Lim, Misun; Pollmann-Schul , Ma hias; Li, Jianghong
A icle — Published Ve sion
Pa en s’ Wo k–Family Con lic and Child en’s Emo ional
Well-Being: The Media ing Role o Pa en ing Beha io s
Jou nal o Family Issues
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WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Lim, Misun; Pollmann-Schul , Ma hias; Li, Jianghong (2025) : Pa en s’ Wo k–
Family Con lic and Child en’s Emo ional Well-Being: The Media ing Role o Pa en ing Beha io s,
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Pa en s’Wo k–Family
Conflic and Child en’s
Emo ional Well-Being:
The Media ing Role o
Pa en ing Beha io s
Misun Lim
1,2
, Ma hias Pollmann-Schul
1
, and
Jianghong Li
2,3
Abs ac
Despi e g owing e idence ha pa en al wo k– amily conflic (WFC) a ec s
child en’s emo ional well-being, li le is known abou he mul iple pa hways
unde lying such e ec s. This s udy examines he associa ion be ween pa en al
WFC and child en’s emo ional well-being and he po en ial media ing ole o
pa en ing beha io s in his p ocess. Using he Ge man Family Panel da a om
wa e 6 (2013/2014), wa e 8 (2015/2016), wa e 10 (2017/2018), and wa e 12
(2019/20), we use andom-e ec s and mul iple media ion models o analyze
how pa en al WFC influences pa en ing beha io s and child en’s emo ional
well-being, and whe he pa en ing beha io s media e hei associa ion. Pa-
en al WFC is linked o mo e nega i e communica ion and conflic and less
pa en al wa m h, especially among mo he s. Pa en al WFC is linked o
child en’s emo ional well-being, wi h a mo e p onounced associa ion o
mo he s’WFC. Media ion analyses showed ha pa en ing beha io s pa ially
1
Facul y o A s and Humani ies, Uni e si y o Siegen, Siegen, Ge many
2
Heal h and Social Inequali y, WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e (WZB), Be lin, Ge many
3
Cu in Uni e si y and The Kids Resea ch Ins i u e Aus alia, Pe h, WA, Aus alia
Co esponding Au ho :
Misun Lim, Facul y o A s and Humani ies, Uni e si y o Siegen, Adol -Reichwein-S . 2, Siegen
57076, Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
media e his associa ion. Ou esul s unde sco e he impo ance o educing
WFC among wo king pa en s o p omo e child en’s emo ional well-being.
Keywo ds
wo k– amily conflic , emo ional well-being, pa en ing beha io s, media ion
analysis, pai am
In oduc ion
Wo k– amily conflic (WFC) e e s o a si ua ion whe e he demands o wo k
and amily domains a e “mu ually incompa ible”(G eenhaus & Beu ell,
1985). Recen s udies show ha WFC has become inc easingly p e alen
globally, wi h many wo ke s epo ing dis up ions in wo k and p i a e do-
mains (Allen e al., 2020;Ollie -Mala e e & Fouc eaul , 2017). WFC can
ha e a majo impac on employees’heal h and well-being (Guo & Wang,
2024). Se e al s udies ha e documen ed ha WFC ha ms wo ke s’men al
heal h (Cooklin, Dinh, e al., 2016;Song e al., 2024), simul aneously
lowe ing wo k p oduc i i y (Goulle e al., 2022), li e sa is ac ion (Qu &
Zhao, 2012), and ma i al sa is ac ion (Chen & Lim, 2012;Molina, 2021).
Howe e , esea ch on he ela ionship be ween pa en al WFC and child en’s
men al heal h ou comes is s ill in i s ea ly s ages. E idence sugges s ha
pa en s’WFC is nega i ely associa ed wi h child en’s o e all men al heal h
(Dinh e al., 2017;Leach e al., 2021), ele a ed emo ional p oblems (Yucel &
La shaw, 2021), and inc eased beha io al p oblems (Lim, 2024).
Despi e an eme ging body o li e a u e on he link be ween pa en al WFC
and child en’s men al heal h ou comes, such as in e nalizing beha io s, ex-
e nalizing beha io s, o e all men al heal h, and p oblema ic in e ne usage
(Bilodeau e al., 2023), impo an esea ch gaps emain. Fi s , p e ious s udies
explo ing he pa hways linking pa en al WFC o child men al heal h p oblems
conside ed only a single media o in hei analyses o examined a ious
media o s sepa a ely (Hess & Pollmann-Schul , 2020;S azdins e al., 2013).
Howe e , Von Soes and Hag e (2011) a gued ha , compa ed wi h mul iple
media ion models, single media ion models can lead o inconsis en esul s, as
he o me conside he simul aneous in e play o se e al media o s. Thus,
p e ious s udies ha e p o ided only limi ed insigh in o unde lying pa hways
ha in e ac wi h one ano he ( o a e iew, see Bilodeau e al., 2023).
