Ba e , Dus in
Resea ch Repo
'Wo king wi h humani a ians is a nigh ma e': Dynamics
su ounding locally led peacebuilding in Somalia
ODI Repo
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ba e , Dus in (2024) : 'Wo king wi h humani a ians is a nigh ma e': Dynamics
su ounding locally led peacebuilding in Somalia, ODI Repo , ODI, London,
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su ounding-locally-led-peacebuilding-in-somalia/
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‘Wo king wi h humani a ians
is a nigh ma e’
Dynamics su ounding locally led peacebuilding
in Somalia
Dus in Ba e
Augus 2024
Repo
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How o ci e: Ba e , D. (2024) ‘Wo king wi h humani a ians is a nigh ma e’: dynamics su ounding
locally led peacebuilding in Somalia. London: ODI (www.odi.o g/en/publica ions/wo king-wi h-
humani a ians-is-a-nigh ma e-dynamics-su ounding-locally-led-peacebuilding-in-somalia).
Co e pho o: Dus in Ba e
Acknowledgemen s
The au ho would like o hank e e yone in ol ed h oughou he esea ch p ocess, pa icula ly
he many in e iewees who sha ed hei ime and hough s. Pa icula hanks o Su e
Mohammed, Robin Mydlak, Mohammed Ya ow, Edwa d Laws, Maegan Rod icks and Ka h yn
Nwajiaku-Dahou o hei ins umen al suppo .
Abou his publica ion
This publica ion was possible wi h suppo om I eland’s Depa men o Fo eign A ai s.
The con en in his epo in no way e lec s he iews o he Depa men and a e solely he
esponsibili y o he au ho .
Abou he au ho s
ORCID numbe s a e gi en whe e a ailable. Please click on he ID icon nex o an au ho ’s name in
o de o access hei ORCID lis ing.
Dus in Ba e ID is a Senio Resea ch Fellow wi h he Humani a ian Policy G oup a ODI.
Con en s
Acknowledgemen s / i
Ac onyms / iii
Execu i e summa y / 1
1 In oduc ion / 3
2 Con ex posi i e: unp eceden ed p og ess despi e challenges / 5
2.1 A s abilising s a e and imp o ing go e nance / 5
2.2 Deb elie po en ially ans o ma i e / 6
2.3 Majo p og ess agains al-Shabab / 6
2.4 No malising in e na ional ela ions: Eas A ica Communi y ascension and a ms emba go
li ed / 6
2.5 Na u al esou ce explo a ion and po en ial bene i s / 7
3 Con ex nega i e: d i e s o ins abili y pe sis / 8
3.1 Al-Shabab is esilien and biding i s ime / 8
3.2 Risks associa ed wi h he ATMIS d awdown / 9
3.3 Majo lashpoin : MoU be ween E hiopia and Somaliland / 9
3.4 Geopoli ics and in e na ional meddling / 10
3.5 Clan-based con lic and se e e ensions in Sool and Sanaag / 10
3.6 Mass displacemen and humani a ian needs / 10
4 The poli ical economy o aid in Somalia / 12
5 The s a e o peacebuilding in Somalia / 15
6 Key enable s and ba ie s o locally led peacebuilding / 18
6.1 Enable s / 18
6.2 Ba ie s / 19
6.3 Good dono p ac ice: Swiss Agency o De elopmen and Coope a ion / 20
6.4 Locally led good p ac ice: he Road o Sus ainable Peace and Nexus conso ia / 21
6.5 Indi idual o ganisa ion good p ac ice / 22
7 Recommenda ions o in e na ional aid ac o s / 23
7.1 P og amma ic app oaches / 23
7.2 Speci ic p og amma ic op ions / 24
7.3 Ad ocacy and in luencing / 24
Re e ences / 26
Ac onyms
ATMIS A ican Union T ansi ion Mission in Somalia
CPD Cen e o Peace and Democ acy
EAC Eas A ican Communi y
FGS Fede al Go e nmen o Somalia
FMS Fede al Membe S a e
GDP g oss domes ic p oduc
HIPC Highly Indeb ed Poo Coun y
HRP Humani a ian Response Plan
IGAD In e go e nmen al Au ho i y on De elopmen
IMF In e na ional Mone a y Fund
INGO in e na ional non-go e nmen al o ganisa ion
IOM In e na ional O ganiza ion o Mig a ion
MoU Memo andum o Unde s anding
PBF Peacebuilding Fund
RSP Road o Sus ainable Peace
SDC Swiss Agency o De elopmen and Coope a ion
SHF Somalia Humani a ian Fund
SNA Somalia Na ional A my
SSF Somalia S abili y Fund
SSWC Sa e Somali Women and Child en
UAE Uni ed A ab Emi a es
UN Uni ed Na ions
US Uni ed S a es
USAID Uni ed S a es Agency o In e na ional De elopmen
1ODI Repo
Execu i e summa y
Somalia is cu en ly a one o many his o ical
c oss oads, whe e in e na ional aid ac o s can
play an impo an ole in suppo ing locally led
peacebuilding and imp o ed s a e unc ioning.
The coun y’s mos signi ican posi i e
de elopmen s in ecen yea s include ela i e
s abilisa ion and imp o ing go e nance, billions
o dolla s in deb elie , ascension o he Eas
A ica Communi y (EAC), libe a ion o signi ican
swa hes o e i o y om al-Shabab and he li ing
o an a ms emba go in place since he ea ly 1990s.
