Mbewana, Vusi; Kasee am, I shad
A icle
The de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion among
small-scale u al a me s in Al ed Nzo and King
Ce shwayo Dis ic , Sou h A ica
Cogen Economics & Finance
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Mbewana, Vusi; Kasee am, I shad (2024) : The de e minan s o li elihood
di e si ica ion among small-scale u al a me s in Al ed Nzo and King Ce shwayo Dis ic , Sou h
A ica, Cogen Economics & Finance, ISSN 2332-2039, Taylo & F ancis, Abingdon, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp.
1-16,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2368901
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/321522
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Cogen Economics & Finance
ISSN: 2332-2039 (Online) Jou nal homepage: www. and online.com/jou nals/oae 20
The de e minan s o li elihood di e sifica ion
among small-scale u al a me s in Al ed Nzo and
King Ce shwayo Dis ic , Sou h A ica
Vusi Mbewana & I shad Kasee am
To ci e his a icle: Vusi Mbewana & I shad Kasee am (2024) The de e minan s o
li elihood di e sifica ion among small-scale u al a me s in Al ed Nzo and King
Ce shwayo Dis ic , Sou h A ica, Cogen Economics & Finance, 12:1, 2368901, DOI:
10.1080/23322039.2024.2368901
To link o his a icle: h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2368901
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
Published online: 08 Jul 2024.
Submi you a icle o his jou nal
A icle iews: 945
View ela ed a icles
View C ossma k da a
Ci ing a icles: 2 View ci ing a icles
Full Te ms & Condi ions o access and use can be ound a
h ps://www. and online.com/ac ion/jou nalIn o ma ion?jou nalCode=oae 20
GENERAL & APPLIED ECONOMICS | RESEARCH ARTICLE
The de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion among small-scale u al
a me s in Al ed Nzo and King Ce shwayo Dis ic , Sou h A ica
Vusi Mbewana and I shad Kasee am
Facul y o Comme ce, Adminis a ion and Law, Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o Zululand, KwaDlangezwa,
Sou h A ica
ABSTRACT
The de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion ha e been s udied by se e al esea che s
globally. Howe e , hese ac o s a e no well unde s ood in he ANDM and KCDM,
because hey a e gi en li le a en ion. The speci ic objec i e o he s udy was o examine
he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion in ANDM and KCDM. The c oss-sec ional
da ase was collec ed om 268 and 264 pa icipan s who we e andomly selec ed in
ANDM and KCDM, espec i ely. A s uc u ed ques ionnai e was u ilized o collec da a on
socio-economic and demog aphic ac o s among small-scale u al a me s in ANDM and
KCDM. The da a collec ion commenced in Ma ch o Ap il 2022 in KCDM and s a ed in
Augus o Sep embe 2022 in ANDM. S a a e sion 14.0 was employed o es ima e a
Quan ile eg ession. The esul s show ha 66.04% o pa icipan s in ANDM we e emale-
headed households, whe eas 53.79% in KCDM we e headed by males. The indings om
a Quan ile eg ession show ha li elihood di e si ica ion was in luenced by he house-
hold head’s gende , age, ma i al s a us, access o ex ension se ices, access o c edi ,
employmen s a us, ood secu i y, educa ion, household size, a m size, po e y s a us,
a m expe ience, and imp o ed seeds. To p omo e li elihood di e si ica ion, policy-
make s should c ea e policies ha will a ge all ac o s ha a e signi ican in he s udy.
IMPACT STATEMENT
The de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion ha e been explo ed by esea che s on a
global scale. Howe e , hese ac o s a e no well ecognized in he ANDM and KCDM
egions as hey a e gi en li le a en ion. The p ima y ocus o he s udy was o ana-
lyze he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion in ANDM and KCDM. A Quan ile
eg ession show ha li elihood di e si ica ion was in luenced by he household head’s
gende , age, ma i al s a us, access o ex ension se ices, access o c edi , employmen
s a us, ood secu i y, educa ion, household size, a m size, po e y s a us, a m expe i-
ence, and imp o ed seeds. To enhance li elihood di e si ica ion, policymake s should
design policies ha ocus on all signi ican ac o s ou lined in he s udy.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 27 Feb ua y 2024
Re ised 24 May 2024
Accep ed 12 June 2024
KEYWORDS
Li elihood di e si ica ion;
Al ed Nzo; King Ce shwayo;
small-scale a me s
REVIEWING EDITOR
Ch is Jones, As on
Uni e si y, Uni ed Kingdom
SUBJECTS
Economics; En i onmen al
Economics; Economics and
De elopmen
JEL
Q10
1. In oduc ion
The concep o li elihood di e si ica ion has been he subjec o in e es o esea che s and has been
widely accep ed by se e al de elopmen heo is s because o i s heo e ical assump ion o educing
u al po e y and imp o ing ood secu i y s a us (B yceson, 2000; Ellis, 1998). A gumen s ela ed o he
li elihood app oach ha e p edominan ly a ge ed u al a eas, since mos households in hose a eas a e
in ol ed in a ming (K an z, 2001).
I has been pos ula ed ha a household’s li elihood is sus ained i i can adequa ely manage and
elude s ain and p essu e while main aining i s esou ces and capaci ies (Ellis, 1998; Goldman e al.,
2000). To secu e hei li elihoods, households adop mul iple app oaches, including secu ing pe manen
posi ions ha pay sala ies which in u n assis s hem in suppo ing hei amilies and pa icipa ing in
li es ock ea ing and c op cul i a ion (Chambe s & Conway, 1992).