A second esea ch gap is ha we know li le abou whe he pa en al WFC is
associa ed wi h child- epo ed pa en ing beha io s and emo ional p oblems.
While ea lie s udies elied on only pa en - epo ed measu es o child en’s
2Jou nal o Family Issues 0(0)
men al heal h ou comes and pa en ing beha io s (e.g., Cooklin e al., 2016;
Dinh e al., 2017;Van den Eynde e al., 2020), mo e ecen wo k sugges s
disc epancies be ween pa en - epo ed and child- epo ed emo ional di fi-
cul ies (Hess & Pollmann-Schul , 2024). S udies examining epo e bias in
child en’s men al heal h ha e shown ha pa en s’men al s a e may a ec hei
assessmen o hei child en’s emo ional and conduc p oblems (Ga s ein
e al., 2009;Sei ge-K enke & Kollma , 1998). In he con ex o pa en s’
WFC, epo e bias may occu when a highe le el o WFC leads pa en s o
a e hei child en’s emo ional well-being mo e nega i ely.
Afinal esea ch gap in ol es di e ences in child en’s esponses o
mo he s’and a he s’WFC. Wi h a ew excep ions (e.g., Dinh e al., 2017;Van
den Eynde e al., 2020;Yucel & La shaw, 2021), mos o ou knowledge abou
he associa ion be ween pa en al WFC and child en’s emo ional and be-
ha io al p oblems is based on mo he s only. As women end o pe o m a
la ge sha e o childca e (C aig & Mullan, 2011), mos s udies obse e ha
mo he s’WFC is nega i ely associa ed wi h child en’s men al heal h ou -
comes (Cooklin e al., 2015;Hess & Pollmann-Schul , 2020;Pila z, 2021).
Howe e , he changing ole o a he hood and inc eased a he s’ ime wi h
hei child en (Hook & Wol e, 2012), coupled wi h mo he s’g owing labo -
ma ke pa icipa ion, aises new ques ions abou how a he s’WFC may lead
o changes in pa en ing beha io s, which in u n may influence child en’s
men al heal h ou comes.
Building upon and add essing hese gaps in cu en schola ship, ou s udy
seeks o p o ide new insigh s in o he pa hways unde lying he link be ween
bo h mo he s’and a he s’WFC and child en’s sel - epo ed emo ional well-
being. We d aw on da a om he Ge man Family Panel (pai am) o examine
he associa ion be ween pa en al WFC, child- epo ed pa en ing beha io s,
and child- epo ed emo ional well-being, and he po en ial media ing oles o
child- epo ed pa en ing beha io s in his p ocess. Ou s udy ex ends p e ious
esea ch in h ee ways.
Fi s , i explo es whe he pa en al WFC is linked o child en’s emo ional
p oblems h ough mul iple pa hways and whe he ce ain pa en ing beha io s
a e mo e impo an han o he s. By es ing posi i e and nega i e pa en ing
beha io s as media o s, ou analysis shows ha mo he s’WFC influences
child en’s emo ional p oblems by inc easing de imen al pa en ing beha io s
(e.g., nega i e communica ion and conflic ) bu no by educing posi i e
pa en ing beha io s (e.g., pa en al wa m h). Second, we examine child en’s
iews on hei men al well-being and how pa en s in e ac wi h hem. Ha ing
child en’s pe spec i es on hei emo ional well-being and pa en s’beha io s
owa d hem helps minimize pa en al epo ing bias and endogenei y in he
analysis. Finally, we conside pa en al gende di e ences in he e ec s o
Lim e al. 3
pa en al WFC on child en’s emo ional well-being. Toge he , ou s udy p o-
ides a new assessmen o how mo he s’and a he s’WFC a ec he
emo ional well-being o child en and he media ing ole o pa en ing be-
ha io s. Ou findings ha e implica ions o policy in e en ions ha aim o
educe WFC and suppo pa en s expe iencing high WFC, ul ima ely p o-
mo ing child en’s emo ional well-being.
Backg ound
Pa en s’WFC and Child en’s Emo ional Well-Being
The key heo ies o unde s anding he impac o pa en al WFC on chil-
d en’s emo ional well-being a e c osso e heo y and amily sys ems
heo y. C osso e heo y explains how posi i e o nega i e expe iences
and emo ions can ans e be ween indi iduals wi hin he same social
en i onmen , pa icula ly in a dyadic ela ionship (Bakke e al., 2009;
Wes man, 2001). I ocuses on c osso e e ec s be ween couples, o
ins ance, when WFC influences ela ionship sa is ac ion be ween pa ne s
(Bakke e al., 2009;Yang & Dahm, 2021). Howe e , he c osso e e ec s
o WFC can also mani es in ela ionships be ween pa en s and child en. In
he con ex o his s udy, i is plausible ha ele a ed WFC among pa en s
nega i ely a ec s child en’s emo ional well-being by al e ing pa en ing
beha io s.
