F anke, Hen ik; Kwasni schka, Daniel; Schmu z, Jan B.; Ne land, To bjø n H.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Emphasizing wo ke iden i ica ion wi h skills o inc ease
helping and p oduc i i y in p oduc ion: A ield expe imen
Jou nal o Ope a ions Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: F anke, Hen ik; Kwasni schka, Daniel; Schmu z, Jan B.; Ne land, To bjø n
H. (2024) : Emphasizing wo ke iden i ica ion wi h skills o inc ease helping and p oduc i i y
in p oduc ion: A ield expe imen , Jou nal o Ope a ions Managemen , ISSN 1873-1317, Wiley
Pe iodicals, Inc., Bos on, MA, Vol. 70, Iss. 5, pp. 712-732,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/joom.1300
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Emphasizing wo ke iden i ica ion wi h skills o inc ease
helping and p oduc i i y in p oduc ion: A ield expe imen
Hen ik F anke
1,2
| Daniel Kwasni schka
2
| Jan B. Schmu z
3
|
To bjø n H. Ne land
2
1
Facul y o Managemen , Economics and
Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Cologne,
Cologne, Ge many
2
Depa men o Managemen ,
Technology, and Economics, ETH Zü ich,
Zu ich, Swi ze land
3
Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o
Zu ich, Zu ich, Swi ze land
Co espondence
Hen ik F anke, Facul y o Managemen ,
Economics and Social Sciences, Uni e si y
o Cologne, Sibille-Ha mann-S . 2-8,
50969 Cologne, Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Funding in o ma ion
ETH Founda ion SEED G an ,
G an /Awa d Numbe : SEED-06 21-1
Handling Edi o s: A a ind
Chand aseka an, Rogelio Oli a, and
B adley S aa s
Abs ac
Can p oduc i i y imp o e i wo ke s iden i y mo e wi h he skills hey use in
hei wo k en i onmen ? This pape epo s he esul s o an expe imen al
design ha was pee - e iewed p io o collec ing da a. The esea ch se ing is a
global manu ac u e using a no el sma wa ch-based sys em o dis ibu ing
wo k asks among ac o y loo wo ke s. D awing on he concep s o iden i ica-
ion and helping in o ganiza ions, we hypo hesized ha os e ing wo ke s'
iden i ica ion wi h hei own skills could se e as a mechanism o enhance
helping beha io on he ac o y loo , which should imp o e p oduc i i y. We
designed a compound skill- os e ing ea men consis ing o communica ion,
mee ings, and exe cises ega ding indi idual skills. We ea one la ge ac o y
a ea o 2 weeks and keep a simila a ea in a sis e ac o y as a con ol g oup
o compa ison in a di e ence-in-di e ence model. The esul s show ha
nudging skill iden i ica ion inc eases wo ke s' iden i ica ion wi h skills, bu we
do no ind e idence o inc eased helping beha io o inc eased p oduc i i y.
Ou esul s help de elop heo y a ound mul iple sub-iden i ies and p o ide
guidance o u u e s udies seeking o enhance iden i ica ion in o ganiza ions.
KEYWORDS
digi aliza ion, helping beha io , iden i ica ion a wo k
Highligh s
•A 4-week-long ield in e en ion was conduc ed in a digi alized ac o y aim-
ing o inc ease wo ke s' iden i ica ion wi h hei skills.
•The expe imen al design was e iewed and accep ed by he JOM Edi o s
be o e da a collec ion.
•Iden i ica ion wi h skills inc eased and emo ional exhaus ion dec eased.
•Expec ed posi i e e ec s o he ea men on helping beha io and p oduc-
i i y we e no suppo ed.
•Manage s and u u e s udies should y o disen angle iden i ica ion wi h
skills and machines.
Recei ed: 30 Ap il 2022 Re ised: 15 Feb ua y 2024 Accep ed: 24 Feb ua y 2024
DOI: 10.1002/joom.1300
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed and is no used o comme cial pu poses.
© 2024 The Au ho s. Jou nal o Ope a ions Managemen published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC on behal o Associa ion o Supply Chain Managemen , Inc.
712 J Ope Manag. 2024;70:712–732.
wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/joom
1|INTRODUCTION
Wo ke s a e mo e mo i a ed o exe e o when hey
iden i y wi h hei immedia e wo k en i onmen (Albe
e al., 2000;Du one al.,1994). In ab ica ion ope a ions,
wo ke s' iden i ica ion wi h a se o machines o en comes
na u ally since manage s alloca e wo ke s o machines o
sol e wo p oblems: de ec ing in e up ions as soon as pos-
sible in ha d- o-o e see acili ies and ma ching echnical
p oblems wi h he app op ia e skill. This way, a wo ke
can closely moni o he assigned machines' s a us and
de elop app op ia e skills o e ime. In his con ex , skill
can be seen as he abili y o a wo ke o ope a e o sol e an
in e up ion o a speci ic machine ype. Due o he wo ke -
machine alloca ion, wo ke s na u ally a ach meaning o
he alloca ed machines and inco po a e hem in o hei
sel -concep : hey iden i y wi h he machines (Miscenko &
Day, 2016).
E en when alloca ing wo ke s o speci ic machines,
ac o y loo s a e usually o ganized in eams ha ely on
ci izenship beha io among wo ke s, such as helping
beha io (Can o & Jin, 2019). We de ine helping as he
olun a y exchange o wo k among wo ke s ha is no
di ec ly o explici ly ecognized by he o mal ewa d
sys em (O gan, 1988). Thus, he igh alloca ion o he
wo k o ce o machines can be use ul o moni o ing
la ge-scale p oduc ion and d i ing iden i ica ion wi h a
ew machines. Howe e , i may c owd ou he po en ial
o iden i y wi h o he ea u es o he ac o y loo ha
could inc ease p oduc i i y ia helping beha io . This
p oblem becomes pa icula ly salien a e a digi al ans-
o ma ion o he ac o y because digi aliza ion can elimi-
na e he p oblems ha he s ic alloca ion o wo ke s o
speci ic machines in ended o sol e; i can make all
machine s a us digi ally a ailable and dynamically ma ch
ac o y loo asks wi h wo ke s' codi ied skills.
The inhe en challenge o mo i a ing employees o
show helping beha io is ele an in a ious con ex s,
including manu ac u ing. In e es ingly, a digi al ans o -
ma ion can ha e posi i e and nega i e e ec s on job
esou ces (Pa ke & G o e, 2022). On he one hand, new
digi al echnologies can po en ially educe he need o
human in e ac ion and coo dina ion. Fo example, algo-
i hms can au oma ically alloca e human wo ke s o
asks (Bai e al., 2022). On he o he hand, new digi al
echnologies can inc ease he anspa ency on he shop
loo , highligh ing whe e p oblems a e and au oma ically
ping someone o help. This in o ma ion is necessa y bu
no su icien o helping beha io and in oduces he
challenge o encou age helping among wo ke s. Fo
he pas 4 yea s, we ha e s udied a company ha has
expe ienced his double-edged p oblem i s -hand: a glob-
ally ope a ing manu ac u e headqua e ed in I aly. The
company has implemen ed a digi al wo ke - ask ma ch-
ing sys em using sma wa ches, machine senso s, and a
digi al back end (see Figu e 1).