The coun e -a gumen is ha people in need o
humani a ian assis ance and people displaced
emain pe sis en ly high a 6.9 and 3.4 million
espec i ely (USAID, 2024), insecu i y emains
acu e, p og ess agains al-Shabab is enuous, a
Somaliland–E hiopia po deal could de ail ecen
p og ess, clima ic shocks a e he new no m and
co up ion emains widesp ead. The coun y is
highly aid-dependen h ough a sys em domina ed
by in e na ional ac o s. Rela ionships be ween he
Fede al Go e nmen o Somalia (FGS) and Fede al
Membe S a es (FMSs) a e ac ious.
This pape examines hese dynamics and he
implica ions o in e na ional aid wi h p ac ical
ecommenda ions on how i can bes suppo
locally led peacebuilding, which is unde pinned
by imp o ed engagemen wi h na ional and
sub-na ional s a e s uc u es. Chap e s 1 o 4
elucida e Somalia’s mac o poli ical economy and
con lic dynamics, which is c i ical o embedding
he ensuing analysis ela ed o locally led
peacebuilding in chap e s 5 o 7, including a wide
ange o ecommenda ions o di e en ac o s
seeking o suppo peacebuilding. This s uc u e
is in ended o o eg ound he impo ance o
mac o-le el ac o s and hei in luence ac oss
he coun y. Any e o o suppo o implemen
peacebuilding mus engage wi h hese dynamics,
a he han ope a e in a silo.
O e all, he pape ocuses on sys ems ela ed
o, a he han he g anula de ails o ,
peacebuilding. This is because many Somali
ac o s a e as u e a peacebuilding and con lic
esolu ion, bu he impedimen s hey ace a e
s uc u al a he han echnical.
Main indings
• The scale and ola ili y o humani a ian aid o
Somalia has c ea ed a poli ical economy o aid
ha is an i he ical o locally led peacebuilding
and con lic esolu ion. I has c ea ed many
es ed in e es s ela ed o aid cap u e and
se e ely dis up s local ci il socie y ac o s’
e o s o achie e long- e m impac , amongs
o he dele e ious impac s.
• The e a e unique oppo uni ies o suppo
locally led peacebuilding conside ing he ecen
con ex ual imp o emen s, bu in e na ional aid
ac o s mus inc ease hei us -building wi h
Somali peace ac o s and hei in o med isk
ole ance.
• In e na ional ac o s con inue o domina e he
aid sec o , bu he e a e signi ican examples o
locally led ac ion, including peacebuilding and
con lic esolu ion. The Road o Sus ainable
Peace (RSP) and Nexus conso ia a e no able
examples, alongside nume ous indi idual
Somali ac o s. Thei success is g ounded in
yea s o us building wi h dono s and o he
in e na ional aid ac o s.
2ODI Repo
• Long- e m, consis en and lexible unding lows
a e c i ical o peacebuilding, as well as o
humani a ian and de elopmen ac ion, bu hey
emain he anomaly a he han he no m.
• Mos in e na ional aid ac o s con inue o
neglec inancial engagemen and collabo a ion
wi h he FGS and o he s a e au ho i ies, which
unde mines aid cohe ence and he sus ainabili y
o impac .
• Peacebuilding is egula ly compa men alised
a he han in eg a ed in o s a egies and
implemen a ion, which unde mines cohe ence
amongs all aid ac o s, while exace ba ing
go e nance challenges.
3ODI Repo
1 In oduc ion
1 The e m ‘aid’ is used o e e o peace, humani a ian and de elopmen sec o s, bu does no imply a benign,
no pu ely al uis ic ela ionship. In e na ional aid ac o s e e s o dono s, Uni ed Na ions’ agencies, INGOs and
simila ac o s.
Peace-making is a long- e m p ocess […] [i ]
will need o make a long- e m commi men o
people and esou ces. App oaches o peace-
making in Somalia e eal he dange s o ying
o impose an ou side solu ion o he Somali
con lic . (B adbu y, 1994: 3–4)
The abo e quo e om a seminal con lic analysis
ings as ue oday as when i was w i en o e
30 yea s ago. I also se s he scene o he
ensuing analysis, no jus abou he impo ance
o long- e m and locally led app oaches o
peacebuilding, bu also he epea ed inadequacies
o in e na ional engagemen in Somalia ha ha e
con ibu ed o signi ican ine ia. As 2024 un olds,
he coun y con inues o achie e signi ican
s abilisa ion and go e nance p og ess, ye majo
challenges pe sis , especially insecu i y and la ge-
scale humani a ian needs. Along wi h he quo e
used in he i le o his pape , one in e na ional
non-go e nmen al o ganisa ion (INGO)
in e iewee summed up he ensions as ollows:
In e na ional dominance is s ill a key p oblem;
aid con ac o s a e doing mega budge s wi h
no g ass oo s connec ion. Peacebuilding is
essen ially us -building, bu mass aid in luxes
con inue o agg a a e many long-
e m ela ionships.