Simila ly, amily sys ems heo y p oposes ha a pe son’s a i udes and
beha io s a e la gely influenced by he a i udes and beha io s o o he amily
membe s (Cox & Paley, 2003). Acco ding o his heo y, a amily is a social
sys em in which each membe exe s bo h di ec and indi ec influence on he
o he s (B ode ick, 1997). No ably, amily sys ems heo y poin s ou he
impo ance o looking “beyond he mo he –child ela ionship and conside ing
a he s and hei ela ionships in he amily in o de o be e unde s and
child en’s de elopmen ”(Cox & Paley, 2003, p. 193). In his sense, amily
sys ems heo y emphasizes he impo ance o ocusing on he en i e amily.
Like se e al p io s udies (Ma ias & Recha e, 2021;Nelson e al., 2009;
Yucel & La shaw, 2021), we adop c osso e heo y and amily sys ems heo y
as an o e a ching heo e ical amewo k o examine he pa hways be ween
pa en al WFC and child en’s emo ional well-being. We ex end his eme ging
bu unde de eloped a ea o esea ch by explo ing he media ing oles o child-
epo ed pa en ing beha io s in he associa ion be ween pa en al WFC and
child en’s emo ional well-being. In he ollowing, we discuss hese pa hways
in g ea e de ail.
4Jou nal o Family Issues 0(0)
Media ing Roles o Pa en ing Beha io s
The s udy o pa en ing has gained significan a en ion ac oss academic
disciplines, eflec ing i s impo ance in child de elopmen . Pa en ing is
ca ego ized h ough wo dis inc concep s: pa en ing s yle and pa en ing
beha io . Pa en ing s yle
1
is defined as “a cons ella ion o a i udes owa d he
child ha a e communica ed o he child and c ea e an emo ional clima e in
which he pa en s’beha io s a e exp essed”(Da ling & S einbe g, 1993,
p. 488). In con as , pa en ing beha io s a e he conc e e and obse able
in e ac ions be ween pa en and child, such as how pa en s espond o specific
si ua ions o implemen discipline (Da ling & S einbe g, 1993;Kuppens &
Ceulemans, 2019). Bo h pa en ing s yle and beha io influence child en’s
de elopmen and psychological well-being (Pinqua , 2017). When pa en s
demons a e consis en wa m h and posi i e engagemen , child en show ewe
emo ional and beha io al p oblems (Baye e al., 2006;Kingsbu y e al.,
2020). Con e sely, nega i e pa en ing beha io s—pa icula ly hose cha -
ac e ized by e bal ha shness o conflic —a e o en associa ed wi h inc eased
emo ional and beha io al p oblems in child en (Hess & Pollmann-Schul ,
2020;Kaise e al., 2019;Yap & Jo m, 2015). Among hese pa en ing be-
ha io s, ha sh pa en ing is a s ong p edic o o emo ional and beha io al
p oblems among child en (Chen & Raine, 2018;Kaise e al., 2019;Pinqua ,
2017).
Eme ging e idence sugges s ha pa en al WFC can impac child en’s
emo ional well-being h ough i s influence on pa en ing beha io s (Cooklin,
Wes upp, e al., 2016;Hess & Pollmann-Schul , 2020;Wang e al., 2024).
The nega i e e ec s o pa en al WFC a e likely o c oss o e o child en, as
pa en s expe iencing high le els o WFC a e mo e likely o exhibi nega i e
pa en ing beha io s. This e idence is d awn om esea ch showing ha a high
le el o WFC may cause pa en ing s ess (Cooklin e al., 2015;Viei a e al.,
2018), and hose who expe ience high le els o s ess may find i challenging
o communica e posi i ely wi h hei child en (Chung e al., 2022). Pa en s
who expe ience ele a ed le els o WFC a e also mo e likely o engage in
a e si e pa en ing beha io s, such as e bal ha shness (Hess & Pollmann-
Schul , 2020;Wang e al., 2024), inconsis en punishmen , o discipline
(Cooklin e al., 2016), i i able in e ac ions (Cooklin e al., 2015;Dinh e al.,
2017), and mo e coe ci e disciplina y p ac ices, including shou ing, ex-
p essing ange , showing annoyance, and a guing wi h child en (Ve weij e al.,
2021).