The company in ou esea ch se ing p oduces mil-
lions o complex me al pa s daily, and i s wo ke s
ecei e in o ma ion abou , o ins ance, machine in e -
up ions om machines di ec ly and in eal- ime ia
sma wa ches in case hey a e a ailable and ha e he
app op ia e codi ied skill in hei p o ile. Codi ied skills
a e he bina y codi ica ions o human skills in a digi al
sys em. The new echnology has changed he pas o gani-
za ion based on machine g oups in o a new o ganiza ion
based on skills. The main goal o he sys em is o pool
skills ac oss machines o achie e highe p oduc i i y.
The company aims o be a he o e on o digi al ans-
o ma ion in i s indus y, has unde gone a - eaching
changes in i s p oduc ion o ganiza ion, and aces unique
beha io al challenges g ounded in hei p og essi e digi-
al ans o ma ion. As known, p o ound echnological
changes can posi i ely and nega i ely a ec humans a
wo k (Pa ke & G o e, 2022). The e o e, ou s udy
chooses a beha io al angle and conside s wo ke s' well-
being impo an o an o ganiza ion's social sus ainabili y.
In heo y, wo ke s equipped wi h he sma wa ch
would no longe es ic hei wo k o a speci ic a ea o se
o machines bu ocus on any machine ha equi es hei
skill, as all sol able asks appea on he sma wa ch as
in e up ions occu (see Figu e 1). In p ac ice, howe e ,
wo ke s ha e es ablished hei wo k iden i ica ion based
on machines o yea s, and he change o iden i ica ion lags
he echnology change. The new echnical p oduc ion logic
ocuses on ma ching ac i i ies and codi ied skills, whe eas
he socio-psychological concep o iden i ica ion s ill
ocuses on machines. Wo ke s p e e o con inue wo king
on a limi ed se o machines since wo ke s s ongly iden i y
wi h hese machines. Employees a e d awn o “ hei ”
machines because hey a e amilia wi h and pa o hei
accus omed su oundings. Sociologis s ha e desc ibed his
p ocessasp ocessualin e ac ions ha helphumansunde -
s and and cons uc hei eali y and hei concep o sel
wi hin ha eali y (Gecas, 1982). While his di ision o
wo k by machines indeed also has bene i s in educing
walking dis ances and skill-speci ici y, he na ow iden i i-
ca ion wi h and eeling o esponsibili y o machines may
make employees eluc an o help in o he a eas, which is
a success ac o in p oduc ion (Can o & Jin, 2019). Fo cing
wo ke s owo konmachinesou side hescopeo hei
wo k iden i ica ion bea s he isk o upse ing wo ke s,
esul ing in low sa is ac ion and e en ually nega i ely
impac ing p oduc i i y. Ins ead, olun a y willingness o
help is p e e ed.
No ably, in ou esea ch se ing, he lack o helping
beha io is no a empo a y adop ion di icul y o he
FRANKE ET AL.713
sys em bu has pe sis ed since he sys em was in oduced
in 2020. Based on he heo e ical and p ac ical p oblem
ou lined abo e, we de i e he ollowing esea ch ques-
ion: Can we imp o e helping beha io and p oduc i i y by
inc easing wo ke s' iden i ica ion wi h skills?
The po en ial con ibu ion o add essing his ques ion
o ope a ions managemen heo y lies in p oposing a shi
in wo ke iden i ica ion as a concealed equi emen o
ealizing he ad an ages o digi aliza ion in p oduc ion
se ings. Speci ically, his s udy can con ibu e o he
beha io al ope a ions managemen discussion on wo ke
iden i ica ion and helping beha io . This beha io al ope -
a ions li e a u e has been silen on iden i ica ion in
manu ac u ing and ins ead cen e ed on simila p oblems
in so wa e use and deli e y con ex s (Bagozzi &
Dholakia, 2006; Ta e al., 2018). A he same ime, he
communi y has ini ia ed a discussion on how helping
beha io can imp o e ope a ions (Can o & Jin, 2019).
Ou wo k can b oaden he discussion o iden i ica ion
om so wa e and deli e y o manu ac u ing and con-
inue he helping beha io esea ch by examining
whe he a ea men can inc emen ally a ec wo ke s'
iden i ica ion pa e ns o a o helping beha io and p o-
duc i i y. Ou esea ch builds on he concep o iden i i-
ca ion in o ganiza ions (Albe e al., 2000; Ash o h
e al., 2008) and d aws mo i a ion om ecen manage-
men heo y a ound he coexis ence o mul iple sou ces
o iden i ica ion (Ba aille & Vough, 2022)—such as
machines and skills. Using his lens, we aim o d aw
no el ope a ions-speci ic implica ions o helping beha -
io and p oduc i i y on he ac o y loo o a highly digi-
alized manu ac u e . The eby, we o e iden i ica ion as
a po en ial complemen o he beha io al ope a ions li -
e a u e on how ask design, in e dependence, incen i e
sys ems, o mo i a ion can con ibu e o wo ke collabo-
a ion (De V ies e al., 2016; F anke e al., 2022;
Schoenhe e al., 2017; Siemsen e al., 2007).
2|THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 |Wo k iden i ica ion and iden i y
The li e a u e on iden i ica ion and iden i y has a long
adi ion bu is also he e ogeneous and lacks uni e sal
de ini ions (Albe e al., 2000; Miscenko & Day, 2016).
Ou s udy ollows he idea o pe sonal iden i ica ion a
he indi idual le el o inclusi eness (B ewe , 1991;
B ewe & Ga dne , 1996), which a gues ha any collec-
ion o meanings can de ine a wo ke 's sel -concep a
wo k (Gecas, 1982). Examples can be oles a wo k, mem-
be ship in social g oups, o —as in ou s udy—one's p o-
essional skills o he machine y one uses.
Gecas (1982) summa izes wo al e na i e iews o
how iden i ica ion can eme ge: ia an indi idual's in e -
ac ions wi h he en i onmen o ia he oles o an indi-
idual. Bo h a e alid sou ces o iden i ica ion, ye his
s udy ocuses mo e on how humans connec o ea u es
o hei wo k h ough in e ac ions. In line wi h his
app oach, Miscenko and Day (2016) ha e p oposed ha
“iden i y e e s o he meaning o a pa icula en i y
(i.e., ole, o ganiza ion) ha is in e nalized as pa o he
sel -concep ”and ha “iden i ica ion is a cogni i e/psy-
chological/emo ional a achmen ha an indi idual
FIGURE 1 Imp essions om he ac o y loo (le ), he sma wa ch (middle), and he digi al on end ( igh ).