This pape examines he s a e o locally led
peacebuilding in Somalia wi hin he b oade
poli ical economy and con lic dynamics o he
coun y. I is in ended o in o m in e na ional
aid ac o s1 and hei poli ical engagemen wi h
Somalia, wi h he in en ion o iden i ying how such
ac o s can be e suppo locally led peacebuilding
h ough sys ems hinking. A delibe a e e o was
made o shape he ecommenda ions in line wi h
Somalia’s unique con ex ual nuances, which ha e
majo implica ions o in e na ional engagemen ,
pa icula ly in a eas ela ing o peacebuilding.
To enhance up ake, he analysis seeks o be
in o ma i e ye concise, pu suing a balance
be ween b ead h and dep h. Consequen ly, i
explo es signi ican ensions and di e gences
ela ed o he cu en con ex in Somalia, om
bu geoning op imism o a sense o acu e agili y.
Such disc epancy ela es o a mul i ude o
dynamics ha can be in e p e ed di e en ly. This
pape sugges s ha ca e ul a en ion be paid o
how in e na ional engagemen in e ac s wi h
his con ex , whe e any suppo o locally led
peacebuilding mus be a long- e m ye lexible
commi men . I mus also seek o wo k wi h
na ional and sub-na ional au ho i ies, a he han
in pa allel, as is oo o en he case.
The ensuing analysis is based on a wide- anging
li e a u e e iew, syn hesised wi h 22 key
in o man in e iews and ocus g oup discussions
ha in ol ed a o al o 13 women and 15 men,
plus a mode a ed dialogue in ol ing h ee
Somali expe s in ea ly 2024. I also d aws on
he au ho ’s mo e han i e yea s o wo king
closely wi h Somali ci il socie y ac o s and
o e a decade wi h in e na ional aid ac o s,
10 ODI Repo
I is wo h no ing, howe e , ha Somaliland has
long sough in e na ional ecogni ion o which
i con ends i has a conside able ounda ion. The
MoU can be iewed as an agonis ic, bu i is also
e lec i e o a long-held Somaliland ambi ion.
Al hough he issue o ecogni ion emains
con en ious, one in e iewee sugges ed ha he
in e na ional communi y has aken Somaliland’s
peace and s abili y o g an ed, wi hou su icien
suppo . The MoU is illus a i e o how he s a us
quo can be quickly usu ped, as was also he case
wi h a med con lic in he con es ed bo de a eas
be ween Somaliland and Pun land in ecen yea s.
3.4 Geopoli ics and in e na ional
meddling
Beyond E hiopia’s in luence, geopoli ical dynamics
ha e had majo impac s on Somalia o many
yea s, as in e na ional ac o s’ compe i ion o
in luence dis up s s abilisa ion e o s. Al hough
no coun y is immune o geopoli ical in luences,
he impac is mo e se e e in con ex s o agile
s a e o ma ion, like Somalia. His o ically, he
Uni ed S a es (US) has had ex ensi e mili a y,
poli ical and economic engagemen in he coun y,
om i s ‘wa on e o ’ and ex ensi e d one
s ikes o ecen deb elie . The US engagemen
has o en cou ed con o e sy, no jus o he
di ec impac s, bu also because i s in-coun y
p esence is widely seen as a ec ui ing ool o
al-Shabab (see Khali , 2024). O e he pas decade,
howe e , geopoli ical con es a ion be ween
Tü kiye and he Gul s a es, while b inging some
bene i s such as in es men and mili a y suppo ,
has u he complica ed s a e s abilisa ion. The
UAE was making signi ican in oads in Somaliland,
while Tü kiye and Qa a we e mo e hea ily
in ol ed in Sou h-Cen al Somalia. Towa ds he
end o Fa maajo’s p esidency, he UAE was also
s eng hening i s p esence in Sou h-Cen al. This
was upended by he 2024 mili a y and economic
deals be ween Tü kiye and he FGS (Soylu,
2024). Beyond geopoli ical compe i ion, iolen
con lic in Somalia (and he Ho n) is also d i en
by li es ock demand in he Gul , as p eda o y and
ex ac i e capi al dis ega ds local needs and social
s uc u es (Du ield and S ock on, 2023).
3.5 Clan-based con lic and se e e
ensions in Sool and Sanaag
Clan-based con lic also emains signi ican ac oss
much o Somalia. The egions o Sool and Sanaag,
a he con es ed bo de be ween Somaliland and
Pun land, ha e seen some o he mos in ense
in e -clan iolence. This peaked in ea ly 2023
a ound he own o Lasanod when Somaliland
o ces iolen ly supp essed dissen , leading o o e
100 people being killed and 600 inju ed (Amnes y
In e na ional, 2023). A ec ed clans in he egion
a e calling o hei own b eakaway s a e, o be pa
o Somalia (RLI, 2023). They ha e been cou ed by
he FGS and denounced by Somaliland.
This se ies o e en s is indica i e o he po en ial
o clan-based ensions o up u e in o iolence,
especially as ne e -ending d ough s d i e
displacemen and compe i ion o e sca ce
esou ces, such as g azing land and wa e (Foua
e al., 2023). Howe e , con lic is ypically media ed
and esol ed locally, a oiding he la ge-scale
iolence seen in E hiopia and Sudan. This is owing
o communi y leade s’ and clan elde s’ e o s,
which many in e iewees highligh ed as a c i ical
esou ce o locally led peacebuilding.