CONTACT Vusi Mbewana [email p o ec ed] Facul y o Comme ce, Adminis a ion and Law, Depa men o Economics,
Uni e si y o Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, Sou h A ica
ß2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE
2024, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 2368901
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2368901
Resea ch has demons a ed ha income acqui ed om non-ag icul u al sou ces supplemen s a m
income, which in u n enhances he s anda d o li ing o ma ginalized and u al poo households
(Rea don, 1997). Addi ionally, esiden s in u al a eas ha e de ised mul iple s a egies o sus ain hei
way o li ing. Those wi h li le access o esou ces ace obs acles such as ood insecu i y and li elihood
unce ain y (Pu is & Smi h, 2006; Smi h, 2012).
Di e si ying one’s li elihood is gene ally seen as an adap i e measu e in imes o ha dship (Ghosh &
Bha adwaj, 1992). The pull and push ac o s play a signi ican ole in de e mining whe he households
should expand hei income sou ces. Echebi i e al. (2017) no ed ha pull ac o s can be pe cei ed as
oppo uni ies ha p o ide indi iduals o households wi h he po en ial o ex end hei income sou ces.
S eady demand o p oduc s and se ices, as well as he po en ial o signi ican ly highe e u ns, has
been ega ded as he p ima y ac o ha d i es households o unde ake non-ag icul u al ac i i ies
(Khapayi & Cellie s, 2016). Conside ing he po en ial o gene a ing ex a income h ough al e na e sou -
ces, households a e becoming signi ican ly mo e engaged in a ious income-gene a ing ac i i ies
beyond ag icul u e (Ce an es-Godoy & Dewb e, 2010).
Push ac o s a e classi ied as ci cums ances in which households a e compelled, by hei si ua ion, o
ake up mul iple li elihood ac i i ies o hem o su i e (Ba e e al., 2001). Households ha s uggle
inancially a e obliged o in es in esou ces wi h low e u ns because hey a e unable o ob ain he
necessa y asse s due o a lack o unds (Ellis, 1998,2000). Thus, he po e y s a us could se e as one o
he ac o s ha may push small-scale a me s o engage in a ious li elihood ac i i ies o gain a li ing.
Among he s udies ha in es iga ed he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion, Habib e al. (2023)
ound ha li elihood di e si ica ion was posi i ely in luenced by he le el o educa ion, amily labou ,
and social connec ions. Con e sely, he e was a nega i e ela ionship be ween li elihood di e si ica ion
and a m o ganiza ions, access o new a ming equipmen , c edi accessibili y, and na u al disas e s.
Onuwa e al. (2022) ound ha educa ion le el, household size, c edi access, and p oduc i e asse s
ha e a posi i e impac on li elihood ac i i ies. Howe e , he age o he household head was ound o
ha e a nega i e e ec . Kuma and Umesh (2020) asse ha ex ension se ices and membe ship in a m-
ing o ganiza ions ha e a posi i e e ec on li elihood di e si ica ion. Wo kie (2023) indica ed ha on-
a m and o - a m li elihoods a e posi i ely in luenced by he gende o he household head, while
household head age, and li es ock owne ship, had a nega i e impac .
The de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion ha e been in es iga ed ex ensi ely a ound he globe.
Howe e , he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion ha e been gi en li le a en ion in he Al ed Nzo
Dis ic Municipali y (ANMD) and King Ce shwayo Dis ic Municipali y (KCDM). Addi ionally, mos s udies
did no include po e y s a us as one o he p edic o a iables ha could explain he pa icipa ion in
mul iple li elihood ac i i ies. To he esea che s’knowledge, his is he i s s udy o inco po a e po e y
s a us as an independen a iable and his is he o iginal con ibu ion o he exis ing li e a u e.
The p ima y objec i e o he s udy is o examine he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion in ANDM
and KCDM. This will shed ligh on policymake s o unde s and he ac o s ha equi e an u gen esponse o
enhance li elihood di e si ica ion among small-scale u al a me s in he s udy a eas. The de e minan s o
li elihood di e si ica ion may a y based on di e en household cha ac e is ics and geog aphical a eas. This
is one o he easons i was impo an o conduc his in es iga ion in he ANDM and KCDM.
2. Li e a u e e iew
This sec ion p o ides a summa y o p e ious empi ical esea ch on he de e minan s o li elihood di e -
si ica ion. Dinku (2018) in es iga ed he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion using a mul inomial
eg ession. In he i s model, he age o he household head, a m inpu , and li es ock ex ension con-
ac we e ound o be posi i ely associa ed wi h on- a m and o - a m li elihood ac i i ies. The second
model e ealed ha he age o he household head, a m inpu , li es ock ex ension con ac s, and access
o emi ances, we e posi i ely associa ed wi h a combina ion o on- a m and non- a m li elihood ac i -
i ies. In he hi d model, he owne ship o ca le, a m inpu , and ma ke dis ance we e ound o ha e a
posi i e ela ionship, wi h a combina ion o on- a m, o - a m, and non- a m li elihood ac i i ies.
Con e sely, c edi access was nega i ely ela ed o a combina ion o li elihood ac i i ies such as on-
a m þo - a m þnon- a m.
2 V. MBEWANA AND I. KASEERAM
E uk e al. (2018) ound ha household size has a nega i e impac on li elihood di e si ica ion, meaning
ha la ge households end o ha e lowe le els o di e si ica ion. Howe e , he s udy also ound ha ma i al
s a us, a m size, and o al household income ha e a posi i e in luence on small-scale a me s’engagemen
in a ious li elihood ac i i ies. Tyenjana and Ta u inga (2019) disco e ed a posi i e co ela ion be ween li e-
lihood di e si ica ion and educa ion le el, li es ock owne ship, and household size. They also obse ed ha
he gende o he household head nega i ely a ec s pa icipa ion in di e en li elihood ac i i ies.