714 FRANKE ET AL.
makes o a ole, eam, o ganiza ion, o o he en i y”
(p. 217). In o he wo ds, he o me is a s a e, and he la -
e can be in e p e ed as a beha io al p ocess. These de i-
ni ions do no con lic wi h he concep ualiza ions o
iden i y and iden i ica ion as socially cons uc ed
(i.e., Tu ne & Taj el, 1986) bu a e complemen s. We
ocus on pe sonal iden i y since his concep commonly
dis inguishes indi iduals, whe eas social iden i y ocuses
on di e ences be ween g oups ha can de ine in-g oups
and ou -g oups wi h hei iden i y (Ash o h e al., 2008).
We use he e m iden i ica ion in ou s udy ins ead o
iden i y since wo ke s li e ally seem o be a ached o
hei machines and a e eluc an o go elsewhe e on he
ac o y loo o help. Iden i ica ion is a use ul e m in ou
s udy as he no ion o iden i ica ion as a p ocess ma ches
he eali y on he ac o y loo : wo ke s become a ached
h ough hei wo k. Fu he mo e, his iew o iden i ica-
ion i s he idea ha a achmen s a e somewha luid
and can be changed ia managemen p ac ices. Howe e ,
we acknowledge ha bo h iden i ica ion and iden i y
concep s a e inex icably connec ed on he concep ual
le el (Ash o h e al., 2008), poin o s udies ha discuss
hei ela ion (Duke ich e al., 2002; Du on e al., 1994),
and no e ha schola s o en ea ed hem as synonyms
(Miscenko & Day, 2016). In summa y, while we e iew
he consolida ed li e a u e on iden i ica ion and iden i y
and ou a gumen s would allow using bo h e ms, we op
o “iden i ica ion” o i s s onge esonance wi h ou
esea ch con ex . We e iew he consolida ed li e a u e
on bo h concep s.
Iden i ica ion ma e s in ope a ions con ex s. Schola s
ha e examined he common iden i ica ion o p oduc ion
wo ke s wi h hei p oduc ion a ea and compa ed i o
spo s ans who iden i y wi h hei eam (U da &
Loch, 2013). The s udy showed ha when a wo ke is
unexpec edly ewa ded, i may igge guil among o he
wo ke s in ha a ea as hey s a o ask why hey we e no
good enough. Howe e , no guil was measu ed among sup-
po e s o he same spo s eam in a compa able si ua ion.
Thus, mechanisms and ou comes a ound iden i ica ion a e
no iden ical in p oduc ion and o he se ings, which mo i-
a es beha io al ope a ions examina ions. Se e al s udies
de ine iden i y and he a ge o iden i ica ion as he social
g oup in he ope a ions managemen li e a u e. They ocus
on hi ing and in-g oup membe ship (Caso ia e al., 2022;
Del Ca pio & Guadalupe, 2022), us in anspo se ices
(Ta e al., 2018), g oups making dona ions (Cha ness &
Holde , 2019), o iden i ica ion wi h buye s in supply
chains (Co s en e al., 2011). Only a ew ope a ions man-
agemen s udies chose ou ocus on indi idual-le el pe -
sonal iden i ica ion and on how ea u es o he han social
g oup membe ship a ec iden i ica ion and ou comes
(e.g., Reagans, 2005).
To he bes o ou knowledge, he beha io al ope a-
ions managemen li e a u e has no examined he e ec s
o iden i ica ion on he ac o y loo , and all p ominen
e iew a icles omi he concep (Bendoly e al., 2006;
Bendoly, C oson, e al., 2010; C oson e al., 2013;
Donohue e al., 2020; Fahimnia e al., 2019). A ecen
e iew o he li e a u e concludes: “i is clea ha deci-
sion making in p ac ice con inues o be hea ily in lu-
enced by human judgmen , e en wi h ega d o highly
au oma ed and supposedly objec i e sys ems.”(Fahimnia
e al., 2019, p. 29). Iden i ica ion is one elemen ha may
explain human judgmen in decisions abou whe he o
help o no .
2.2 |Helping beha io
To imp o e p oduc i i y, manu ac u ing elies on wo ke s
o help each o he o imp o e o e all pe o mance
(Can o & Jin, 2019). The ope a ions managemen li e a-
u e has es ablished ha co ec ly designing incen i es can
encou age collabo a ion (e.g., De V ies e al., 2016;Siemsen
e al., 2007), ye a ade-o exis s be ween he use o explici
incen i es and possible conce ns o c owding ou in insic
con ibu ionsac ossmanycon ex s(Decie al.,1999). This
is especially ue when incen i es a e closely ied o pe o -
manceandwhenquali yisessen ial,asiscommonly he
case in ac o y loo ope a ions (Ce asoli e al., 2014).
The e o e, he li e a u e has begun o ocus on os e ing
olun a y wo ke beha io in addi ion o he esea ch on
incen i es. In b oad e ms, helping beha io is pa o
“o ganiza ional ci izenship beha io ,”which is de ined as
“indi idual beha io ha is disc e iona y, no di ec ly o
explici ly ecognized by he o mal ewa d sys em, and ha
in he agg ega e p omo es he e ec i e unc ioning o he
o ganiza ion”and is a synonym o al uism (O gan, 1988,
p. 4). I is use ul o speci ically obse e helping as one ac-
o o o ganiza ional ci izenship beha io in he con ex
o ope a ions since collabo a ion is immedia ely ele an
o pe o mance. Despi e he sca ce co e age o helping
beha io in he ope a ions li e a u e, i is a ele an con-
cep in p ac ice, as examples om he company in ou
esea ch se ing can illus a e:
When I know ha a machine [o a co-wo ke ]
is no unning “clean,”say he [ obo ] a m
keeps ge ing he alignmen o he pa w ong
while inse ing pa s in o he p ess, I will look
ou o asks on his machine. I can help ou
when he is on b eak o away o some eason.
Howe e , such help ul beha io is no gi en in a p o-
duc ion con ex . Consis en ly, he eam leade desc ibed
FRANKE ET AL.715
a si ua ion whe e helping could ha e a oided pe o -
mance losses:
I came in his mo ning, and my dashboa d
showed me ha his machine had been in e -
up ed o 24 minu es al eady. Tha 's idicu-
lous! One guy is in he lab, and he o he is
cha ing. They go “ hey ha e people o e
he e. No my job”al hough i eally is. This
g inds my gea s.
The ope a ions managemen li e a u e has hi he o no
add essed he link be ween pe sonal iden i ica ion and
helping beha io o o he ypes o coope a ion. P e ious
con ibu ions ha e add essed ela ed concep s, such as he
e ec s o wi hin-g oup in e ac ions on pe o mance in p o-
jec con ex s (Bendoly, Thomas, & Cap a, 2010)o unc-
ional dominance, which can educe coope a ion and a ec
he pe o mance o c oss- unc ional eams (F anke
e al., 2022;Malho ae al.,2017). Mo eo e , con lic s can
educe eam coope a ion and he pe o mance o c oss-
unc ional eams (F anke e al., 2021; Oli a &
Wa son, 2011). Can o and Jin (2019)we e he i s o
examine ques ions abou olun a y help in p oduc ion
explici ly. Thei s udy inds ha wo ke s who a e mo e
awa e o o he s' e o s will mo e likely de ec pe o mance
di e ences and a ibu e hem o a lack o mo i a ion,
which educes helping beha io . The pape sugges s ha
c ea ing in e dependence be ween he wo ke s' pe o -
mance can encou age helping. In e dependence is he
ex en o which employees depend on o he g oup mem-
be s o ca y ou wo k e ec i ely (Bach ach e al., 2006;
Van De Veg e al., 2003).