3.6 Mass displacemen and
humani a ian needs
When discussing con lic dynamics in Somalia
du ing in e iews, he scale and pe sis ence o
humani a ian need we e gene ally no aised,
despi e 6.9 million people equi ing humani a ian
11 ODI Repo
assis ance and Humani a ian Response Plans
(HRPs) equa ing o a la ge po ion o G oss
Domes ic P oduc (GDP), ypically 10–25%.
Clima ic shocks a e he new no m and a e p o ing
de as a ing. Mul iple in e iewees explained ha
hey we e ocused on con lic dynamics, wi h
humani a ian needs o less conce n, al hough
he humani a ian sys em was widely seen as
dis up i e. Mass displacemen , howe e , was seen
as bo h a esul and o en a d i e o con lic ,
pa icula ly o e land in u ban se ings. The scale
o displacemen , a 3.4 million people in e nally
displaced as o ea ly 2024 (USAID, 2024), is a
c i ical c oss-cu ing issue. I is d i ing apid
u banisa ion, whe e displaced people a e ypically
some o he mos ulne able, pa icula ly mino i y
and ma ginalised clans, and women. Ul ima ely,
he shee scale o displacemen and humani a ian
esponse ha e c ea ed a de imen al poli ical
economy o aid ac oss Somalia.
12 ODI Repo
4 The poli ical economy o aid in Somalia
By channelling billions o dolla s in o he coun y,
he aid economy has p o ound impac s ac oss all
ace s o li e, unde mining go e nance p og ess,
c ea ing many es ed in e es s and encou aging
sho - e mism. All o his nega i ely impac s he
long- e m us -building and s a egic hinking
ha unde pin e ec i e peacebuilding. The poli ical
economy o aid has e ol ed in esponse o decades-
long a med con lic and ex ensi e humani a ian
need in Somalia. This chap e cap u es some o
hese dynamics and emphasises he scale o he
challenge, pa icula ly in ela ion o humani a ian
inancing. The aid economy mus be add essed o
ensu e a mo e conduci e en i onmen o locally
led peacebuilding.
This inadequa e aid economy is a guably bes
illus a ed h ough he immense scale and
ola ili y o annual HRPs and ela ed unding,
which o e a clea yea - o-yea compa ison. Table
1 is demons a i e, whe e 2017 and 2022 in ol ed
signi ican ly scaled-up esponses o d ough -
induced c ises. D ough pe sis ed in 2023, bu
was punc ua ed by loods ha a ec ed 2.5 million
people (OCHA, 2023). Humani a ian unding,
howe e , hal ed. Al hough he HRPs do no
cap u e de elopmen and peacebuilding unding,
he scale and ola ili y o unding impac he
en i e y o he humani a ian–de elopmen –peace
nexus. In con as , in e na ional de elopmen
assis ance has been ela i ely s able a a ound
US$300-400 million pe annum o e he pas
ou yea s, acco ding o he Wo ld Bank (Wo ld
Bank, 2024a) – bo h smalle and mo e consis en
han humani a ian unding.
Table 1 Scale and luc ua ions o humani a ian aid o Somalia
HRP unding lows 2016
($ billions)
2017
($ billions)
2022
($ billions)
2023
($ billions)
GDP 7.4 8.3 10.4 10.7 (es .)
HRP eques 0.9 1.5 2.3 2.6
HRP unded 0.7 1.3 2.3 1.2
Sou ces: OCHA, 2023; Wo ld Bank, 2024b
No e: HRP – Humani a ian Response Plan
13 ODI Repo
The scale and modali ies o humani a ian aid o
Somalia ha e c ea ed a mul i ude o dynamics in
he coun y ha a e an i he ical o peacebuilding.
Fi s ly, he scale o humani a ian aid has made
i one o he bigges indus ies and employe s
in Somalia. Consequen ly, i has c ea ed a wide
ange o es ed in e es s, whe e he e is signi ican
compe i ion o con ol o e aid lows. Ac o s
ace p essu e o secu e aid o hei clan, which
heigh ens compe i ion and con ibu es o he
neglec o mino i y and ma ginalised clans. I has
also been sugges ed ha poli ical a angemen s
bene i om he pe manen p eca i y o displaced
popula ions, as i b ings in aid unding (Jaspa s
e al., 2023). This aid economy has a ac ed
widesp ead c i icism o pe pe ua ing Somalia’s
aid dependence, om mac o-le el en -seeking o
camp ga ekeepe s ha ake a commission om
displaced people’s assis ance (Thomas and Majid,
2023). ‘Di e sion o aid is sys emic and widesp ead’
(Hailey e al., 2023: 4), ye humani a ian assis ance
emains essen ial o a e ing amine. The
a ailabili y o aid also in luences displacemen
pa e ns, as people pu sue a ailable suppo . This
has accele a ed u banisa ion, wi h displaced people
elega ed o he u ban pe iphe y (Gis Resea ch,
2022). The consequences o humani a ian aid,
howe e , ex end beyond issues o dependence.
The as luc ua ions in humani a ian aid o
Somalia un con a y o e ec i e app oaches o
peacebuilding and econcilia ion. As he igu es
in Table 1 illus a e, humani a ian aid olumes
can hal e o double om one yea o he nex ,
o en wi h sho , unp edic able ime ames.
While his e lec s esponsi eness o he ola ili y
o humani a ian need and has mi iga ed ood
secu i y c ises, i has dele e ious impac s.
