench case, he populis mobiliza ion employed by Le Pen did no
inc ease u nou a es, as he u nou was he lowes o e he pas 40 yea s a 66% (The
Gua dian, 2017).
When discussing he e ec o populism on democ acy, one o he mos c i ical issues ha
a ise is he p ominence o “ he leade ”in populis mobiliza ion. T ump, Le Pen, E dogan,
O ban, and many mo e populis leade s se e as he ocal poin o hei campaigns and
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elec o a es. Such ex eme pe sonaliza ion o poli ics can be dange ous i he populis leade
op s o subjuga e he people o his/he iews. Ne e heless, he eal h ea is he expansion
o a pa y’so afigu e’s poli ical s a egy in o a whole poli ical egime. Populis ac o s end
o be opp essi e o democ acy when hey become ins i u ionalized in a egime, owing o he
inhe en p opensi y o populism o unde mine law and pe sonalize o poli ics. This becomes
e en mo e dange ous once ins i u ionalized, e en i such a egime is ad oca ed by he
majo i y o he people. The mos no able example o such a phenomenon is Nazi Ge many,
whe e he populis leade enjoyed as ad ocacy. The dange o populism u ning in o a
egime is no a hing o he pas ; he ajec o y ha he Tu kish p esiden E dogan is
mo ing on is qui e ala ming (Ro i a Kal wasse , 2020).
The p oblem wi h he a gumen o he benefi o populis mobiliza ion wi h ega d o
democ acy is ha i o en es s on heo e ical and no ma i e specula ion, a he han
empi ical obse a ion, especially when i comes o es ablished democ acies, as is he case in
Wes e n Eu opean coun ies o he USA. Mos o hese schola s’a gumen s a e empi ically
es ed and ound success ul in La in Ame ica only, and his means ha he posi i e e ec o
populism on democ acy is no uni e sal, bu specified o specific social, economic, his o ical
and poli ical ci cums ances, and namely newbo n democ acies.
Populism as de imen al o libe al democ acy: Donald T ump’s example
Donald T ump’s ic o y in he 2016 p esiden ial elec ions in he USA has gi en a esh
momen um o populism. Al hough he usage o populism as a mobiliza ion s a egy has
been on he ise o yea s now, i s success o win he highes posi ion in he wo ld’s mos
powe ul coun y signified a new e a o libe al democ acy –an e a in which populism has
become a majo con ende . E e since T ump s a ed o ge in o poli ics, and up ill now, he
has cons an ly been using populis s a egies and he o ic o a ac and mobilize
suppo e s. T ump cons an ly e e s o he “people”in his speeches, and p esen s himsel as
he sa io o he na ion. In his inaugu a ion speech, he is amously quo ed as saying:
Today’s ce emony, howe e , has e y special meaning. Because oday we a e no me ely
ans e ing powe om one Adminis a ion o ano he , o om one pa y o ano he –bu we a e
ans e ing powe om Washing on DC and gi ing i back o you, he people.
“Janua y 20, 2017, will be emembe ed as he day he people became he ule s o his na ion
again.”In addi ion, T ump also a acked he “es ablishmen ”in he e y same speech: “The
es ablishmen p o ec ed i sel , bu no he ci izens o ou coun y”(Win e s, 2017).
T ump also included in his speeches exclusiona y ph ases. The wo social g oups mos
a ge ed by his exclusiona y speech we e Muslims and La inos. Examples o he la e case
include his s a emen epo ed by CNN: “When Mexico is sending i s people, hey’ e no
sending hei bes [...] hey’ e b inging d ugs. They’ e b inging c ime. They’ e apis s. And
some, I assume, a e good people”(June 16, 2015).
