On Poverty and Its Eradication

Jasso, Guille mina (Ed.); Klimczuk, And zej (Ed.); E ans, Ma iah D. R. (Ed.); Kelley,
Jona han (Ed.)
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On Po e y and I s E adica ion
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Jasso, Guille mina (Ed.); Klimczuk, And zej (Ed.); E ans, Ma iah D. R. (Ed.); Kelley,
Jona han (Ed.) (2024) : On Po e y and I s E adica ion, ISBN 978-2-8325-5597-2, F on ie s Media,
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Edi ed by
Guille mina Jasso, And zej Klimczuk, M. D. R. E ans
and Jona han Kelley
Published in
F on ie s in Psychology
F on ie s in Sociology
F on ie s in Public Heal h
On po e y and i s
e adica ion
Oc obe 2024
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ISSN 1664-8714
ISBN 978-2-8325-5597-2
DOI 10.3389/978-2-8325-5597-2
Oc obe 2024
F on ie s in Psychology 2 on ie sin.o g
On po e y and i s e adica ion
Topic edi o s
Guille mina Jasso — New Yo k Uni e si y, Uni ed S a es
And zej Klimczuk — Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
M. D. R. E ans — Uni e si y o Ne ada, Reno, Uni ed S a es
Jona han Kelley — Uni e si y o Ne ada, Reno, Uni ed S a es
Ci a ion
Jasso, G., Klimczuk, A., E ans, M. D. R., Kelley, J., eds. (2024). On po e y and i s
e adica ion. Lausanne: F on ie s Media SA. doi: 10.3389/978-2-8325-5597-2
Oc obe 2024
F on ie s in Psychology on ie sin.o g3
04 Edi o ial: On po e y and i s e adica ion
And zej Klimczuk, Guille mina Jasso, Ma iah D. R. E ans and
Jona han Kelley
07 Resea ch on Imp o ing Online Pu chase In en ion o
Po e y-Alle ia ion Ag icul u al P oduc s in China: F om he
Pe spec i e o Ins i u ion-Based T us
Guangming Li, Xianghua Wu and Chao Yuan
19 Consump ion eplaces cha i y: Al uis ic consump ion
beha io s and mo i a ions a ge ing ulne able
g oups—Resea ch based on po e y alle ia ion
consump ion in China
Huiyu Xin, Chenzhuoe Li, Wei Li, Hong Wang, Ping Liu and
Shouwei Li
37 Pa icipa ing in heal h insu ance and heal h imp o emen s
o he ela i ely poo popula ion: A p opensi y sco e analysis
Bin Hou, Yuxin Wu and Siyi Huang
48 When helping is isky: The in luence o e hical a ibu es on
consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online
Jingjing Wu, Chao Wang, Yingzheng Yan and Qiujin Zheng
66 Communi y ex ension MSME’s en ep eneu ial ac i i ies in
ela ion o po e y educ ion
Lislee Valle, Emily Cos an, Felix Cos an, Ed alin Gene al,
Ge ly Alcan a a, Ronnel Vic o Kila , I y Ba ican, Gladies Mae Oli a
and Denilin A ila
79 Mul idimensional po e y o pe sons wi h disabili ies in
China: An analysis o po e y educ ion e ec o employmen
se ices
Xiao eng Wang, Jiamin Guo and Hu Li
93 Po e y, edis ibu ion, and he middle class: edis ibu ion
ia p obabili y dis ibu ions s. edis ibu ion ia he linea
income ax sys em
Guille mina Jasso
Table o
con en s

TYPE Edi o ial
PUBLISHED 01 Oc obe 2024
DOI 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487220
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED AND REVIEWED BY
Hannah B adby,
Uppsala Uni e si y, Sweden
*CORRESPONDENCE
And zej Klimczuk
[email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 27 Augus 2024
ACCEPTED 03 Sep embe 2024
PUBLISHED 01 Oc obe 2024
CITATION
Klimczuk A, Jasso G, E ans MDR and Kelley J
(2024) Edi o ial: On po e y and i s
e adica ion. F on . Sociol. 9:1487220.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487220
COPYRIGHT
©2024 Klimczuk, Jasso, E ans and Kelley.
This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed
unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion License (CC BY). The use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion in o he o ums is
pe mi ed, p o ided he o iginal au ho (s) and
he copy igh owne (s) a e c edi ed and ha
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in acco dance wi h accep ed academic
p ac ice. No use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion
is pe mi ed which does no comply wi h
hese e ms.