Fi s ly, he scale o unding c owds ou peace
and de elopmen ac i i ies, encou aging sho -
e mism – namely add essing and p io i ising
immedia e needs a he han long- e m s uc u es
ha d i e and pe pe ua e hese needs. Secondly,
sho - e mism con ibu es o bad p ac ices, as
di e en ac o s end up ha ing o spend unds
expedien ly a he han hough ully. In e na ional
aid ac o s hen o en o ce local ac o s in o
comp omised posi ions o needing o spend
quickly a he han being able o implemen
cohe en ly. Finally, he luc ua ions in unding
unde mine longe - e m peacebuilding e o s. Fo
example, s a a Somali o ganisa ions a e poached
by in e na ional aid ac o s, c ea ing ins i u ional
ins abili y. Such dynamics we e epo ed ac oss
in e iews, wi h in e iewees p o iding nume ous
anecdo es o la ge-scale humani a ian unding
dis up ing peacebuilding e o s.
Al hough smalle in scale, de elopmen and
go e nance ini ia i es u he complica e he
poli ical economy o aid in Somalia. Long- unning
esilience p og ammes, such as he Somalia
Resilience P og am (SomReP) and Building
Resilien Communi ies in Somalia (BRICS), a e
gene ally posi i ely ega ded o hei impac ,
bu a e minuscule in compa ison o b oade
humani a ian p og amming. They a e also
pe cei ed as ‘INGO clubs’ by many Somali ci il
socie y ac o s, owing o INGOs ecei ing he
bulk o unding and domina ing decision-making
p ocesses. On he go e nmen side, he Wo ld
Bank has in es ed hund eds o millions o dolla s
in o he FGS in ecen yea s, which has es ed
he s a e’s abso p ion capaci y. While being
necessa y o achie e benchma ks o deb elie ,
he la ge olume o unding has, o a deg ee,
compounded he di icul ies associa ed wi h
humani a ian unding. On he one hand, millions
o people a e caugh in pe pe ual c isis, bu on
he o he , many ac o s a e p o i ing signi ican ly
om incoming aid. Despi e yea s o c i iques o
he aid sys em in Somalia, imp o emen s ha e no
been o hcoming o any signi ican deg ee; he
14 ODI Repo
sys em emains o ien ed o he sho e m, and
o en complica es a he han imp o es locally led
peacebuilding.
Be o e shi ing o ocus speci ically on
peacebuilding, i ’s also impo an o emphasise
he con inued dominance o Uni ed Na ions
(UN) agencies and INGOs wi hin he aid sec o in
Somalia. This ou sized in luence pe sis s, despi e a
mul i ude o Somali ci il socie y ac o s calling o
‘jus ice o an unjus sys em’ (Ali, 2016). The ea lie
c i icisms ela ing o aid cap u e a e also alid
o UN agencies and INGOs, whe e hey ope a e
h ough a compe i i e and expansionis mindse
ha is an i he ical o he localisa ion – le alone
decolonisa ion – o aid. The Somalia Humani a ian
Fund (SHF), which consis en ly channels o e
50% o unding di ec ly o Somali o ganisa ions,
is o en held up as a posi i e example. Zooming
ou , howe e , he SHF only makes up a iny pa
o humani a ian unding in Somalia. Local and
na ional o ganisa ions con inue o ecei e unde
3% in di ec unding (Ba e and Sumlu , 2023).
Such in e na ional dominance mus be add essed
as an u gen sys emic p oblem. A ocus on only
mic o-le el peacebuilding ini ia i es will s uggle
agains a sys em ha is o en disempowe ing o
local ac o s.
15 ODI Repo
5 The s a e o peacebuilding in Somalia
3 Somaliland appea s dep io i ised, likely owing o ela i e s abili y and less al-Shabab in luence in i s e i o y.
Violen con lic , howe e , is p esen , including sco es o dea hs in Sool and Sanaag, whe e ensions emain
high. As one in e iewee explained, Somaliland’s ela i e peace is p oblema ically aken o g an ed by he
in e na ional communi y.
Conside ing he many dynamics ou lined in he
p eceding chap e s, peacebuilding and con lic
esolu ion emain as pe inen as e e ac oss
mul iple axes in Somalia. This chap e p o ides a
b ie mapping o di e en le els o peacebuilding,
be o e examining key ba ie s and enable s o
locally led peacebuilding. The mapping is by no
means all-inclusi e, bu is in ended o gi e a sense
o di e en mechanisms and e o s o suppo
peacebuilding. I will be ollowed wi h some
examples o good p ac ice ha a e pa icula ly
in o ma i e o how in e na ional aid ac o s migh
wan o be e suppo locally led peacebuilding
in Somalia. This chap e also looks a how a ious
issues in he p eceding sec ions play ou in p ac ice.
A he ede al le el, in e na ional ac o s a e
di ec ing ex ensi e unding owa ds s abilisa ion
(and secu i isa ion), cen ed on con ibu ing o
he deg ada ion o al-Shabab, while imp o ing
ela ionships be ween he FGS and FMSs.3 This
includes ex ensi e diploma ic engagemen ,
alongside he p e-eminen ehicle o inancial
and echnical suppo , he Somalia S abili y
Fund (SSF). Since i s launch in 2012, he SSF was
in ended as a lexible and esponsi e ehicle o
suppo ing peacebuilding e o s (Laws, 2018). In
i s hi d i e a ion, he SSF ocuses signi ican ly on
poli ical se lemen s, democ a isa ion and ela ed
a eas, a he han g ass oo s peacebuilding. I
also p oduces ex ensi e, high-quali y esea ch.