Aweke e al. (2023) conduc ed a s udy and ound a posi i e co ela ion be ween o - a m wo k and
ac o s such as soil e osion, li es ock owne ship, and p oximi y o ma ke s. On he o he hand, hey
ound a nega i e associa ion be ween li elihood di e si ica ion and o al household income, male-
headed households, educa ion le el, and aining. Simila ly, Gui e e al. (2022) disco e ed ha p oximi y
o ma ke s, a ilia ion wi h a ming and non- a ming o ganiza ions, size o ope a ional we lands, and
a ailabili y o o es esou ces posi i ely in luence li elihood di e si ica ion. Howe e , hey ound a nega-
i e associa ion be ween a e age educa ional le el, pa icipa ion in mul iple income-gene a ing ac i i ies,
and ope a ional cash c op land.
Roy and Basu (2020) ound ha di e si ying li elihoods was associa ed wi h highe go e nmen dona ions,
inc eased household membe s wi h income, and g ea e in ol emen o social wo ke s. Alemu (2023)disco -
e ed ha a ious ac o s signi ican ly in luenced he ex en o li elihood di e si ica ion, including household
head age and gende , le el o educa ion, a m size, land quali y, soil conse a ion me hods, access o ex en-
sion se ices, dis ance o ma ke s, exposu e o shocks, and a ailabili y o in as uc u e. Ayana e al. (2021)
ound ha he le el o educa ion o he household head, dependency a io, access o i iga ion, c edi a ail-
abili y, and u ban connec i i y signi ican ly impac ed li elihood di e si ica ion.
Abe a e al. (2021) showed ha he combina ion o ag icul u al and non- a m ac i i ies in li elihoods was
in luenced by ac o s such as he age and gende o he household head, household size, educa ion s a us,
li es ock owne ship, land size, c edi access, dis ance o ma ke s, and income le el. Ano he model e ealed
ha ag icul u e supplemen ed wi h o - a m wo k was in luenced by a iables like he age o he household
head, household size, educa ion a ainmen , li es ock owne ship, land size, and p oximi y o ma ke s. The
hi d model demons a ed ha engagemen in ag icul u e, non- a m, and o - a m ac i i ies in li elihoods
was in luenced by ac o s including he gende and age o he household head, household size, educa ion
le el, li es ock owne ship, land size, c edi access, and dis ance o ma ke s.
Acco ding o Washo e al. (2021), access o c edi , owne ship o li es ock, and household size had a
posi i e impac on combining ag icul u e wi h o - a m ac i i ies. Howe e , a second model e ealed
ha household size had a nega i e in luence on combining ag icul u e wi h non- a m ac i i ies.
Addi ionally, a hi d model indica ed ha combining ag icul u e, o - a m, and non- a m ac i i ies in li e-
lihoods was nega i ely a ec ed by he age o he household head. The s udy also ound ha ma i al s a-
us, le el o educa ion, land owne ship, li es ock holding, and access o c edi posi i ely in luence a
combina ion o ag icul u e, o - a m, and non- a m li elihood ac i i ies.
A esea ch s udy conduc ed by Akyoo (2021) used a mul inomial logi o examine he p edic o a ia-
bles ha impac he li elihood di e si ica ion o small-scale a me s, in wo di e en a eas o Tanzania:
Kilombe o Suga Company Limi ed (KSCL) and Kilombe o Plan a ion Limi ed (KPL). The indings om
KSCL, indica ed ha household size and land size had a nega i e impac on on- a m and non- a m li eli-
hood ac i i ies, while ma i al s a us showed a posi i e co ela ion. Fu he mo e, he e was a nega i e
ela ionship be ween li elihood di e si ica ion (on- a m and o - a m) and household size, land size, and
access o c edi s. The second model e ealed ha household size, land size, and c edi access we e
nega i ely associa ed wi h a combina ion o on- a m, o - a m, and non- a m li elihood ac i i ies. The
hi d model, om KPL, demons a ed ha he combina ion o on- a m, o - a m, and non- a m li eli-
hoods was posi i ely ela ed o land size and o al household income.
The li e a u e e iew indica es a lack o s udies ha ha e inco po a ed po e y as an independen
a iable in he eg ession model, highligh ing a gap in he exis ing esea ch ha equi es a en ion.
3. Concep ual amewo k
This esea ch pape u ilized he sus ainable li elihood amewo k (see Figu e 1) as a heo e ical ounda-
ion o suppo he s udy’s indings and conclusions. Main aining a sus ainable li elihood equi es he
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 3
capaci y o e ec i ely adap o ex e nal shocks o p essu es wi hou comp omising he p oduc i i y o
na u al esou ces o ha ming o he s (Sneddon, 2000). The amewo k has i e li elihood asse s which
include human capi al, social, inancial, na u al, and physical capi al. These li elihood asse s di ec ly
a ec he li elihood s a egies and could be used o add ess he ulne abili y con ex such as ex e nal
shocks, seasonali y, and ends.
The sus ainable li elihood amewo k has ins i u ions ha a e esponsible o implemen ing policies
and laws ha could be used as a esponsi e majo when sudden shocks ake place. This would p o ec
he li elihood s a egies which could lead o a posi i e li elihood ou come. Being in ol ed in a ious
income-gene a ing ac i i ies can help small-scale a me s inc ease hei o e all household income. This
could ul ima ely lead o an enhanced ood secu i y s a us and imp o ed die a y in ake o u al small-
holde a me s. The Sus ainable Li elihoods F amewo k was employed in his esea ch o a ionalize he
a ious li elihood ac i i ies unde aken by u al small-scale a me s in bo h ANDM and KCDM.