WFC may a ec child en’s emo ional well-being no only by inc easing
nega i e pa en ing beha io s bu also by educing posi i e ones. Pa en s
expe iencing high le els o WFC a e less likely o engage in posi i e pa en ing
Lim e al. 5
beha io s han pa en s wi h lowe le els o WFC (Cooklin e al., 2015,2016b;
Lim, 2024). Posi i e pa en ing, o en measu ed as pa en ing wa m h o pa-
en –child ela ionship sa is ac ion (Chen e al., 2019), e e s o a dimension o
“posi i ely alued”beha io s ha includes pa en s’a ec ion o and ac-
cep ance o hei child en (Dea e -Decka d e al., 2011). The demands o WFC
can d ain pa en s’ene gy and ocus, making i mo e di ficul o hem o p aise
hei child en o spend quali y ime wi h hem. Specifically, pa en s acing
g ea e wo k– amily conflic end o display less wa m h in hei in e ac ions
wi h hei child en (Cooklin e al., 2015,2016b;Lim, 2024).
Bo h posi i e and nega i e pa en ing beha io s ha e a significan impac
on child en’s emo ional p oblems. Nega i e pa en ing beha io s, such as
ha sh pa en ing, a e associa ed wi h inc eased emo ional and beha io al
p oblems in child en (Yap & Jo m, 2015). Ve bal ha shness—such as nega i e
c i icism and disp opo iona ely in ense e bal discipline—is linked o
emo ional and conduc p oblems (Chen & Raine, 2018;Hess & Pollmann-
Schul , 2020;Kaise e al., 2019;Pinqua , 2017) as well as inc eased eelings
o dep ession (Wang & Kenny, 2014).
Con e sely, posi i e pa en ing is associa ed wi h educed emo ional
p oblems among child en (Hess, 2022;McKee e al., 2007) and a lowe isk o
men al illness (Chen e al., 2019). Among a ious posi i e pa en ing be-
ha io s, pa en al wa m h is an impo an ac o o dec easing child en’s
emo ional p oblems (Baye e al., 2006;Kingsbu y e al., 2020). Fo example,
posi i e pa en ing beha io s, including p aising o exp essing a ec ion, a e
linked o ewe symp oms o dep ession and anxie y among child en aged
6 and 7 (Kingsbu y e al., 2020). Simila ly, Baye e al. (2006) epo ed ha
highe le els o wa m and engaged pa en ing beha io s a e associa ed wi h
lowe le els o anxie y and dep ession among child en.
Di e ences by Pa en Gende
P io esea ch shows ha gende di e ences exis in how wo k– amily s ess
a ec s pa en ing beha io s (Cooklin e al., 2015,2016b;Nelson e al., 2009).
Gende ed expec a ions and inequali y in paid wo k, housewo k, and childca e
a e linked o di e ences be ween mo he s and a he s in hei abili y o manage
WFC (Bass e al., 2009), and hence gende di e ences exis in he impac o
WFC on pa en ing beha io s (Cooklin e al., 2015,2016b;Yucel & La shaw,
2021). P e ious s udies indica e ha mo he s who expe ience high le els o
WFC display mo e nega i e pa en ing beha io s han a he s. Fo ins ance,
mo he s wi h high le els o WFC show mo e ha shness owa d hei child en
(Hess & Pollmann-Schul , 2020), whe eas a he s acing highe WFC do no
display mo e ha shness han a he s wi h lowe WFC (Cooklin e al., 2015).
6Jou nal o Family Issues 0(0)
These findings sugges ha pa en al WFC influences specific pa en ing be-
ha io s acco ding o pa en gende , hough in di e en ways.
Child en’s esponses o pa en ing beha io s migh also di e by pa en
gende . I is well known ha mo he s end o spend mo e ime on childca e and
supe ision, e en when hey wo k longe hou s han a he s (Bianchi e al.,
2007;C aig & Mullan, 2011). Because wo king mo he s spend mo e ime wi h
child en, ma e nal wo k- ela ed s ess a ec s child en mo e di ec ly and mo e
in ensely han ha o a he s (Ma ias & Recha e, 2021).
The P esen S udy
We ad ance wo k– amily schola ship and he s udy o child en’s emo ional
well-being by in es iga ing mul iple pa hways om pa en al WFC o child
emo ional p oblems. By u ilizing mul iple media ion models, we examine
di e en pa en ing beha io s as media o s o he associa ion be ween pa en al
WFC and child emo ional p oblems. Specifically, he p esen s udy aims o
answe he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
(1) Is pa en al WFC associa ed wi h child- epo ed pa en ing beha io s
(nega i e communica ion, conflic , and pa en al wa m h) and child-
epo ed emo ional p oblems?
(2) Is he associa ion be ween pa en al WFC and child emo ional
p oblems media ed by nega i e communica ion, conflic , and pa en al
wa m h?
(3) Do (1) he associa ion be ween pa en al WFC and child en’s emo-
ional p oblems and (2) he media ing e ec s o pa en ing beha io s
a y by pa en gende ?
Ou s udy makes a u he me hodological con ibu ion by employing
child en’s sel - epo s o pa en ing beha io s and hei emo ional p oblems.