SSF s a a e espec ed as being highly a uned
and connec ed o he nuances ac oss Somalia.
Acco ding o one in e iewee, ‘ he SSF is much
be e han he big p i a e con ac o s ha USAID
unds, bu i ’s di icul o connec big p og ammes
down o local le els’. Ano he in e iewee
sugges ed he SSF was no pa icula ly agile,
ci ing an example o slow adap a ion o a apidly
de eloping c isis, while he SSF also aced
compe i ion om UN agencies seeking o asse
hei au ho i y. Such dynamics a e again illus a i e
o he p oblems associa ed wi h in e na ional
ac o s domina ing he aid sec o in Somalia.
Like he humani a ian sys em, compe i ion
be ween in e na ional ac o s is p e alen in
he peacebuilding space in Somalia, leading o
domes ic ac o s o en being c owded ou . The
UN suppo s peacebuilding in mul iple ways, such
as h ough he global Peacebuilding Fund (PBF),
which ans e ed o e US$1 billion o Somalia
ini ia i es be ween 2008 and 2021. I add esses
a ious issues such as elec ions and secu i y-
sec o e o m (PBF, 2024). In 2023, he long-
s anding Somalia Mul i-Pa ne T us Fund was
e-launched as he Somalia Join Fund, which aims
o an annual budge o US$60 million, al hough
wi h a c oss-nexus ocus (UN, 2023b).
Indi idual UN agencies, such as he In e na ional
O ganiza ion o Mig a ion (IOM), a e also
engaged in communi y-le el peacebuilding. IOM
p og amming ha b ings con lic ing communi ies
oge he and ma ches hei con ibu ions o
peace and de elopmen p ojec s was posi i ely
ega ded by mul iple in e iewees. I is impo an
o no e ha he Wo ld Bank, al hough ocused
16 ODI Repo
mo e b oadly on go e nance and economic
de elopmen , also has a majo in luence on s a e
unc ioning and he economy, and he e o e
on peacebuilding. This is pa icula ly owing
o he olume o inancing i p o ides; o he
Wo ld Bank’s 2024–2028 Coun y Pa ne ship
F amewo k, i has secu ed commi men s o
US$2.3 billion in in e na ional de elopmen
assis ance. Like humani a ian unding, his
ep esen s a signi ican po ion o GDP (Wo ld
Bank, 2024b).
A mo e localised le els, he e is a wide ange o
peacebuilding ini ia i es unde way in Somalia.
Peacebuilding INGOs, such as In e peace and
Sa e wo ld, ha e had decades o engagemen in
Somalia, alongside mo e nexus-o ien ed ac o s
like Ox am (which commissioned he con lic
analysis quo ed a he beginning o his pape ).
The la e , speci ically Ox am No ib (Ne he lands),
has a long his o y o suppo ing ci il socie y
de elopmen in Somalia, wi h a signi ican ocus
on peacebuilding. This included long- e m, lexible
unding ha was c i ical o he es ablishmen
o he non-go e nmen al o ganisa ion (NGO)
Adeso, he Elman Peace and Human Righ s Cen e,
he Somali Women’s S udy Cen e, NAGAAD
and Candleligh (Mydlak, 2019). The p ominence
o hese o ganisa ions many yea s la e , many
o which a e women-led and commi ed o
women’s empowe men , is e lec i e o he alue
in sus ained, agile commi men s o ci il socie y
s eng hening.
Despi e he ex ensi e p esence o in e na ional
aid ac o s, he bulk o di ec communi y-le el
peacebuilding is by Somali ci il socie y ac o s
and communi ies. The peacebuilding sec o
has a bu geoning numbe o NGOs, such as he
highly ega ded Cen e o Peace and Democ acy
(CPD), Li e and Peace Ins i u e, and Pun land
De elopmen and Resea ch Cen e , ocused
speci ically on peacebuilding. O he ac o s,
such as Adeso and Sa e Somali Women and
Child en (SSWC), a e mul i-manda e, wi h bo h
o ganisa ions widely espec ed o hei wo k
on women’s empowe men . Despi e being a
he coal ace o peacebuilding and acing he
mos acu e secu i y isks, hese o ganisa ions
a e beholden o wildly luc ua ing budge s
and minimal ins i u ional suppo , including
o secu i y, while being ma ginalised om
key decision-making p ocesses. In e na ional
suppo o localisa ion is o en ou o necessi y,
due o inaccessibili y, a he han in suppo o
endogenous ci il socie y de elopmen (Ba e and
Sumlu , 2023).
Aside om he NGO sec o , i is also impo an
o no e ha communi ies o en sel -ini ia e
peacebuilding and esol e con lic s wi hou
ex e nal suppo . They a e also he i s
esponde s, since communi y leade s,
pa icula ly elde s, mee o add ess con lic s.