In Decembe 2015, T ump said ha , in case he won, he would es ablish a “ o al and
comple e”ban on Muslims om en e ing he USA. Donald T ump pu his s a emen , albei
pa ially, in o p ac ice when, in Janua y 2017, he Whi e House announced execu i e o de
no. 13769, placing a ban on he ci izens o I an, I aq, Libya, Sy ia, Yemen, Somalia, in
addi ion o Sudan –and specifically he Muslims – om en e ing he USA o 90 days. I also
indefini ely suspended he en y o a la ge numbe o Sy ian e ugees. In wha amoun ed o
a policy o un-ambi alen seg ega ion and exclusion, ha o de banned he en y in o he
USA on pu ely eligious g ounds. This is undamen ally inconsis en wi h he Ame ican
libe alism ha was ensh ined in he Fi s Amendmen ha clea ly se s o h he necessi y o
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eedom o belie and s ongly opposes any o m o eligious seg ega ion (ACLU
Washing on, 2019).
Thus, he execu i e o de 13769, dubbed “T ump’s Muslim Ban”, clea ly iola es he
indi idual libe y and he libe al alue o eedom o belie which was i al h oughou he
Ame ican his o y. Howe e , he e was a coun e -a gumen , his ime p esen ed by he US
Sup eme Cou in a 5–4 opinion w i en by Chie Jus ice, John Robe s, who ound ha
T ump’s a el es ic ion ell “squa ely”wi hin he p esiden ’s au ho i y. The cou ejec ed
claims ha he ban was mo i a ed by eligious hos ili y, a guing ha he o de “is exp essly
p emised on legi ima e pu poses: p e en ing en y o na ionals who canno be adequa ely
e ed and inducing o he na ions o imp o e hei p ac ices”(Williams, 2018). A e he
lapse o his o de ’s 90 days, T ump issued execu i e o de 13780 on Ma ch 16, 2017. The
new o de esponded o he p e ious a acks and lessened he p ohibi ions on Muslims pe
se, bu a he p ohibi ed he en y o ce ain na ionali ies ega dless o hei eligion.
Ne e heless, he coun ies men ioned a e Muslim-majo i y coun ies, and gi en T ump’s
adi ion o an i-Muslim he o ic, and he his o y o his policy p oposal, he a ge ing o
Muslims in hese execu i e o de s is s ill ob ious. This execu i e o de has also b ough
abou legal con es a ion and a conflic wi h he judicia y (ACLU Washing on, 2019).
Mo eo e , Donald T ump’s campaign calls o mass depo a ion o undocumen ed people
wi hin he US bo de s we e pu in o p ac ice, as can be in e ed om he wo memos signed
by new Homeland Secu i y Sec e a y John Kelly ha we e leaked o he media. These
memos confi m ha depo ing undocumen ed people will become much easie unde T ump
and will enable a es ing hose who a e in schools o hospi als o a e seeking sanc ua y in
chu ches. This is likely o lead o mass depo a ion, which, again, migh lead o he
in ingemen o Ame ican libe al alues and he igh s o hese immig an s as human
beings (Domonoske and Rose, 2017). The Ame ican Ci il Libe ies Union (ACLU) a gues
ha such en o cemen would e ode ci il libe ies o he undocumen ed people as i would
lead o “a sys ema ic eliance on acial p ofiling and illegal de en ions”. Mass depo a ion
would en ail in e oga ions and a es s wi hou suspicion; unjus ified a fic s ops,
wa an less sea ches o p i a e places, and c ackdowns on immig an neighbo hoods –all
on he basis o ace o colo . In o he wo ds, T ump has flipped U.S. immig a ion policy on
i s head, and he a e o millions o people is a s ake. In a s iking mo e, on Sep embe 27,
2019, a ede al judge ejec ed a plan by he T ump adminis a ion o keep mig an amilies
in cus ody indefini ely while hei cou cases ge esol ed. I enac ed, he go e nmen ’s plan
would ha e o e u ned a decades-old ede al cou se lemen ha caps a 20 days he pe iod
child mig an s can be held in de en ion. Such a bi a y ac ions a e no condoned by libe al
s anda ds: no only does he Uni e sal Decla a ion o human igh s ejec such a bi a y
measu es, bu he Ame ican cons i u ion – he eflec ion o libe alism –has p ohibi ed such
measu es unless suppo ed by a cause o suspec (Ga cia, 2019).