4. Ma e ials and me hods
4.1. Desc ip ion and jus i ica ion o s udy a eas
Al ed Nzo Dis ic Municipali y (ANDM) is si ua ed in he no h-eas e n pa o he Eas e n Cape
P o ince and has ou local municipali ies: Mbizana, N abankulu, Umzim ubu, and Ma a iela (ANDM
[Al ed Nzo Dis ic Municipali y], 2017). This is he smalles dis ic , co e ing an a ea o 10,731 squa e
kilome e s, which accoun s o 6% o he geog aphical a ea in his egion. Almos 70% o he popula-
ion and households in he ANDM a e si ua ed in u al a eas. This municipali y has a popula ion o
867,864 wi h 195,975 households. The said dis ic is domina ed by maize small-scale a me s who ha e
o ganized p ojec s which a e egis e ed wi h he Depa men o Ag icul u e and mo e han 1000 coop-
e a i es deli e hei maize o he Dyi ani milling plan e e y yea (Mi i, 2017). Small-scale a me s in
he ANDM who pa icipa ed in comme cial a ming accoun ed o 1.4% o he o al. This was he lowes
pe cen age compa ed wi h o he egions in he Eas e n Cape P o ince (S a s SA [S a is ics Sou h A ica],
2020).
The Eas e n Cape is he e e ence whe e po e y and unemploymen a es a e among he highes in
he coun y since his p o ince is cha ac e ized as he second poo es in Sou h A ica (NDA [Na ional
De elopmen Agency], 2014). Addi ionally, he Al ed Nzo Dis ic Municipali y (ANDM) is decla ed as
wo se o compa ed o o he dis ic s wi hin he Eas e n Cape p o ince (ANDM, 2020). This is wha
makes he ANDM o be unique in he Eas e n Cape and a ge ed as a s udy a ea. The indings o he
s udy would in o m policymake s abou he de e minan s ha p omo e o hinde he pa icipa ion o
Figu e 1. Sus ainable li elihood amewo k. Sou ce: Ellis (2000).
4 V. MBEWANA AND I. KASEERAM
small-scale a me s in di e en li elihood ac i i ies. Thus, he app op ia e majo s would be aken o
add ess he po e y issues ha p e ail in he dis ic which will encou age he pa icipa ion o small-
scale a me s in mul iple income-gene a ing ac i i ies.
King Ce shwayo Dis ic Municipali y is si ua ed in he no he n pa o KZN, wi h i s adminis a i e
headqua e s in Richa ds Bay. This dis ic co e s an a ea o 8213 squa e kilome e s. I has i e local
municipali ies: uMhla huze, M honjane, uMlalazi, uM olozi, and Nkandla. App oxima ely 80% o King
Ce shwayo Dis ic households and he popula ion a e ega ded as u al. This dis ic has a o al popula-
ion o 982,726, wi h an es ima ed 222,000 households, wi h an a e age o 3.95 pe sons pe household
(S a s SA, 2016). Acco ding o S a is ics Sou h A ica (S a s SA, 2020), he numbe o comme cial a ms in
he King Ce shwayo Dis ic cons i u ed 5.1% o he o al a me s in he p o ince.
KwaZulu-Na al (KZN) is desc ibed as he hi d po e y-s icken a ea ha ollows he Eas e n Cape
(S a s SA, 2019). Despi e he e o s ha ha e been pu in place by he go e nmen such as ‘One Home
One Ga den’ o igh he incidence o hunge i has ne e wo ked ou because ood sho ages s ill exis
in u al KZN (Ngema e al., 2018). The KZN is domina ed by households whose li elihoods a e de i ed
om ag icul u al ac i i ies (Ho nby e al., 2018). This was pa icula ly obse ed in he no he n pa o
he egion, whe e he King Ce shwayo Dis ic Municipali y (KCDM) was iden i ied o ha e mo e a ming
po en ial han he o he dis ic s wi hin he p o ince. Gi en his backg ound, he KCDM was pu posi ely
chosen in KZN as he s udy a ea.
4.2. E hical conside a ions
On he 19 h o Janua y 2022, he Resea ch E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Zululand issued he
e hical clea ance ce i ica e wi h e e ence numbe : UZREC 171110-030 PGD 2021/65. The pa icipan s
we e in o med ha hey may s op answe ing he ques ions a any ime, wi hou any consequences.
4.3. Da a collec ion ins umen and sampling me hod
A ques ionnai e was used as he da a collec ion ins umen because i is easy o analyse, p o ides ano-
nymi y o he pa icipan , and p oduces a compa able esul . Each copy o he ques ionnai e was accom-
panied by in o med consen app o ed by he Uni e si y o Zululand Resea ch E hics Commi ee. In
KCDM, da a collec ion commenced on he i s week o Ma ch o 30 Ap il 2022, whe eas in ANDM i
s a ed on he i s week o Augus o 30 Sep embe 2022. Sys ema ic andom sampling was used o
selec pa icipan s because i is he easies me hod o d aw a sample om a la ge popula ion. One
s a s by selec ing a s a ing poin om he sampling ame, and consis en ly main aining he same
in e al while skipping households o indi iduals (Mkonda e al., 2018).
4.4. Ins umen design
In p epa a ion o he ace- o- ace in e iew, open-ended and closed-ended ques ions we e de eloped.
Responden s we e asked o iden i y hei sou ces o income and speci y he amoun gene a ed om
each li elihood s a egy h ough he open-ended ques ions. Con e sely, pa icipan s we e gi en only
wo op ions wi h he closed-ended ques ions, equi ing hem o choose ei he ’yes’o ’no’. Be o e ga h-
e ing da a, a pilo s udy was conduc ed wi h 20 andomly selec ed a me s o de e mine i hey would
unde s and he ques ions.