In e dependence is a c i ical ac o ega ding help-
ing beha io , bo h in he ope a ions and gene al man-
agemen li e a u e. S udies ag ee ha in e dependence
can d i e eam collabo a ion by making i a necessi y
(Can o & Jin, 2019; Schoenhe e al., 2017). In e de-
pendence makes one's own success dependen on
o he s' wo k. The eby, i bene i s hose who help o he s
ia a sel -se ing elemen ha anscends he al uis ic
help concep . The managemen li e a u e commonly
examines helping beha io and ela ed concep s in such
in e dependen eams. Fo ins ance, schola s ha e accu-
mula ed e idence suppo ing ha collabo a ion o el
obliga ions o help, as well as concep s ha de i e om
hem (cohesion, in o ma ion exchange, e c.), d i e pe -
o mance in wo k eams (Kilcullen e al., 2022;
Lo inko a & Pe y, 2019; Ma hieu e al., 2008;Ma hieu
e al., 2019; Mesme -Magnus & DeChu ch, 2009). How-
e e , no all p oduc ion asks a e in e dependen o can
be changed o become in e dependen . Unlike in
assembly low lines o cellula manu ac u ing, la ge-
scale au oma ized and digi alized mass uni -p oduc ion
se ings equi e wo ke s o moni o p oduc ion and
au onomously in e ene when in e up ions occu
a he han ac i ely collabo a ing as a eam. Consis-
en ly, esea ch has shown ha in e dependence is an
impo an bounda y condi ion o conclusions a ound
helping beha io (Bach ach e al., 2006). This s udy
examines an unde - esea ched, non-in e dependen
ope a ional se ing o help explain he sca cely unde -
s ood ela ion be ween helping and p oduc i i y om
an iden i ica ion s andpoin .
2.3 |Helping beha io and iden i ica ion
The mos na u al conclusion om in e sec ing esea ch
on helping and iden i ica ion is ha o encou age helping
wi hin a g oup, i is use ul o emphasize employees' iden-
i ica ion wi h ha g oup, be i hei immedia e wo k
g oup o he en i e o ganiza ion (Duke ich e al., 2002;
Du on e al., 1994; Janssen & Huang, 2008; Van De
Veg e al., 2003; Wu e al., 2016). Howe e , al hough
p oduc ion wo ke s may be o ganized in eams, he
wo kg oup may no be a salien enough ea u e o hei
wo k, making i di icul o wo ke s o iden i y wi h
i . Fac o y loo managemen can ace a dilemma
be ween he lack o salien eamwo k and hei s ong
eliance on olun a y help since an en o cing mechanism
like in e dependence is o en absen . This is commonly
he case in p oduc ion en i onmen s such as he one we
add ess in his s udy: highly au oma ized and digi alized
mass uni -p oduc ion se ings in which wo ke s moni o
and in e ene bu seldom ac i ely collabo a e as a eam.
Thus, he abo e-ci ed indings om he managemen li -
e a u e a e sound bu no necessa ily ans e able. This
illus a es a esea ch gap a he in e sec ion o helping
beha io and iden i ica ion ega ding he un o eseen
challenges ha cu ing-edge digi al echnology imposes
in manu ac u ing.
Ins ead o iden i ying wi h he eam, wo ke s end
o de elop s ong iden i ica ion wi h machines ia
hei adi ional assignmen o he equipmen , as mo i-
a ed a he s a o he pape . We acknowledge ha ,
as any human, p oduc ion wo ke s would likely
espond posi i ely o in e en ions o aining ha
build eam cohesion (Chinia a & Ben ein, 2018;Hu&
Liden, 2015). Howe e , he e ec s will unlikely pe sis
as daily ou ines on he ac o y loo a e s ill de e -
mined by he p oduc ion echnology ha does no
e lec ac i e eamwo k. The e o e, we p opose an
al e na i e a enue o inc ease helping beha io and
p oduc i i y on he ac o y loo ia iden i ica ion wi h
wo ke s' skills.
716 FRANKE ET AL.
3|HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
3.1 |E ec o iden i ica ion wi h skills
on p oduc i i y
Employees show highe le els o mo i a ion a wo k
when hey iden i y wi h he ea u es o hei job (Albe
e al., 2000; Du on e al., 1994). P oblems in highly
au oma ized and digi alized manu ac u ing a e o en
complex and in ol e sophis ica ed machine y. Thus,
hese p oblems equi e mo i a ion ha makes wo ke s
ocus and pay ca e ul a en ion when machines a e in e -
up ed. Wo ke s who iden i y mo e s ongly wi h hei
skills ocus mo e on he immedia e ask since using
hei skills ein o ces hei sel -concep . Focusing on
wo k is no a edious exe cise o hem bu can be a
sou ce o job sa is ac ion when hei skills and wo k
align, as should be he case when a digi al ask-alloca ion
sys em ma ches asks wi h skills (Vignoles e al., 2006).
Speci ically, when wo ke s a e ac i ely sol ing a
machine in e up ion, highe iden i ica ion wi h hei
skills likely enables hem o ecall aspec s o hei expe -
ise, ans e knowledge om one p oblem o he nex , o
apply he skills hey ha e mo e e ec i ely. In o he
wo ds, skills ha a e sou ces o iden i ica ion o a
wo ke a e likely o highe quali y and mo e ho oughly
applied, which can posi i ely a ec se e al ace s o p o-
duc i i y. I can educe he down ime o machines and
p ocessing ime o in e up ions and inc ease he a ail-
abili y o machines o p oduce pa s. I can also educe
u u e in e up ions o he in e up ed machine by con-
ibu ing o mo e sus ainable p oblem-sol ing on he ac-
o y loo , u he imp o ing p oduc i i y. Finally, highe
iden i ica ion can also educe he la ency o pending
wo k asks on he ac o y loo when wo ke s espond
as e o asks ha p o ide sel - ein o cing alue o hem.
This educes he du a ion o in e up ions wai ing unad-
d essed and inc eases ope a ional p oduc i i y in p oduc-
ion. Thus, we hypo hesize:
Hypo hesis 1. Highe le els o iden i ica ion
wi h skills will be associa ed wi h highe
le els o p oduc i i y in digi alized p oduc ion
en i onmen s.