By asking child en o assess hei emo ional p oblems and hei pa en s’
a ibu es and beha io s owa d hem, we gain insigh in o how child en
pe cei e hei in e ac ions wi h hei pa en s and hei emo ional well-being. In
con as , p io s udies ha e ypically used pa en ing beha io s and child en’s
emo ional symp oms as epo ed by pa en s. Such app oaches may in oduce
bias in unde s anding child en’s emo ional p oblems and how child en eel
abou in e ac ions wi h hei pa en s. Fo example, pa en s expe iencing high
le els o WFC and s ess may be mo e likely o pe cei e hei child en’s
emo ions and beha io s nega i ely (Sawye e al., 1998), and hey may no be
awa e o hei nega i e pa en ing beha io s owa d hei child en. By using
measu es o child en’s e alua ion o hei emo ional p oblems and child-
Lim e al. 7
epo ed pa en ing beha io s, we can cap u e child en’s pe spec i es and
minimize bias.
Me hods
Da a
We use he Ge man Family Panel, also known as pai am, which is a
longi udinal s udy on pa ne ship and amily dynamics in Ge many. The
s udy began in 2008 wi h 12,402 esponden s and was conduc ed annually
un il 2022. No ably, pai am has a unique mul i-ac o design ha includes
he main esponden s, hei pa ne s, and all child en aged 8 o 16 yea s
li ing in he same household wi h he main esponden s. Pai am was
collec ed using compu e -assis ed pe sonal in e iews (CAPIs) and pen-
and-pape pe sonal in e iews (PAPIs). Child en ook a 15-minu e CAPI
wi h hei pa en s’pe mission. Pai am p o ides in o ma ion on he e-
sponden s’employmen s a us, wo k schedules, pa en al wo k– amily
conflic , child en’s men al heal h, and pa en ing beha io s. Since i o e s
de ailed in o ma ion on pa en ing beha io s, i is well-sui ed o ou
esea ch ques ions. We used ou wa es o pai am da a, as in o ma ion on
wo k– amily conflic and pa en ing beha io s was only a ailable in wa e 6
(2013/14), wa e 8 (2015/16), wa e 10 (2017/18), and wa e 12 (2019/
2020). We linked 2,034 child en wi h hei mo he s (3,622 obse a ions)
and 1,732 child en wi h hei a he s (3,080 obse a ions), esul ing in
6,702 obse a ions.
Measu es
Dependen Va iable. Ou s udy ocuses on child en’s emo ional p oblems as
he dependen a iable. We used he S eng h and Di ficul ies Ques ionnai e
(SDQ) o assess child en’s emo ional p oblems (Goodman, 1997). The SDQ
measu es child en’s emo ional symp oms wi h he ollowing fi e i ems: Please
ell me o wha ex en hese sen ences a e co ec o you. Fo you answe ,
hink abou how hings we e du ing he pas 6 mon hs. (1) I am ne ous in new
si ua ions, (2) I easily lose confidence, (3) I am o en unhappy, dep essed, o
ea ul, (4) I ha e many ea s, I am easily sca ed, and (5) I ge a lo o
headaches, s omachaches, o sickness. Child en’s emo ional symp oms we e
a ed on a scale om 0 “No ue” o 2 “Ce ainly ue.”We agg ega ed he
esponses o hese fi e ques ions o c ea e a measu e o child en’s emo ional
p oblems, wi h a o al scale om 0 o 10.
8Jou nal o Family Issues 0(0)
Table 3. P edic o s o child en’s emo ional p oblems ( andom-e ec s eg essions)
Mo he s Fa he s
Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2
WFC 0.303***
(0.054)
0.230***
(0.052)
0.116+
(0.061)
0.079
(0.059)
Pa en ing beha io s
Nega i e
communica ion
0.152***
(0.019)
0.134***
(0.022)
Conflic 0.163***
(0.027)
0.116***
(0.029)
Pa en al wa m h 0.0111
(0.021)
0.044*
(0.020)
Educa ion ( e : Lowe seconda y)
Highe seconda y 0.275
(0.168)
0.277
(0.155)
0.211
(0.189)
0.0373
(0.176)
Te ia y 0.536**
(0.178)
0.531**
(0.165)
0.123
(0.194)
0.038
(0.182)
Weekly wo k hou s 0.000
(0.003)
0.002
(0.003)
0.00747
(0.004)
0.0078
(0.004)
Log o household
income
0.331**
(0.108)
0.308**
(0.104)
0.412***
(0.109)
0.379***
(0.107)
Pa ne ed 0.029
(0.123)
0.063
(0.117)
0.603
(0.380)
0.620
(0.368)
Child en’s cha ac e is ics
Boy 0.430***
(0.077)
0.435***
(0.075)
0.428***
(0.082)
0.475***
(0.080)
Age o child 0.655***
(0.140)
0.532***
(0.137)
0.427**
(0.150)
0.354*
(0.147)
Age o child
2
0.0255***
(0.006)
0.0196**
(0.006)
0.0150*
(0.007)
0.0111
(0.006)
Child’s mig a ion
s a us
0.104
(0.095)
0.100
(0.090)
0.252*
(0.099)
0.200*
(0.094)
Cons an 8.921***
(1.046)
6.690***
(1.048)
9.210***
(1.168)
8.230***
(1.182)
Numbe o
obse a ions
3,622 3,622 3,080 3,080
No e. +p< 0.10 +; *p< 0.05; **p< 0.01; ***p< 0.001. S anda d e o s in pa en heses. Ge man
Family Panel da a, wa es 8, 10, and 12. All models include su ey yea s.