Thei e ec i eness is a key esou ce ha is o en
o e looked and is also why iolence in Somalia
is ypically spo adic and luid, a he han a he
scales seen in E hiopia o Sudan, acco ding o
many in e iewees. P e en ing and mi iga ing
in e -clan con lic s akes conside able ime
o ensu e us is buil , such as h ough join
communi y de elopmen p ojec s, dialogues and
o he ini ia i es. Howe e , injec ions o unding o
NGOs and communi ies in sho ime ames can
p o e dis up i e. As all in e iewees ei e a ed,
peacebuilding equi es long- e m, hough ul
suppo , ye such an app oach is o en lacking in
Somalia. Ins ead, he aid economy and i s majo ,
bu inconsis en , injec ion o esou ces can o en
p o e coun e p oduc i e o many communi y-
based ini ia i es. As some in e iewees
highligh ed, clan leade s and elde s a e ypically
17 ODI Repo
adep a esol ing con lic s, bu unding can ange
om being oo igid o being a dis ac ion, hus
p o ing dis up i e o local ini ia i es.
O he peacebuilding ini ia i es seek o add ess
con lic dynamics speci ically ela ed o
al-Shabab, bu mul iple in e iewees highligh ed
he di icul y in accessing newly libe a ed a eas.
This was ypically due o isk a e sion and/o se e e
secu i y conce ns. Such a dynamic was common
ac oss in e iews, as he FGS sough aid ac o s o
p o ide aid and se ices in newly libe a ed a eas
o demons a e he bene i s o ous ing al-Shabab.
One in e iewee explained ha hei o ganisa ion
wan ed o conduc ac i i ies in such a eas, bu hey
we e hen p e en ed by he conso ium lead who
de e mined secu i y p o ocols.
In mo e success ul ins ances, a di e si y o
app oaches o peacebuilding a e being deployed,
such as using heal h and basic se ices o en y
poin s, while he e is an inc easing ocus on
in eg a ing en i onmen and clima e change issues
in o peacebuilding. A en ion is also inc easingly
paid o add essing auma and he impo ance
o e o ming inequi able UN p ac ices as hey
con inue o ha e ou sized in luence o e aid lows
and p ac ices in Somalia compa ed o domes ic
ac o s (GPPAC, 2022). Add essing gende
inequali ies and mino i y clan ma ginalisa ion
was aised du ing in e iews, bu he bulk o
peacebuilding appea s ocused on engaging
men, such as clan elde s. Howe e , a ious
o ganisa ions, such as NAGAAD in Somaliland
and SSWC in Somalia, ha e sough o ele a e
he ole o women in peacebuilding. A consis en
heme amongs in e iewees was he need o
in e na ional ac o s o be e align peacebuilding
unding and ini ia i es wi h he s a e’s go e nance
e o s a na ional and sub-na ional le els.
The oles and impac o he A ican Union
(AU) and In e go e nmen al Au ho i y on
De elopmen (IGAD) we e also elucida ed
h oughou da a collec ion, bu hey we e
conside ed less signi ican han he o he ac o s
and dynamics al eady ou lined. The AU was
conside ed impo an , pa icula ly owing o i s
deploymen o mili a y o ces h ough ATMIS. I s
impo ance ela ed o secu i isa ion and s abili y
a he han a signi ican ole in peacebuilding. The
p esence o o eign oops was widely conside ed
necessa y, albei pe pe ua ing he p oblems
associa ed wi h in e na ional in e en ion in
Somalia. IGAD, on he o he hand, was iewed
as an impo an ins i u ion o p omo ing
egional coope a ion and de elopmen , bu no
pa icula ly signi ican o in luen ial in ela ion o
peacebuilding in Somalia. The scale o iolence
in E hiopia and Sudan we e seen as abso bing
IGAD’s a en ion and ene gy, alongside Sudan
suspending i s membe ship in Janua y 2024.
In e iewees we e de ini i e ha in e na ional aid
ac o s should ocus on engaging and suppo ing
Somali na ional and sub-na ional ac o s, bo h
s a e and ci il socie y.
18 ODI Repo
6 Key enable s and ba ie s o locally led
peacebuilding
This chap e examines he key enable s and
ba ie s o locally led peacebuilding in Somalia,
while emphasising ha any in e na ional suppo
mus be a uned o he many poli ical and
con ex ual nuances explo ed in p e ious chap e s.
As such, many o he enable s and ba ie s
a e e lec i e o and esponsi e o Somalia’s
p oblema ic aid economy, while shi ing he
pape ’s analysis o a mo e implemen a ion and
p og amma ic ocus. Al hough g ounded in a
di e si y o li e a u e, he analysis is cen ed upon
key hemes ha a ose du ing in e iews, o which
he e was signi ican commonali y, despi e he
di e si y o in e iewees.
Mos o he enable s and ba ie s a e al eady
widely known, indica ing ha he aid sys em
in Somalia, like in many con ex s, s uggles
wi h ine ia and/o is beholden o aid sys ems
ha a e an i he ical o suppo ing locally led
peacebuilding. While many geopoli ical in luences
and he esilience o al-Shabab emain pe pe ually
di icul o add ess, he e is plen y o scope o
imp o e he sca olding o in e na ional suppo
o locally led peacebuilding.
Ra he han ocus on he g anula speci ics o
peacebuilding, which many Somali ac o s a e
highly expe ienced in implemen ing, his chap e
ocuses p ima ily on s uc u al enable s and
ba ie s. In many ways, add essing hese sys emic
issues is abou in e na ional ac o s educing hei
in e e ence, while enhancing espec o he
agency and au onomy o Somali ac o s.