3.2 |E ec o iden i ica ion wi h skills
on helping beha io
We expec s onge iden i ica ion wi h skills on he ac o y
loo o inc ease p oduc i i y (Hypo hesis 1). We p opose
ha one impo an and hi he o o e looked mechanism on
how iden i ica ion wi h skills con ibu es o p oduc i i y
elies on mu ual helping on he ac o y loo . Helping
beha io equi es awa eness o o he wo ke s, machines,
asks, o gene al en i ies a ound one's adi ional scope o
esponsibili ies in p oduc ion (Can o & Jin, 2019). Simply
pu , wi hou being awa e, one canno make he decision o
help. Iden i ica ion is mo e han awa eness; i means ha
indi iduals o m a psychological ela ionship wi h an
en i y. Fo a digi alized p oduc ion se ing using sma -
wa ches o ask alloca ion, wo ke s a e made awa e o
oppo uni ies o exchange wo k wi h co-wo ke s ia he
wa ch. We a gue ha hei choice o help depends pa ly
on hei ela ion o hei own skills. This ela ion is cha ac-
e ized in he li e a u e as an emo ional in es men ha
indi iduals make in an e alua ion p ocess (Ash o h
e al., 2008;Taj el&Tu ne ,1982). This leads o wha Mis-
cenko and Day (2016) call a achmen o an en i y o he
wo k en i onmen , such as one's own skills.
When wo ke s in a p oduc ion acili y do no iden i y
s ongly wi h hei skills, hey na u ally sea ch o o he
sou ces o de ine hei sel -concep . These can be any
en i ies bu a e unlikely he eam, as eamwo k is less
salien in highly au oma ed and digi alized p oduc ions.
The en i ies ha wo ke s iden i y wi h ins ead may o
may no encou age helping due o hei inhe en na u e.
Iden i ying wi h a pa o he p oduc spec um, o
ins ance, would likely ocus he scope o wo ke s'
awa eness—a p econdi ion o iden i ica ion—on hose
p oduc s and, he e o e, educe helping in imes when
o he p oduc s a e scheduled o in a eas whe e hese
o he p oduc s a e assembled simul aneously. When
wo ke s iden i y wi h he machines in hei scope o
esponsibili ies, hey ocus hei a en ion on hose
machines and likely eel eluc an o help when
machines ha hey do no iden i y wi h as s ongly ace
p oblems. O he examples may d i e helping, oo ye on
a e age, a lack o iden i ica ion wi h hei own skills can
be associa ed wi h lowe le els o helping beha io com-
pa ed o he in e se and clea e case.
When wo ke s iden i y s ongly wi h hei skills, hey
also indi ec ly iden i y wi h all asks on he ac o y loo
ha equi e hese pa icula skills. Applying he skills in
he p oduc ion is a way o enac wo ke s' iden i ica ion,
and any ask ha i s hei skill p o ile is a po en ial
sou ce o sel - e i ica ion. Thus, s onge iden i ica ion
wi h skills will mo i a e wo ke s o apply hem as o en
as possible o ein o ce hei sel -concep . Resea ch has
shown ha indi iduals d aw job sa is ac ion om iden i-
ica ion elemen s ha d i e sel -es eem and e icacy
(Vignoles e al., 2006), such as sol ing a p oduc ion ask
d awing on one's own abili ies. This mo i a ion o apply
skills does no dis inguish be ween asks ha one was
o iginally assigned and asks ha lie ou side one's scope
o esponsibili y. Ins ead, any comple ed ask can p o ide
FRANKE ET AL.717
sel - e i ica ion. Thus, helping o he s who may no ha e
he equi ed skills o a e busy wi h o he asks is desi -
able om an iden i ica ion and mo i a ion s andpoin
when wo ke s s ongly iden i y wi h hei p oduc ion
skills. Thus, we hypo hesize:
Hypo hesis 2. Wo ke s who s ongly iden-
i y wi h hei skills in p oduc ion will show
mo e helping beha io compa ed o wo ke s
who iden i y less wi h hei skills.
3.3 |E ec o helping beha io on
p oduc i i y
The link be ween helping beha io and p oduc i i y
emains un es ed in he li e a u e so a (Can o &
Jin, 2019). In non-in e dependen ope a ions, i is only
necessa y o wo ke s o help each o he when all
wo ke s wi h he app op ia e skills o sol ing an open
ask a e busy. The equi ed in o ma ion, namely he codi-
ied skill, i s li e a ailabili y, and he need o i s applica-
ion, can be made ully anspa en in digi alized
ac o ies. Thus, om a u iliza ion pe spec i e, helping
beha io s balance wo kload ac oss he ac o y loo . Ou
s udy ocuses on in e up ions o semi-au oma ed
machines. Helping beha io can educe he ime a
machine is in e up ed and wai ing o an ope a o . Thus,
i will di ec ly con ibu e o highe p oduc i i y by educ-
ing machine down imes and inc easing uni ou pu .
Thus, we hypo hesize:
Hypo hesis 3. Highe le els o helping
beha io in au oma ized and digi alized p o-
duc ion en i onmen s will be associa ed wi h
highe le els o p oduc i i y.
Theconcep ual esea chmodelcanbeseeninFigu e2.
4|METHODOLOGY
This s udy was p e- egis e ed and condi ionally accep ed by
he Jou nal o Ope a ions Managemen p io o conduc ing
he ield expe imen . Subsequen ly, we conduc ed he ield
expe imen as planned and desc ibed nex .
We an a ield expe imen in oducing an in e en-
ion ha d i es he iden i ica ion o wo ke s wi h hei
indi idual skills in a manu ac u ing company o s imu-
la e helping beha io . The na u e o he expe imen al
design is a p e-pos quasi ield expe imen . In addi ion o
he ea men g oup ha wen h ough a p e es -pos es
design, we simul aneously assessed a con ol g oup wi h
no ea men using he di e ence-in-di e ence (DiD)
echnique. Con ol g oups ha po en ially me he pa al-
lel ends assump ion (i.e., ha e a simila p e ea men
p oduc i i y ajec o y) we e a ailable wi hin he same
plan and in h ee o he plan s o he company. The com-
pany led he selec ion o he ea men g oup and he
ea men design. In his p ocess, he esea ch eam
ensu ed a s a i ied andom sample selec ion and ha an
app op ia e con ol g oup was selec ed by es ing he pa -
allel ends assump ion o he DiD design.
4.1 |Expe imen al se ing
The collabo a ing company is a la ge supplie and de el-
ope o me allu gy pa s o au omobiles, ae ospace
equipmen , and consume applica ions. Simply pu , me -
allu gy uses p essing and he mal ea men o b ing
me al in o shape, which allows he c ea ion o mo e com-
plex geome ies han any chipping p ocesses like la hing
o milling would allow. The company p oduces millions
o pa s daily, has se e al housands o cus ome s wo ld-
wide, and employs housands o employees in an ex en-
si e ne wo k o plan s wo ldwide. The company p o ided
ull access o i s acili ies and he digi al sys ems o allow
he implemen a ion o he ield expe imen .