Lim e al. 15
be ween mo he s’WFC and child en’s emo ional p oblems is a enua ed bu
emains s a is ically significan . The coe ficien o associa ion be ween a-
he s’WFC and child en’s emo ional p oblems dec eases om b = 0.116 o b =
0.079 and he coe ficien o a he s’WFC becomes insignifican . These
esul s also show ha he associa ion be ween mo he s’WFC and child en’s
emo ional p oblems, independen o sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics, is
s onge han he associa ion be ween a he s’WFC and child en’s emo ional
p oblems.
To explo e he hypo hesized media ing e ec s o he h ee pa en ing be-
ha io s on child en’s emo ional p oblems, we decomposed he o al e ec s
in o he di ec e ec s o mo he s’and a he s’WFC on lchild en’s emo ional
p oblems and he indi ec e ec s o WFC ia nega i e communica ion,
conflic , and pa en al wa m h (Table 4). The o al e ec o mo he s’WFC on
child en’s emo ional p oblems (b = 0.301, p< 0.001) is he sum o he di ec
e ec (b = 0.240, p< 0.001) and he indi ec e ec (b = 0.061, p< 0.001). The
specific indi ec e ec s indica ed ha he e ec s o mo he s’WFC a e me-
dia ed by nega i e communica ion (b = 0.034, p< 0.001) and conflic (b =
0.027, p< 0.05). Al hough mo he s’WFC is associa ed wi h highe le els o
nega i e communica ion and conflic and less pa en al wa m h (see Table 2),
pa en al wa m h shows no s a is ically significan media ing e ec on chil-
d en’s emo ional p oblems. The p opo ion o he o al e ec media ed by
nega i e communica ion, conflic , and pa en al wa m h amoun s o 20%.
Table 4. Media ion analysis
To al
e ec
Di ec
e ec
To al indi ec
e ec
Specific
indi ec e ec
Mo he s’WFC 0Child en’s
emo ional p oblems
0.301*** 0.240*** 0.061***
Via nega i e communica ion 0.034***
Via Conflic 0.027**
Via pa en al wa m h 0.001
Fa he s’WFC 0Child en’s
emo ional p oblems
0.106+ 0.082 0.024*
Via nega i e communica ion 0.010
Via conflic 0.010
Via pa en al wa m h 0.004
No e. +p< 0.10 +; *p< 0.05; **p< 0.01; ***p< 0.001. Ge man Family Panel da a, wa es 6, 8, 10,
and 12. All models include con ol a iables o child sex, child age, child’s mig a ion backg ound,
pa en s’educa ion, household income, pa ne ship s a us, and su ey yea .
16 Jou nal o Family Issues 0(0)
The lowe panel o Table 4 shows whe he pa en ing beha io s media e he
associa ion be ween a he s’WFC and child en’s emo ional p oblems. As
p e iously shown in Table 3 (Model 2), he o al e ec o a he s’WFC is
ma ginally significan (b = 0.106, p< 0.10). Al hough he e is a significan
o al indi ec e ec (b = 0.024, p< 0.05), he indi ec e ec o each pa en ing
beha io is s a is ically insignifican . In o al, he h ee pa en ing beha io s
explain abou 22% o he impac o a he s’WFC on child en’s emo ional
p oblems.
Discussion
A Summa y o he Main Findings
Ou findings show ha child en epo significan ly mo e emo ional p oblems
when hei mo he s expe ience highe le els o WFC. In con as , he as-
socia ion o a he s is conside ably smalle and only ma ginally s a is ically
significan . Mo he s wi h ele a ed le els o WFC a e mo e likely o use
nega i e communica ion, mo e likely o ha e conflic s wi h hei child en, and
less likely o show pa en al wa m h owa d child en. These nega i e pa en ing
beha io s, in u n, a e associa ed wi h mo e emo ional p oblems in child en.
These media ing e ec s, howe e , we e weake o a he s. While a he s’
pa en ing beha io s we e s ongly associa ed wi h mo e emo ional p oblems
in child en, hei le el o WFC only ma ginally influences hei pa en ing
beha io s.