4.5. Sample size
The da a collec ion p ocess o his s udy was conduc ed in wo dis ic s, which equi ed he sample size
o be calcula ed sepa a ely. K ejcie and Mo gan’s sampling o mula was used o de e mine he app op i-
a e sample size o his s udy. JUSTIFY
s¼x2NPð1−PÞ
d2N−1
ðÞ
þx2Pð1−PÞ
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 5
4.5.1. The sample size o he ANDM and KCDM
Acco ding o a s udy conduc ed by Si undza (2019), i was ound ha a o al o 787 households om
he KwaMkhwanazi communi y we e engaged in a ming and deli e ed hei suga cane p oduce o
Felix on Mill. The e o e, he calcula ion showed ha he sample size o KCDM was 258. A o al o 300
ques ionnai es we e p in ed and deli e ed o ieldwo ke s in he KCDM. A e da a we e collec ed in he
KCDM, 264 ques ionnai es we e comple ed by he enume a o s. The esponse a e was calcula ed by
di iding he ques ionnai es ha we e e u ned by ieldwo ke s agains he numbe ha was p in ed ou .
Fo he KCDM he esponse a e was 88% which was e y close o 100%.
The i s au ho app oached he Depa men o Ag icul u e in Mbizana which is si ua ed in ANDM o
eques access o he da abase o ge he o al numbe o small-scale a me s in he a ea. The o icials con-
ened a mee ing in Feb ua y 2022, whe e all ep esen a i es om di e en maize p ojec s we e p esen . The
mee ing aimed o eques access o hei in o ma ion and he pe mission was g an ed. Then a e , one o he
o icials p in ed he Excel sp eadshee s wi h de ails o he a me s which also e ealed he o al numbe o
egis e ed small-scale a me s. This sp eadshee e ealed a o al o 1457 a me s which assis ed in a sample
size de e mina ion o 304. In he ANDM, 350 ques ionnai es we e deli e ed o ield wo ke s. A e da a we e
collec ed in he ANDM, 268 ques ionnai es we e e u ned by ield wo ke s. The esponse a e in ANDM was
77%. This alida es he indings o he s udy because he esponse a e was mo e han 50% in bo h dis ic s.
4.6. Analy ical app oach: quan ile eg ession model
The objec i e o his s udy was o assess he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion in ANDM and KCDM.
The au ho s wan ed o explo e how he dependen a iable (li elihood di e si ica ion) was in luenced by
he p edic o a iables a di e en le els o quan iles. Thus, he O dina y Leas Squa es echnique was no
applicable in his si ua ion because i p o ides only one coe icien o each a iable. Howe e , he objec -
i e o he s udy can only be achie ed i a quan ile eg ession model is u ilized. This model was i s in o-
duced by Koenke and Basse (1978) as an al e na i e o o e come o dina y leas squa es (OLS) sho alls.
Quan ile Reg ession (QR) is used o p edic he median a he han he mean, which is no mally es i-
ma ed by OLS. QR is an ex ension o OLS, and i is used when he no mali y and homoscedas ic assump-
ions a e iola ed. QR can be exp essed as ollows:
y ¼x0
b
whe e x0
ep esen s he ec o o household cha ac e is ics o he sampled popula ion, and b
deno es
he pa ame e s ha should be es ima ed in he QR model.
The QR equa ion minimizes:
X qje jþX ð1−qÞje j
Whe e qje
j ep esen s unde -p edic ion and (1 −q)je
jdeno es o e -p edic ion. The es ima o o he
q h p edic ed bminimizes he ollowing objec i e unc ion:
minbeRKX eRð :y x0
bÞqy
−x0
bq
þX eRð :y <x0
bÞð1−qÞy −x0
bq
hi
whe e 0 <q<1.
The s anda d condi ional quan ile can be exp essed in he ollowing linea o m:
Qqðy x Þ¼x0
bq
Fo he K h p edic ed coe icien , he ma ginal e ec can be exp essed as:
ǝQqðy jx Þ
ǝxk
¼bqk
4.7. Model speci ica ion
This s udy employed Simpson’s Di e si y Index (SDI) as he dependen a iable, which is a p oxy o li e-
lihood di e si ica ion. The Quan ile Reg ession model was speci ied as:
6 V. MBEWANA AND I. KASEERAM
SDI ¼b0þb1x1þb2x2þbkxkþui
whe e b
0
deno es he slope o he eg ession model; b
1
,b
2
, and b
k
ep esen he coe icien s ha will
be es ima ed; x
1
,x
2
, and x
k
ep esen he cha ac e is ics o he sampled households; and u
i
signi ies he
e o e m.
4.8. Measu emen o he dependen a iable
The Simpson’s di e si y index (SDI) was calcula ed using he o mula de i ed by Wa wick e al. (2008).
The SDI equa ion is exp essed as:
SDI ¼1−Pnðn−1Þ
NðN−1Þ
whe e he small le e n ep esen s indi idual income (i.e. pension o emi ances, a m income, sala ies
om employe ), while he capi al le e N ep esen s he sum o all indi idual income, om di e en
li elihood s a egies. I he household head has only one sou ce o income, he SDI is equal o ze o.
Con e sely, i a household head has se e al sou ces o income, he SDI will be close o o equal o one,
sugges ing ha a pa icula smallholde a me , in he su eyed popula ion has mul iple sou ces o
income. This implies ha he dependen a iable anges om 0 o 1.