4.2 |Expe imen al ea men
The ea men ook ad an age o he wo ke - ask ma ch-
ing sys em using sma wa ches. The sys em o e s asks
o wo ke s ia a lis ha wo ke s can choose om (see
Figu e 1). Impo an ly, he lis is indi idualized such ha
only hose wo ke s who ha e he equi ed codi ied skills
FIGURE 2 Concep ual
esea ch model. We agg ega e
all a iable o he eam and shi
o analysis.
718 FRANKE ET AL.
see a speci ic ask. To enable his, all skills a e codi ied in
a ma ix ha ea u es all a ailable asks on one dimen-
sion and all anonymous wo ke IDs on he o he
dimension. The asks a e di e en ia ed by a ious
machine ypes o make su e ha only wo ke s who know
a pa icula machine ype will wo k on i s in e up ions.
The “skill ma ix”is a pa o he back-end sys em and is
no isible o salien o wo ke s. The main au ho i y o
change he skill ma ix is wi h he eam leade s. Fo ha
eason and due o hei in angible na u e, skills and hei
digi al codi ica ions a e an a guably less salien ea u e o
he ac o y loo oday.
The ea men add essed his lack o p esence on he
ac o y loo by in oducing “skill weeks.”The company
occasionally p omo es special hemes ha ea u e com-
munica ion o aise awa eness o wo kshops and ain-
ing. Du ing a ecen sa e y week, o example, wo ke s
we e mo i a ed o epo sa e y haza ds, could o de new
sa e y shoes, and pa icipa ed in i s aid aining. “Skill
weeks”encou aged he e lec ion on indi iduals' skills in
se e al ways: i s , banne s and pos e s made he ini ia-
i e isible and anspo ed he goal o aise awa eness o
how impo an wo ke s' skills a e o he ac o y. Second,
wo ke s pa icipa ed in olun a y mee ings ha encou -
aged explo ing, e iewing, and e lec ing upon skills and
hei digi al codi ica ions in he skill ma ix. These ses-
sions las ed be ween 10 and 15 min and encou aged
wo ke s o e lec on wha skills hey possess, which ones
a e impo an , which ones cons i u e bo lenecks, o pos-
sible aining needs hey may ha e. This was accom-
plished by le ing wo ke s map hei indi idual skills and
de elopmen ajec o ies. The sc ip o he mee ings is
shown in Appendix A. Thi d, wo ke s ecei ed in o ma-
ion abou hei skill use in eal- ime ia hei sma -
wa ches, simila o mic o-in e en ions in he medical
sciences (e.g., Baumel e al., 2020; Fulle -Tyszkiewicz
e al., 2019). Messages displayed ia he wa ch included
in o ma ion on he mos equen ly used skills o he cu -
en and p e ious shi s. Figu e B1 shows an example o
how he message was displayed on wo ke s' sma -
wa ches. This combina ion o ac i i ies is ypical o a
hemed week a he company and all di ec ly add ess
wo ke s' skills. The company ag eed o hold he “skill
weeks” o 2 weeks o inc ease he chance o change in
he iden i ica ion o wo ke s.
The ea men ocused on emphasizing skills, and
skills a e de ined by he ype o machine ha a wo ke
can ope a e and oubleshoo . This na u al connec ion
be ween skill and machine ype is inhe en o he p oduc-
ion sys em, i no o any p oduc ion ha ope a es se e al
machines o he same ype. Ou s udy acknowledges his
inhe en connec ion, bu he ea men did no empha-
size i since we wan o inc ease iden i ica ion wi h skills,
no machines. Thus, he ea men a oided making e e -
ences o machines (see Appendix Aand Figu e B1) bu
ocused on skills ins ead. In o he wo ds, ou ea men
ocused on iden i ying wi h he skill ha i s a whole se
o machines ins ead o only a ew. I hus included he
po en ial o b oaden a wo ke 's ac ion adius in he ac-
o y o enhance b oade collabo a ion among wo ke s.
We expec ed ha he ea men would s eng hen he
cogni i e and emo ional a achmen ha wo ke s make
o hei own skills, hus, hei iden i ica ion wi h skills
(Ash o h e al., 2008; Miscenko & Day, 2016). The
manipula ion was unob usi e as i nei he di ec ly con-
ce ns helping beha io no p oduc i i y. We adop ed he
de ini ion o al uis ic helping beha io g ounded in
he idea o olun a y, no manda ed, helping beha io
(Can o & Jin, 2019; O gan, 1988). The e o e, he ea -
men did no in oduce a new policy o incen i e ha
explici ly o implici ly en o ces helping.
4.3 |Manipula ion check
We use se e al sou ces o in o ma ion o e i y ha
wo ke s ha e expe ienced he ea men . Fi s , we
assessed he a endance o wo ke s in g oup sessions a -
ge ed a discussing skills. Only one wo ke chose no o
a end one o he 12 sessions. Second, we ques ioned
wo ke s on whe he hey had no iced and ead banne s
o pos e s announcing he ea men and ini ia i es ha
we e pa o i . Mos wo ke s no iced he banne s.
Finally, we conduc ed a manipula ion check (i.e., i he
in e en ion induces a change in skill iden i ica ion)
using a su ey ques ion measu ing how s ongly wo ke s
iden i y wi h hei skills a wo k (see Appendix C). We
epo a signi ican inc ease in he scale ins umen as
pa o he esul s.
4.4 |Sample and p e- es su ey
The sample comp ises wo ke s in a p oduc ion a ea o
he company ha pe o ms he p essing p ocess o small
me al componen s. The en i e p oduc ion p ocess
includes o ming, calib a ing, and he mal ea men . We
ocus on he wo s eps o o ming and calib a ing as hey
include many pa allel au oma ic p ocesses ha ely on
wo ke s o help each o he when in e up ions occu .
Ou s udy ocuses on he p esses. Each p ess has an in e-
g a ed palle ize o au oma ically s o ing p essed pa s.
We do no ocus on he he mal ea men as i is a sepa-
a e s ep in he p oduc ion p ocess since i is no ba ched,
as he p essing p ocessed, bu in ol es mo e low. The
ea men g oup was a ac o y in Ge many ha
FRANKE ET AL.719
is pi o al o es ablishing one's p o essional iden i y wi hin
a speci ic ield.
While emo ional exhaus ion is only a con ol a iable
in ou wo k, he in e play be ween iden i y a wo k and
bu nou has been a subjec o in e es in a ious s udies.
A signi ican co ela ion be ween p o essional iden i y
and bu nou has been documen ed ac oss di e se indus-
ies (Chen e al., 2020; Sabanciogulla i & Dogan, 2015;
Zhang e al., 2021). Ou in e en ion speci ically a ge ed
an elemen o p o essional iden i y— he enhancemen o
wo ke s' iden i ica ion wi h hei skills. By ocusing on
his aspec , we aimed o bols e he p o essional
sel -concep , he eby s eng hening he indi idual's pe -
cep ion o hemsel es as in eg al membe s o hei p o es-
sion. This enhanced sel -concep could po en ially make
wo k asks eel less bu densome, as hey a e seen as
in insic o one's iden i y a he han ex e nal obliga ions.