Significance and Con ibu ions
Ou findings make h ee impo an con ibu ions o he li e a u e on WFC and
child en’s emo ional well-being. Fi s , we examine he po en ial pa hways
(mul iple pa en ing beha io s) ha link pa en s’WFC o child en’s emo ional
well-being. While mos exis ing s udies use a single media o o explain he
associa ion be ween pa en al WFC and child en’s psychological well-being
(Hess & Pollmann-Schul , 2020;Mus illo e al., 2021;Viei a e al., 2018), we
ex end he exis ing li e a u e by iden i ying mul iple pa hways unde lying he
associa ion be ween mo he s’and a he s’WFC and child en’s emo ional
well-being. Ou findings indica e ha mo he s’WFC is nega i ely associa ed
wi h child en’s emo ional well-being, pa ly because o inc eased ha m ul
pa en ing beha io s (nega i e communica ion and conflic ). Al hough pa-
en al wa m h is conside ed a majo media o be ween mo he s’WFC and
child en’s nega i e ou comes (Lim, 2024), ou s udy has shown ha
Lim e al. 17
educ ions in pa en al wa m h do no ansla e in o nega i e impac s on
child en’s emo ional well-being.
Second, we ex end he p io li e a u e by including a he s in he analysis
and examining whe he mo he s’o a he s’WFC has a g ea e impac on
child en’s emo ional well-being. P io s udies mos ly ocused on he asso-
cia ion be ween mo he s’WFC and child en’s men al heal h ou comes, and
only a limi ed numbe o s udies conside ed bo h mo he s and a he s (Dinh
e al., 2017;Van den Eynde e al., 2020;Yucel & La shaw, 2021). Al hough a
p io s udy sugges ed ha he associa ion be ween a he s’WFC and chil-
d en’s men al heal h (mo he - epo ed) was simila o mo he s (Dinh e al.,
2017), we find a s onge associa ion be ween mo he s’WFC, child- epo ed
pa en ing beha io s, and child- epo ed emo ional well-being. In addi ion, he
media ion analyses show ha a he s’nega i e communica ion, conflic , and
pa en al wa m h do no ha e a significan indi ec e ec , unlike mo he s’
nega i e pa en ing beha io s. These findings unde sco e he need o unde -
s and and suppo mo he s who expe ience high le els o WFC o imp o e
child en’s emo ional well-being.
Las ly, in p e ious esea ch, child en’s emo ional p oblems and pa en ing
beha io s a e mos ly measu ed using only pa en s’ epo s (Cooklin, Wes upp,
e al., 2016;Dinh e al., 2017;Van den Eynde e al., 2020), hus omi ing
child en’s pe spec i es on hei emo ional p oblems and how hei pa en s beha e
owa d hem. In his s udy, we ake a child-cen e ed app oach o unde s anding
how pa en al WFC influences child en’s emo ional p oblems by analyzing
child en’s epo s abou hei emo ional well-being and how pa en s in e ac wi h
hem. Thus, we b ing child en’s pe spec i es in o he eme ging li e a u e on he
impac o pa en al WFC. This app oach has wide me hodological significance in
ha i po en ially minimizes epo e bias and endogenei y.
Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
Limi a ions. Ou s udy has ce ain limi a ions. Fo ins ance, i ocuses on a
single coun y con ex , Ge many, whe e Ge man mo he s in ou sample
we e p edominan ly pa - ime employees (abou 66% o mo he s in ou
sample wo k less han 35 hou s pe week). As pa - ime employmen is
common o mo he s in Ge many, esul s may no be gene alizable o
coun ies whe e ull- ime employmen among mo he s is mo e common. In
addi ion, he da a in he pai am su ey a e limi ed o ou wa es ha
p o ide in o ma ion on WFC, child- epo ed emo ional p oblems, and
child- epo ed pa en ing beha io s. Thus, we we e unable o in es iga e
he s abili y o WFC e ec s on child en’s emo ional well-being o e longe
pe iods o hei de elopmen .
18 Jou nal o Family Issues 0(0)
Ano he limi a ion is ou inabili y o iden i y he causal e ec s o pa en al
WFC on child en’s emo ional well-being. Pa en al WFC may inc ease due o
inc easing wo k- ela ed s ess, bu i can also inc ease due o inc easing
pa en ing s ess esul ing om child en’s emo ional p oblems. Thus, he e is a
possible bi-di ec ional associa ion be ween pa en al WFC and emo ional well-
being. Howe e , p e ious s udies using longi udinal da a sugges ed a causal
link be ween WFC and child en’s men al heal h ou comes (Dinh e al., 2017;
Leach e al., 2021). Hence, ou esul s align closely wi h he findings o
p e ious s udies in e ms o he plausible causal di ec ion (Bilodeau e al.,
2023).