4.9. Measu emen o independen a iables
The measu emen scales o he independen a iables depic ed in Table 1 we e u ilized by he p e ious
esea che s which examined he de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion in di e en coun ies o
egions. Fo example, Tyenjana and Ta u inga (2019) used a bina y measu emen scale o code he a i-
able o he household head gende (1 ¼male and 0 emale), access o c edi (1 ¼yes and 0 ¼no), and
access o ex ension se ices (1 ¼yes and 0 ¼no).
Mudzielwana e al. (2022) used a bina y measu emen scale in educa ion s a us (1 ¼ o mal and 0 ¼no
o mal educa ion), and ma i al s a us (1 ¼ma ied and 0 ¼single), while household head age was meas-
u ed as con inuous a iable. E uk e al. (2018) measu ed amily size as he numbe o pe sons li ing in
he same household, a m size was measu ed as he numbe o hec a es, and a m expe ience was
measu ed as he numbe o yea s spen in a ming. Abe a e al. (2021) measu ed he a iable o
imp o ed seeds as a bina y (1 ¼yes and 0 ¼0). The employmen s a us was coded as a bina y a iable
(1 ¼employed and 0 ¼unemployed).
Table 1. Measu emen o independen a iables.
Va iables Type Desc ip ion
HHG Dummy 1, Male-headed
0, Female-headed
HHMS Dummy 1, Ma ied
0, O he wise
HHEXT Dummy 1, Access o ex ension se ices
0, O he wise
CREDACC Dummy 1, Access o c edi s
0, O he wise
HHEMP Dummy 1, Employed, sel -employed, and pa - ime
0, O he wise
FSEC Dummy 1, Food secu e
0, O he wise
HHED Dummy 1, Fo mal educa ion
0, O he wise
HHAG Con inuous Age in yea s
HHFEXP Con inuous Expe ience in yea s
HS Disc e e Numbe o amily membe s li ing oge he
IMSEEDS Dummy 1, U ilising imp o ed seed
0, O he wise
FARMS Con inuous Numbe o hec a es
POVST Dummy 1, non-poo
0, O he wise
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 7
Abou he au ho
Vusi Mbewana is a pa - ime lec u e a he Uni e si y o Zululand, Depa men o Consume Sciences. D . Mbewana
holds a Ph.D. in Economics om he Uni e si y o Zululand. My expe ise lies in Mic oeconomics, and I ha e a s ong
backg ound in su ey da a cleaning, in e p e a ion, and analysis.
ORCID
Vusi Mbewana h p://o cid.o g/0009-0009-8380-2319
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The i s au ho can p o ide he da a upon eques . Please con ac Vusi Mbewana a [email p o ec ed] i
you need access o he da a.
Re e ences
Abebe, T., Chalchisa, T., & Eneyew, A. (2021). The impac o u al li elihood di e si ica ion on household po e y:
E idence om Jimma Zone, O omia Na ional Regional S a e, Sou hwes E hiopia. The Scien i ic Wo ld Jou nal,
2021,1–11. h ps://doi.o g/10.1155/2021/3894610
Abe a, A., Yi gu, T., & Uncha, A. (2021). De e minan s o u al li elihood di e si ica ion s a egies among Chewaka
ese le s’communi ies o sou hwes e n E hiopia. Ag icul u e & Food Secu i y,10(1), 1–19. h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/
s40066-021-00305-w
Adem, M., & Tesa a, F. (2020). In ensi y o income di e si ica ion among small-holde a me s in Asayi a Wo eda, A a
Region, E hiopia. Cogen Economics & Finance,8(1), 1759394. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2020.1759394
Akyoo, E. P. (2021). De e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion s a egies in communi ies adjacen o la ge scale ag icul-
u al in es men in Kilombe o Valley, Tanzania. Tanzania Ins i u e o Accoun ancy.
Alemu, F. M. (2023). Measu ing he in ensi y o u al li elihood di e si ica ion s a egies, and I s impac s on u al
households’wel a e: E idence om Sou h Gonda zone, Amaha a Regional S a e, E hiopia. Me hodsX,10, 102191.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.mex.2023.102191
ANDM [Al ed Nzo Dis ic Municipali y]. (2017). Al ed Nzo dis ic municipali y socio-economic e iew and ou look.
Eas e n Cape socio-economic consul a i e council.
ANDM [Al ed Nzo Dis ic Municipali y]. (2020). Al ed Nzo dis ic municipali y p o ile and analysis: Dis ic de elop-
men model. Coope a i e go e nance and T adi ional a ai s.
Aweke, A., Te e a, T., Gezahegn, M., & Sileshi, M. (2023). De e minan s o household choice o li elihood di e si ica-
ion s a egies in selec ed d ough p one a eas o he sou he n na ions na ionali ies and peoples’ egion,
E hiopia. Ag icul u al Sciences,14(10), 1375–1392. h ps://doi.o g/10.4236/as.2023.1410090
Ayana, G. F., Megen o, T. L., & Kussa, F. G. (2021). The ex en o li elihood di e si ica ion on he de e minan s o li e-
lihood di e si ica ion in Assosa We eda, Wes e n E hiopia. Geo Jou nal,87, 2525–2549.
Ba e , C., Bezuneh, M., & Aboud, A. (2001). Income di e si ica ion po e y aps and policy shocks in Co e d’I o e
and Kenya. Food Policy,26(4), 367–384. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/S0306-9192(01)00017-3
B yceson, D. (2000). Ru al A ica a he c oss oads: Li elihood p ac ices and policies. O e seas De elopmen Ins i u e.
Ce an es-Godoy, D., & Dewb e, J. (2010). Economic impo ance o ag icul u e o po e y educ ion. OECD Food,
Ag icul u e and Fishe ies Wo king Pape s, No. 23. OECD Publishing. h ps://doi.o g/10.1787/5kmm 9s20944-en
Chambe s, R., & Conway, G. (1992). Sus ainable u al li elihoods: P ac ical concep s o he 21s cen u y. Ins i u e o
de elopmen s udies.