Consequen ly, his shi in pe cep ion may lead o a
dec eased isk o bu nou (Zhang e al., 2021). These ind-
ings imply ha ou in e en ion likely augmen ed he
p o essional iden i y, se ing as a bu e agains bu nou .
This has subs an ial implica ions o he well-being o
wo ke s and hei in en ions o emain wi h he o ganiza-
ion (Campbell e al., 2013). Fu u e s udies mus u he
in es iga e hese e ec s in mo e de ail.
6.5 |Summa y and limi a ions
We ha e discussed ha (i) ou manipula ion may no
ha e been s ong enough o show an e ec in a eal ac-
o y; (ii) ha wo mechanisms based on wo di e en
sub-iden i ies may be canceling each o he ou ; (iii) ha
ou ea men design may ha e been o e ly conse a i e
and he e o e was limi ed in i s s eng h; (i ) and ha
ou ea men has shown an un o eseen bu welcome
educ ion in emo ional exhaus ion. These insigh s deli e
new con ibu ions o he discussion on iden i ica ion a
wo k, he esea ch on bu nou , and o u u e ea men
design in he con ex o iden i ica ion wi h skills. We also
con ibu e o he beha io al ope a ions li e a u e on
wo ke collabo a ion. We complemen he p io wo k
ha has ocused on he con igu a ion o incen i es
(De V ies e al., 2016; Siemsen e al., 2007) and ex end
he discussion a ound wha ac o s o in insic mo i a-
ion can d i e pe o mance in ope a ional eams (F anke
e al., 2022). Speci ically, we sugges ha when eams a e
no implici ly o ced o coope a e ia ask in e depen-
dence (Bach ach e al., 2006; Schoenhe e al., 2017), i is
impo an o disen angle he compe ing e ec s o iden i i-
ca ion wi h skills and machines.
Beyond hese alues o ou s udy, i is wo h no ing
ha i aces se e al inhe en limi a ions ha in o m
u u e esea ch ha may suppo ou heo y in o he con-
ex s. Fi s , we a e examining iden i ica ion in a speci ic
digi alized p oduc ion sys em ha in ol es ope a o s ha
sol e andomly occu ing machine in e up ions. When-
e e wo k asks do no appea andomly bu acco ding o
a p ede e mined sequence, we canno ans e ou null
esul s o hose se ings. This holds pa icula ly ue o
o he echnology-enabled p oduc ion o ganiza ions, espe-
cially hose ha ollow a di e en p ocess ype compa ed
o he ba ched mass p oduc ion in ou case. Digi alized
assembly lines o job shops may deli e di e en conclu-
sions. Assembly lines, o example, a e cha ac e ized by
high in e dependency be ween p ocess s eps, which is
no he case in ou s udy. In ou expe imen , machine
in e up ions occu independen ly om each o he .
Mo eo e , job shops may include a much b oade ange
o ac i i ies and di e en machines ha can d i e cogni-
i e swi ching cos s when wo ke s mo e om one ask o
ano he . Finally, he coope a ing company is a adi ional
manu ac u e , and he wo k o ce has an a e age enu e
o abou 10 yea s. Ou esul s may no compa e o o gani-
za ions wi hou a long adi ion o ad-hoc p oduc ion
whe e wo ke s ha e buil ewe long-s anding ela ions
wi h each o he .
6.6 |Manage ial con ibu ion
This s udy highligh s a li le-known mechanism on he
ac o y loo : iden i ica ion. We a gued ini ially ha iden-
i ica ion wi h skills could be a non- angible and low-cos
le e age poin o imp o e helping beha io —bu we
could no p o e i s e ec in a ield expe imen in he
manu ac u ing indus y. Ou s udy con ibu es o illumi-
na ing wo ke s' iden i ica ion change as an impo an
manage ial challenge. We we e able o inc ease wo ke s'
iden i ica ion wi h hei own skills by abou 7% o e he
cou se o 2 weeks, applying an in ensi e p og am o
mee ings, no i ica ions ia wea ables, and isible pos e s
and oll-ups. Reaping he ewa ds o highe iden i ica ion
wi h skills in he wo k con ex has p o en o be a uly
challenging endea o since we could no show ha he
highe iden i ica ion also ansla ed in o mo e coope a-
ion among he wo k o ce o o e all p oduc i i y. How-
e e , we could obse e a educ ion in wo ke s' emo ional
exhaus ion. Ou discussion, conside ing ou heo y and
based on manage ial insigh s, sugges s ha emphasizing
skills on ac o y loo s may also au oma ically emphasize
he ele ance o he machines and equipmen . Skills and
machines a e inhe en ly connec ed in ou s udy. This
leads o a possible cancela ion e ec : iden i ica ion wi h
skills may enhance helping, bu his e ec emains con-
cealed since wo ke s' inc easing iden i ica ion wi h
726 FRANKE ET AL.
speci ic machines makes hem simul aneously a oid
helping a machines ha a e no “ hei s.”This dual p o-
cess equi es u he explo a ion in s udies on iden i ica-
ion in manu ac u ing.
FUNDING INFORMATION
This p ojec ecei es unding om a esea ch g an a
ETH Zu ich (Ca ee Seed G an SEED-06 21-1). We
ecei ed no unding om he indus ial pa ne . Open
Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
[Co ec ion added on 13 Ap il 2024, a e i s online
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added.]
ETHICS STATEMENT
This esea ch design has been accep ed a e e iew by
he E hics Commission o esea ch wi h human pa ici-
pan s a ETH Zu ich.
ORCID
Hen ik F anke h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2336-4312
Daniel Kwasni schka h ps://o cid.o g/0009-0004-6889-
9662
Jan B. Schmu z h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0181-807X
To bjø n H. Ne land h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-7382-
1051
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FRANKE ET AL.729
APPENDIX A
Sc ip o he Mee ings o he Skills Weeks
( o be dis ibu ed among esea che s and eam leade s be o ehand)
Sc ip o 4 Mini-Mee ings on Skills, each las ing 10–15 min
(Responsible: esea che s and manage s; blinded)
Guideline o all o us: The mee ing should solely ocus on indi idual skills, no on o he aspec s such as skill dis i-
bu ion wi hin he eam, eam collabo a ion, compensa ion, he sma wa ch sys em, echnical issues, and so on.
Mee ing 1:
•Employees ecei e an emp y skill ma ix and ill in hei skills o sol ing in e up ions.
•Then, each pe son ecei es hei ma ix as i is s o ed in he sys em.
•Objec i e: Compa ison o sel -assessmen and sys em assessmen .
•I desi ed, he employee can discuss he esul s wi h he eam leade and eques changes (con ol a iable).
Mee ing 2:
•HR p o ides in o ma ion abou cu en o upcoming skill de elopmen ainings.
•HR in o ms abou cu en o u u e needs o (COMPANY) pe aining o skills.
•De elopmen oppo uni ies o employees' skills a (COMPANY).
•Illus a e ways and equi emen s o acqui e se -up skills, o example.