As human igh s a e in hei essence a e a libe al ideal, a libe al democ a ic s a e should
be se abou o p o ec and de end human igh s and no iola e hem. Howe e , du ing his
campaign, Donald T ump’s demons a ed his app o al o o u e me hods o ge
in o ma ion o punish a e o is . He condoned he use o wa e boa ding when he said ha
he “lo e[s] wa e boa ding”and ha he “would absolu ely au ho ize some hing beyond
wa e boa ding.”Wa e boa ding and o he o ms o o u e a e bo h in e na ionally and
domes ically (in he USA) banned, and a e dismissed as agains human igh s (Johnson,
2016). In addi ion, US Ambassado o he U.N., Nikki Haley, announced in June 2018 ha he
USA was lea ing he U.N. Human Righ s Council. The USA is he fi s na ion o e e
wi hd aw om he council, and one o only ou na ions in he wo ld ha does no
pa icipa e in i s p oceedings (Finoh, 2018). This has led some schola s o a gue ha human
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he pas ew yea s, including he elec ions whe e populis ac o s a ed well; such as in
F ance and I aly. O e all, he schola s who asse ed ha populism is beneficial o
democ acy did no p esen sound no ma i e a gumen s, and e en he a gumen s hey hold
o en ail o s and he empi ical es .
Populism has led o he de e io a ion o libe al democ a ic alues in he USA. Populism is
ound o ha e a nega i e e ec on indi idual and ci il libe ies as well as he eedom o
opposi ion. In addi ion, p ess eedom was ound o be limi ed unde he ule o populis s.
Mo eo e , populis s a e ound o be ying o des abilize he cons i u ional aspec o libe al
democ acy (mo e pa icula ly, he p inciple o sepa a ion o powe s), by s uggling o ake
powe s away om he judicia y and legisla u e and pu hem in he execu i e’s ( hei )
hands. Las ly, he democ a ic compe i ion in elec ions and e e endums a e ound o be
nega i ely influenced by populis mobiliza ion, as he la e hampe s hei anspa ency,
compe i i eness and ai ness. Two ac o s a e ound o a ec he ex en o which he
populis ac o is able o a ec libe al democ acy: he amoun o ime spen in o fice, and he
con ex in which he populis is ope a ing. This esea ch a gues ha he mo e he ime a
populis spends in o fice, he g ea e is his abili y o consolida e his au ho i y; due o he
longe ime in o fice, as well as he popula a fi ma ion ha he ge s h ough his eelec ion.
Fu he mo e, he con ex in which he populis ac o is ope a ing is eflec ed in his abili y o
influence libe al democ acy.
Populism is des uc i e o wo ld democ acy; populis s a e eluc an o emb ace he idea
o ull in eg a ion wi h o he na ions –which means ha he ise o populism is a eal h ea
o he uni y o Eu ope. Populis s ejec he idea o open bo de s, and eckon i an appa en
h ea o hei na ional secu i y. And as economic in eg a ion equi es ee mo emen o
labo , capi al, goods and se ices, and as he Schengen acco d allows Eu opeans o mo e
eely among coun ies, Eu opean populis s demanded econside a ion he Schengen
Ag eemen , and called o closing and imposing a se e e su eillance on hei bo de s.
The e o e, he esea ch concludes ha populis s conside maximizing hei na ional
in e es s on he in e na ional le el by ollowing con on a ional policies ins ead o
coope a i e ones; which lays down conflic as a landma k o he in e na ional ela ions as
iewed om he populis pe spec i e.
No es
1. Some schola s define populism as an ideology; o he s claim i is a discu si e s yle, s ill o he s,
including he au ho , hold ha i is a poli ical s a egy used by poli icians o maximize hei
powe .
2. Democ acy elies on effec i e ep esen a ion – esponsi e poli ical leade s who can c a policy
solu ions o hei socie ies. Ye , in nume ous democ a ic coun ies, many ci izens ques ion
whe he adi ional poli ical pa ies can handle cu en challenges and c ises, and his has
inc eased apa hy and dis us among o e s. I has also encou aged many o suppo al e na i e
pa hs o poli ical ac ion (ex eme populis s).
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Co esponding au ho
Mohamed Me awe can be con ac ed a : [email p o ec ed]
Fo ins uc ions on how o o de ep in s o his a icle, please isi ou websi e:
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