Danso-Abbeam, G., Dagunga, G., & Ehiakpo , D. S. (2020). Ru al non- a m income di e si ica ion: implica ions on
small-scale a me s’wel a e and ag icul u al echnology adop ion in Ghana. Heliyon,6(11), e05393. h ps://doi.o g/
10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05393
Das, V. K., & Ganesh-Kuma , A. (2018). Fa m size, li elihood di e si ica ion and a me ’s income in India. DECISION,
45(2), 185–201. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s40622-018-0177-9
Dinku, A. M. (2018). De e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion s a egies in Bo ena pas o alis communi ies o O omia
egional s a e, E hiopia. Ag icul u e & Food Secu i y,7(1), 1–8. h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s40066-018-0192-2
Echebi i, R. N., Onwusi ibe, C. N., & Nwaogu, D. C. (2017). E ec o li elihood di e si ica ion on ood secu i y s a us
o u al a m households in Abia S a e Nige ia. Scien i ic Pape s Se ies Managemen , Economic Enginee ing in
Ag icul u e and Ru al De elopmen ,17(1), 159–166.
Ellis, F. (1998). Household s a egies and u al li elihood di e si ica ion. Jou nal o De elopmen S udies,35(1), 1–38.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00220389808422553
Ellis, F. (2000). The de e minan s o u al li elihood di e si ica ion in de eloping coun ies. Jou nal o Ag icul u al
Economics,51(2), 289–302. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/j.1477-9552.2000. b01229.x
14 V. MBEWANA AND I. KASEERAM
E uk, E. A., Udoe, P. O., & Okon, I. I. (2018). De e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion among a m households in
Akamkpa Local Go e nmen A ea, C oss Ri e s a e, Nige ia. Ag osea ch,18(2), 101–112.
Feliciano, D. (2019). A e iew on he con ibu ion o c op di e si ica ion o Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 1 “No
po e y”in di e en wo ld egions. Sus ainable De elopmen ,27(4), 795–808. h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/sd.1923
Ge ahun, H., Smi h, I., T i edi, K., Paulin, S., & Balkhy, H. H. (2020). Tackling an imic obial esis ance in he COVID-19
pandemic. Bulle in o he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion,98(7), 442–442A. h ps://doi.o g/10.2471/BLT.20.268573
Ghosh, J., & Bha adwaj, K. (1992). Po e y and employmen in India. In H. Be ns ein, B. C ow, & H. Johnson (Eds.),
Ru al li elihoods: C ises and esponses. Ox o d Uni e si y P ess and The Open Uni e si y.
Goldman, I., Ca negie, J., Ma umo, D., Kela, E., N onga, S., & Mwale, E. (2000). Ins i u ional suppo o sus ainable
u al li elihoods in Sou he n A ica: F amewo k and me hodology. Na u al Resou ces Pe spec i es,49,1–12.
Gui e, S., Sha ma, H. I., & Thoudam, L. (2022). De e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion among he Thadou-Kukis o
Manipu , India. Economic A ai s,67(1s), 79–86. h ps://doi.o g/10.46852/0424-2513.1.2022.15
Habib, N., Rankin, P., Alauddin, M., & C amb, R. (2023). De e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion in u al ain- ed
egion o Pakis an: E idence om ac ional mul inomial logi (FMLOGIT) es ima ion. En i onmen al Science and
Pollu ion Resea ch In e na ional,30(5), 13185–13196. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11356-022-23040-6
Ho nby, D., Nel, A., Chademana, S., & Khanyile, N. (2018). A slipping hold? Fa m dwelle in Sou h A ica’s changing
ag a ian economy and clima e. Land,7(2), 40. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/7020040
Khan, W., Jamshed, M., Fa ima, S., & Dhamija, A. (2020). De e minan s o income di e si ica ion o a m households
in U a P adesh, India. Fo um o Social Economics,49(4), 465–483. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/07360932.2019.1666728
Khapayi, M., & Cellie s, P. R. (2016). Fac o s limi ing and p e en ing eme ging a me s o p og ess o comme cial
ag icul u al a ming in he King William’s Town a ea o he Eas e n Cape P o ince, Sou h A ica. Sou h A ican
Jou nal o Ag icul u al Ex ension,44(1), 25–41.
Koenke , R., & Basse , J. G. (1978). Reg ession quan iles. Econome ica,46(1), 33–50. h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/1913643
K an z, L. (2001). The sus ainable li elihood app oach o po e y educ ion. SIDA. Di ision o Policy and Socio-
Economic Analysis,44,1–38.
Kuma , M. A., & Umesh, K. B. (2020). Ex en and de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion in No h and Sou h
Bengalu u: An in e spa ial analysis. Myso e Jou nal o Ag icul u al Sciences,54(1), 89–96.
Ma hebula, J., Molokomme, M., Jonas, S., & Nhemachena, C. (2017). Es ima ion o household income di e si ica ion
in Sou h A ica: A case s udy o h ee p o inces. Sou h A ican Jou nal o Science,113(1/2), 9. h ps://doi.o g/10.