In ou analyses, pa en ing beha io media o s accoun o be ween 20%
and 22% o he associa ion be ween pa en al WFC and child en’s emo ional
p oblems. This finding sugges s ha he e a e media o s ha play a ole in
linking pa en al WFC o child emo ional p oblems. Pa en al men al heal h
p oblems (Dinh e al., 2017;Leach e al., 2021), ma i al dissa is ac ion be-
ween pa en s (Dinh e al., 2017), o cons ain s on ime a ailable o child en
due o WFC (Li & Guo, 2023) a e po en ial pa hways ha we e no add essed
in his s udy.
Fu u e Resea ch. Fu u e esea ch could explo e he e ec s o pa en al WFC
on child en’s emo ional well-being and he media ing oles o pa en ing
beha io s in e ms o how hey a y in di e en coun y con ex s. As we
ha e no ed, cul u al expec a ions o in ensi e mo he ing migh influence
indi iduals’capaci y o balance be ween wo k and amily and child en’s
expec a ions o pa en ing beha io s. Longi udinal s udies wi h ex ended
ollow-up pe iods assessing pa en al WFC, child- epo ed emo ional
p oblems, and child- epo ed pa en ing beha io s may p o ide u he
e idence on he long- e m impac o pe sis en WFC on pa en ing be-
ha io s and child emo ional p oblems. Addi ional esea ch in hese a eas
will allow o a mo e igo ous assessmen o he causal e ec s o WFC on
child en’s emo ional p oblems. O he po en ial mechanisms, o example,
pa en al men al heal h p oblems, pa en s’ ime spen wi h child en, ma i al
conflic , di o ce, and mis ea men o child en, should be in es iga ed.
Conclusion
In conclusion, his s udy con ibu es o ou unde s anding o he ela ionship
be ween pa en al WFC and child emo ional p oblems by examining he
media ing oles o pa en ing beha io s. Ou findings p o ide u he e idence
ha high le els o pa en al WFC a e associa ed wi h nega i e pa en ing
beha io s, which in u n po en ially con ibu e o child en’s emo ional
Lim e al. 19
p oblems. As wo kplaces e ol e o p io i ize wo ke s’well-being, ou
findings poin o he need o p oac i e policy measu es o educe wo ke s’
WFC and o suppo pa en s unde high s ess due o WFC, he eby mi iga ing
ad e se e ec s on child en’s emo ional well-being.
Acknowledgemen s
We hank he JFI edi o s and anonymous e iewe s o hei hough ul commen s and
sugges ions. Ea lie e sions o his a icle we e p esen ed in 2025 a he In e na ional
Sociological Associa ion Resea ch Commi ee 28 on Social S a ifica ion and Mobili y
(RC28) Sp ing Mee ing, he Hope and Resilience: A Mul idisciplina y Con e ence on
Social Sus ainabili y o Child en, and he Ko ea Inequali y Resea ch Ne wo k Annual
Con e ence.
ORCID iDs
Misun Lim h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7139-1980
Ma hias Pollmann-Schul h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0010-1667
E hical Conside a ions
The Ge man Family Panel (pai am) is de-iden ified. Responden s’names a e ne e
kep wi h hei su ey answe s, so i is impossible o esea che s o iden i y indi-
iduals. The e o e, no pe sonal da a was p ocessed.
Au ho con ibu ions
Misun Lim concep ualized he s udy, p epa ed he da a, conduc ed o mal analysis,
de eloped he me hodology, in e p e ed esul s, and played a leading ole in manusc ip
composi ion. Ma hias Pollmann-Schul con ibu ed o s udy concep ualiza ion, da a
p epa a ion, o mal analysis, me hodology de elopmen , esul s in e p e a ion, and
manusc ip w i ing. Jianghong Li con ibu ed o s udy concep ualiza ion, esul s in-
e p e a ion, and manusc ip w i ing. All au ho s pa icipa ed in d a ing and e ising
he manusc ip , ha e e iewed and app o ed his e sion o publica ion, and ag ee o
be accoun able o all aspec s o he wo k.
Funding
The au ho s disclosed eceip o he ollowing financial suppo o he esea ch,
au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle: This wo k was suppo ed by he Ge man
Resea ch Founda ion (DFG) [g an numbe PO 1569/8-1].
Decla a ion o conflic ing in e es s
The au ho s decla ed no po en ial conflic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch,
au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle.
20 Jou nal o Family Issues 0(0)
Da a A ailabili y S a emen
The da a unde lying his a icle a e a ailable in he Ge man Family Panel (pai am) a
h ps://doi.o g/10.4232/pai am.5678.11.0.0 (B üde l e al., 2024).
No e
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ho i a i e, (2) au ho i a ian, (3) pe missi e/indulgen , and (4) neglec ul.
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