Mee ing 3:
•Employees ecei e hei indi idual skill ma ix as i is s o ed in he sys em.
•Which skills do I wan o lea n in addi ion o expand upon?
•Which skills can I lea n pa icula ly quickly based on my exis ing skills? Which ones a e mo e challenging?
•How does his align wi h (COMPANY)'s o e ings and plans ( e e ing o Mee ing 2)?
Mee ing 4:
•Employees ecei e hei indi idual skill ma ix as i is s o ed in he sys em.
•Which skills ou side o he skills ma ix do you wan o lea n o expand?
•Which skills a e impo an o p oduc ion ha a e no ep esen ed in he sys em?
A e he Skills Weeks:
•Mu ual eedback. Wha wen well? Wha needs imp o emen ?
Objec i e Pa icipan s App oach
•P omo e iden i ica ion o employees wi h hei
skills
•Employees o one
shi
•In e ac i e
•One eam leade •Open communica ion
•One o wo
esea che s
•No pe o mance measu emen o e alua ion
as goal
730 FRANKE ET AL.
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
C.1 |SCALE INSTRUMENTS
This appendix shows he single-i em measu es ha we e ga he ed ia he sma wa ch du ing e e y shi in he ea -
men g oup and he ull measu e s uc u e. Sho measu es such as single-i em measu es a e app op ia e when con-
s uc s a e unambiguous and ha e been used in ope a ions managemen (Rea e al., 2021; Wanous e al., 1997). We
show he d opped i ems (whi e backg ound) along wi h he single i ems we used in he s udy (g ay backg ound).
Iden i ica ion wi h Skills (subscale o Johnson e al., 2012) (No a all 1—Ve y much 5)
•My sel -iden i y is based on he skills I use a wo k. (d opped)
•My skills a e e y impo an o my sense o who I am a wo k.
•My sense o sel o e laps wi h he skills I equi ed o my wo k. (d opped)
•I someone c i icized my skills ha would in luence how I hough abou mysel . (d opped)
•I iden i y s ongly wi h my skills a wo k. (d opped)
Helping Beha io (sho scale, Van Dyne & LePine, 1998) (No a all 1—Ve y much 5)
•I help o he s in his g oup wi h hei wo k esponsibili ies.
•I ge in ol ed o bene i his wo k eam. (d opped)
•I olun ee o do hings o his eam. (d opped)
•I assis o he s in his g oup wi h hei wo k o he bene i o his eam. (d opped)
In en ion o Help (based on Ajzen, 1985) (Ve y unlikely 1— e y likely 7)
•How likely is i ha you will help a colleague in he nex shi ?
Iden i ica ion wi h Machines (subscale o Johnson e al., 2012) (No a all 1—Ve y much 5)
•My sel -iden i y is based in pa on he machines I commonly use a wo k. (d opped)
•The machines I commonly use a e e y impo an o my sense o who I am a wo k.
•My sense o sel o e laps wi h he machines I commonly use o my wo k. (d opped)
FIGURE B1 Skill message deli e ed ia he sma wa ch. The message shows codes o hose skills ha a e he op 5 mos equen ly
used skills o a wo ke . These codes a e commonly known among managemen and he wo k o ce. Messages like hese we e deli e ed a he
beginning o each shi , epo ing on he p e ious shi o ha pa icula wo ke . A simila message was deli e ed a hal ime o a shi ,
epo ing on he cu en day o a pa icula wo ke .
FRANKE ET AL.731
•I someone c i icized he machines I commonly use a wo k ha would in luence how I hough abou mysel .
(d opped)
•I iden i y s ongly wi h he machines ha I commonly use a wo k. (d opped)
Emo ional Exhaus ion (subscale o K is ensen e al., 2005) (Ne e 1—Always 5)
How o en a e he ollowing s a emen s ue? (d opped)
•Do you eel bu n ou because o you wo k?
•Does you wo k us a e you? (d opped)
•Do you ha e enough ime o amily and iends du ing leisu e ime? (d opped).
APPENDIX D
TABLE D1 Main analysis o Hypo hesis 1: DiD eg ession p edic ing p oduc i i y.
Es ima e S anda d e o Value p-Value CI lowe bound CI uppe bound
In e cep 0.433 0.128 3.393 .001 0.180 0.686
T ea ed g oup (g oup ixed e ec ) 0.058 0.055 1.050 .296 0.168 0.052
Pos ( ime ixed e ec ) 0.049 0.028 1.749 .083 0.104 0.006
La e shi 0.025 0.020 1.253 .213 0.015 0.065
Nigh shi 0.103 0.021 4.84 .000 0.145 0.061
Wo kload 0.230 0.580 0.397 .692 0.918 1.378
T ea ed g oup Pos 0.009 0.036 0.261 .795 0.081 0.062
No e: Reg ession uses obus s anda d e o s; Including he su ey-based con ol a iables was no possible in he DiD eg essions since he con ol g oup could
no be su eyed in he ield; R
2
-adjus ed: 0.349.
TABLE D2 Main analysis o Hypo hesis 2: DiD eg ession p edic ing helping beha io .
Es ima e S anda d e o Value p-Value CI lowe bound CI uppe bound
(In e cep ) 0.424 0.168 2.522 .013 0.091 0.757
T ea ed g oup (g oup ixed e ec ) 0.098 0.068 1.454 .149 0.232 0.036
Pos ( ime ixed e ec ) 0.046 0.036 1.301 .196 0.024 0.117
La e shi 0.015 0.025 0.600 .549 0.034 0.064
Nigh shi 0.023 0.024 0.963 .338 0.070 0.024
Wo kload 0.245 0.726 0.338 .736 1.192 1.683
T ea ed g oup Pos 0.017 0.04 0.417 .677 0.063 0.097
No e: Reg ession uses obus s anda d e o s; Including he su ey-based con ol a iables was no possible in he DiD eg essions since hey a e only a ailable
o he ea men g oup; R
2
-adjus ed: 0.228.
TABLE D3 Main analysis o Hypo hesis 3: Reg ession p edic ing p oduc i i y.
Es ima e S anda d e o Value p-Value CI lowe bound CI uppe bound
In e cep 0.490 0.202 2.424 .019 0.084 0.896
Helping beha io 0.090 0.088 1.022 .311 0.265 0.086
Pos ( ime ixed e ec ) 0.028 0.031 0.924 .360 0.090 0.033
La e shi 0.040 0.023 1.736 .088 0.006 0.087
Nigh shi 0.010 0.023 0.422 .674 0.057 0.037
Wo kload 0.844 0.722 1.169 .248 2.292 0.605
Emo ional exhaus ion 0.018 0.020 0.900 .372 0.059 0.022
Iden i ica ion wi h machines 0.023 0.029 0.786 .435 0.035 0.081
No e: Reg ession uses obus s anda d e o s; G oup ixed e ec s canno be modeled in his eg ession because he bo om wo con ol a iables a e only
a ailable o he ea men g oup; R
2
-adjus ed: 0.162.
732 FRANKE ET AL.