17159/sajs.2017/20160073
Mi i, S. (2017). Local economic hubs al eady making a di e ence in EC. Vuk’uzenzele.h ps://www. ukuzenzele.go .
za/local-economic-hubs-al eady-making-di e ence-ec
Mkonda, M. Y., He, X., & Fes in, E. S. (2018). Compa ing small-scale a me s’pe cep ion o clima e change wi h
me eo ological da a: expe ience om se en ag oecological zones o Tanzania. Wea he , Clima e, and Socie y,10(3),
435–452. h ps://doi.o g/10.1175/WCAS-D-17-0036.1
Mo issey, K., Reynolds, T., Tobin, D., & Isbell, C. (2023). Ma ke engagemen , c op di e si y, die a y di e si y, and
ood secu i y: E idence om small-scale ag icul u al households in Uganda. Food Secu i y,16(1), 133–147. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1007/s12571-023-01411-2
Mudzielwana, R., Ma ongoya, P., & Mudha a, M. (2022). An analysis o he de e minan s o i iga ion a mwo ke s’
ood secu i y s a us: A case o Tshiombo I iga ion Scheme, Sou h A ica. Ag icul u e,12(7), 999. h ps://doi.o g/10.
3390/ag icul u e12070999
Nabuuma, D., Reime s, C., Hoang, K. T., S omph, T., Swaans, K., & Rane i, J. E. (2022). Impac o seed sys em in e en-
ions on ood and nu i ion secu i y in low-and middle-income coun ies: A scoping e iew. Global Food Secu i y,
33, 100638. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.g s.2022.100638
NDA [Na ional De elopmen Agency]. (2014). S a e o po e y and i s mani es a ion in he nine p o inces o Sou h
A ica. Human Sciences Resea ch Council.
Ngema, P. Z., Sibanda, M., & Musemwa, L. (2018). Household ood secu i y s a us and i s de e minan s in
Maphumulo local municipali y, Sou h A ica. Sus ainabili y,10(9), 3307. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su10093307
Onuwa, G., Mailumo, S., Chizea, C., & Alamanjo, C. (2022). Socioeconomic de e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion
among a able c op a me s in Shendam, pla eau s a e, Nige ia. Ag icul u al Socio-Economics Jou nal,22(4), 301–
309. h ps://doi.o g/10.21776/ub.ag ise.2022.022.4.7
Pu is, M., & Smi h, R. (2006). Sus ainable ag icul u e o he 21s cen u y.InExplo ing sus ainable de elopmen :
Geog aphic pe spec i es. Ea h-scan.
Rea don, T. (1997). Using e idence o household income di e si ica ion o in o m s udy o he u al non- a m labo
ma ke in A ica. Wo ld De elopmen ,25(5), 735–747. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/S0305-750X(96)00137-4
Roy, A., & Basu, S. (2020). De e minan s o li elihood di e si ica ion unde en i onmen al change in coas al commu-
ni y o Bangladesh. Asia-Paci ic Jou nal o Ru al De elopmen ,30(1–2), 7–26. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/
1018529120946159
Si undza, S. B. (2019). Con ac a ming and access o o mal c edi in Sou h A ica: A case o small-scale suga cane
g owe s in he Felix on Mill a ea o KwaZulu-Na al [Doc o al disse a ion]. Uni e si y o P e o ia.
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 15
Smi h, M. K. (2012). Dynamics a ec ing subsis ence ag icul u al p oduc ion: an explo a ion o a case s udy o subsis -
ence c op p oduc ion wi hin a u al communi y in he Ingwe municipali y o Sou he n KwaZulu-Na al [Mas e ’s
deg ee]. Uni e si y o KwaZulu-Na al, Sou h A ica.
Sneddon, C. S. (2000). Sus ainabili y in ecological economics, ecology, and li elihoods: A e iew. P og ess in Human
Geog aphy,24(4), 521–549. h ps://doi.o g/10.1191/030913200100189076
S a s SA [S a is ics Sou h A ica]. (2016). Communi y su ey 2016, ag icul u al households, epo no. 03-01-05. S a is ic
Sou h A ica.
S a s SA [S a is ics Sou h A ica]. (2019). Fi e ac s abou po e y in Sou h A ica. S a is ic Sou h A ica.
S a s SA [S a is ics Sou h A ica]. (2020). Census o comme cial ag icul u e, 2017 KwaZulu-Na al: Financial and p oduc-
ion s a is ics. S a is ic Sou h A ica.
Teshage , A. M., Tsunekawa, A., Adgo, E., Ha egeweyn, N., Nigussie, Z., Ayalew, Z., Elias, A., Molla, D., & Be ihun, D.
(2019). Explo ing d i e s o li elihood di e si ica ion and i s e ec on adop ion o sus ainable land managemen
p ac ices in he Uppe Blue Nile Basin, E hiopia. Sus ainabili y,11(10), 2991. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su11102991
Tyenjana, A., & Ta u inga, A. (2019). De e minan s o u al on- a m li elihoods di e si ica ion: The case o In sika
Ye hu Local Municipali y, Eas e n Cape, Sou h A ica. Jou nal o Ag ibusiness and Ru al De elopmen ,54(4), 373–
384. h ps://doi.o g/10.17306/J.JARD.2019.01200
Wa wick, R. M., Some ield, P. J., & Cla ke, K. R. (2008). Simpson index. Ecological indica o s. Encyclopedia o Ecology,
4(5), 3252–3255.
Washo, J. A., Tolosa, S. F., & Debsu, J. K. (2021). De e minan s o u al households’li elihood di e si ica ion decision:
The case o Didessa and Bedelle Dis ic , Bunno Bedelle Zone, O omia Regional S a e, E hiopia. A ican Jou nal o
Ag icul u al Resea ch,17(12), 1573–1580.
Wo kie, D. M. (2023). Li elihood di e si ica ion s a egies and de e minan s by small-scale a me s in he highland
a eas o No h Shewa E hiopia. Jou nal o Ag ibusiness and Ru al De elopmen ,68(2), 217–228. h ps://doi.o g/10.
17306/J.JARD.2023.01703
16 V. MBEWANA AND I. KASEERAM