6.1 Enable s
• Long- e m suppo / unding. This was
uni e sally seen as c i ical o suppo ing locally
led peacebuilding, which equi es us -building
be ween ac o s a di e en le els. P edic able
unding also enables o ganisa ions o be e
ec ui and e ain s a ha hen imp o es
p og amme cohe ency.
• Flexible unding. Bo om-up/communi y-
led app oaches we e widely seen as he
mos e ec i e, and hese bene i ed om
lexible unding. This enables communi ies o
s ee ini ia i es owa ds hei needs h ough
genuinely pa icipa o y app oaches, while
allowing ci il socie y ac o s o espond o
spo adic o eme ging iolen con lic .
• Success based on us . The impo ance o
us ansla es ac oss le els, om dono s
o ci il socie y ac o s o communi ies. When
dono s (including UN and INGOs) us he
ac o s hey a e unding, hose ac o s eel be e
able o deli e and inno a e, as he e is less
p essu e. T us akes ime o build and equi es
commi men om in e na ional ac o s.
• Equi able pa ne ships. Local ac o s
emphasised he impo ance o pa ne ships
ha we e as equi able as possible, om
decision-making o implemen a ion. Sub-
con ac ing ela ionships we e ega ded as
no jus inapp op ia e, bu also unde mining
peacebuilding objec i es, as hey con ibu ed o
sho - e m app oaches and unde mined us -
building. In con as , long-s anding pa ne ships
wi h allies, based on solida i y, we e highly
alued by Somali ci il socie y ac o s.
19 ODI Repo
• In eg a ed app oaches. Locally led
peacebuilding wo ks bes when in eg a ed
wi h b oade de elopmen and humani a ian
ac i i ies o ensu e any ma e ial bene i s
connec a he han di ide popula ion g oups.
This is also impo an when dono s und
p edominan ly humani a ian o ganisa ions wi h
equi emen s ha hey conside peacebuilding
dynamics o a minimum become mo e con lic -
sensi i e. In eg a ion also means add essing
go e nance dynamics and engaging he s a e.
• Commi men o localisa ion. Such a
commi men , whe he o dono s, UN o
INGO unding in e media ies, can be a c i ical
enable o locally led app oaches. Incen i es
and app oaches can be adjus ed o suppo
localisa ion, bu i he unde lying commi men is
lacking, p og ess o en emains s alled.
6.2 Ba ie s
• Humani a ian unding. The scale and ola ili y
o humani a ian unding poses one o he mos
signi ican ba ie s o locally led peacebuilding,
as consis en ly highligh ed h oughou his
epo . I c owds ou peacebuilding ini ia i es,
exace ba es an inadequa e aid economy and
unde mines he s abili y o Somali ci il socie y
ac o s. In con as , de elopmen unding is
mo e amenable o peacebuilding h ough
in eg a ed p og amming, bu con inues o be
unde mined by ola ile humani a ian inancing.
• P ojec isa ion o aid. This c ea es bo h sho -
e m and in lexible aid, which con ibu es o
ine ec ual and e en damaging peacebuilding
p ocesses. I also disincen i ises holis ic and
sys ema ic app oaches o peacebuilding, as
ac o s di e a en ion o esou ce mobilisa ion
ha may no align wi h hei s a egies.
• In e na ional ac o s’ dominance. This
pe ades he en i e aid sec o in Somalia,
c ea ing coun e p oduc i e compe i ion
amongs ac o s. Local ac o s a e c owded ou
and/o o ced o accep p oblema ic unding
modali ies. In e na ional ac o s hen compe e
o local pa ne s, while hese local ac o s a e
ma ginalised om decision-making p ocesses.
In e na ional ac o s also poach s a , which
con inues o unde mine he ins i u ional
s eng h and cohe ency o local ac o s.
• Lack o us . This is p e alen ac oss he
aid sec o in Somalia, owing pa icula ly o
majo issues o aid di e sion and misuse o e
he yea s. I mus be no ed ha in e na ional
aid ac o s a ely ake esponsibili y o he
ine icien ways in which hey o en channel
high olumes o unding in sho ime ames.
The lack o us is exace ba ed because: (a) UN
and INGOs domina e access o dono s, which is
c i ical o us building; and (b) dono s a ely,
i e e , isi insecu e loca ions, whe e impo an
peacebuilding wo k occu s by local ac o s. Such
isi s build us .
• Funding misaligned wi h poli ical e en s.
Funding cycles ypically exis in isola ion, despi e
consis ency o unding being essen ial du ing
key momen s, such as elec ions. I unding
ceases a an inoppo une ime, such as jus p io
o an elec ion, i can ha e wide- anging nega i e
impac s on peacebuilding.
• Disp opo iona e unding o pooled unds.
Al hough such unding can be compa a i ely
accessible o local ac o s, hey o en p o ide
ela i ely sho - e m unding and limi ed
long- e m pa ne ship building. Pooled unds
can c owd ou longe - e m unding o o he
in e media ies, such as INGOs, some o which
may ha e deepe commi men s o locally led
peacebuilding.
• Democ a isa ion p io i ised o e peace.
Such a p io i isa ion means ha long- e m
peacebuilding e o s can be dis up ed, as
dono s push o democ a isa ion be o e peace
and s abili y a e su icien ly secu ed. In u n, his
can dis o peace-o ien ed ac o s away om
wha is eally needed o solidi y peace.
26 ODI Repo
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