Edi o ial: On po e y and i s
e adica ion
And zej Klimczuk1*, Guille mina Jasso2, Ma iah D. R. E ans3and
Jona han Kelley4
1Depa men o Social Policy, Collegium o Socio-Economics, SGH Wa saw School o Economics,
Wa saw, Poland, 2Depa men o Sociology, New Yo k Uni e si y, New Yo k, NY, Uni ed S a es,
3Depa men o Sociology and Applied S a is ics P og am, Ne ada Ag icul u al Expe imen S a ion,
Uni e si y o Ne ada, Reno, Reno, NV, Uni ed S a es, 4Depa men o Sociology, Uni e si y o Ne ada,
Reno, Reno, NV, Uni ed S a es
KEYWORDS
po e y, po e y elie , po e y and inequali ies, po e y and ai ness, po e y and public
policy
Edi o ial on he Resea ch Topic
On po e y and i s e adica ion
O e iew
The Resea ch Topic “On po e y and i s e adica ion” was inspi ed by he In e na ional
Day o he E adica ion o Po e y, i s commemo a ed in Pa is in 1987 and o mally
designa ed by he Uni ed Na ions. This day is dedica ed o enewing he commi men o
uni e sal human de elopmen , enabling all indi iduals o achie e hei highes po en ial,
and e lec ing on how po e y hinde s his p og ess. The u gency o add essing po e y
has inc eased a e he COVID-19 pandemic, which exace ba ed exis ing issues and
highligh ed he c i ical need o e ec i e po e y e adica ion s a egies. The s udies
included in his Resea ch Topic aim o expand knowledge abou po e y, i s causes,
consequences, and connec ions o c ises, inequali y, and ai ness, and o assess policy
measu es o po e y educ ion. The included con ibu ions use a ious heo e ical,
empi ical, quan i a i e, and quali a i e app oaches o d i e sociological and policy- ela ed
discussions and ini ia i es, p omo ing ai and inclusi e socie ies.
The p esen ed Resea ch Topic includes se en a icles w i en by 29 au ho s om he
ollowing coun ies: China, he Philippines, he Uni ed Kingdom, and he Uni ed S a es.
This Resea ch Topic was co-o ganized in collabo a ion wi h i e jou nals: “F on ie s in
Human Dynamics,” “F on ie s in Poli ical Science,” “F on ie s in Psychology,” “F on ie s in
Public Heal h,” and “F on ie s in Sociology.” The s udies comp ising his Resea ch Topic
a e di ided in o ou hemes.
Theme I: en ep eneu ship and consump ion in
po e y alle ia ion ac i i ies
In he con ex o his Resea ch Topic, Valle e al. ocused on s udying
he ac ions unde aken by highe educa ion ins i u ions o help educe
po e y by implemen ing communi y ex ension p og ams. Such schemes may
F on ie s in Sociology 01 on ie sin.o g
4
Klimczuk e al. 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487220
ocus on capaci y building and en ep eneu ship aining. The
analysis assessing hese p og ams ound ha en ep eneu ship
educa ion, budge ing, inancial li e acy, and access o
c edi acili ies con ibu ed o po e y educ ion. Howe e ,
en ep eneu ial pe o mance did no show a signi ican di ec
impac due o he COVID-19 pandemic c isis. Despi e hese
challenges, he indings highligh he impo ance o educa ional
and inancial suppo in p omo ing en ep eneu ial success and
alle ia ing po e y. Xin e al. p esen ed di e en app oaches o
comba ing po e y ocused on consump ion-suppo measu es.
The au ho s a gued ha cha i y, while e ec i e in helping
ulne able g oups, is o en sho - e m and c ea es dependency,
leading o ad e se e ec s. Thus, he au ho s analyzed China’s
po e y alle ia ion model h ough “al uis ic consump ion,”
which o e s a sus ainable al e na i e by le e aging p o-social
beha io o suppo g oups in need. The s udy ound ha al uis ic
consump ion is d i en by mo i a ions ela ed o g oup bene i ,
mo ali y, demande s, and supplie s, wi h bene i -demande
mo i a ion ha ing he mos signi ican in luence. These insigh s
can guide a ge ed ma ke ing s a egies o sus ain al uis ic
consump ion e o s.
Theme II: digi al g ow h in po e y
educ ion
Two s udies ocused on he use o e-comme ce pla o ms
o alle ia e po e y. Li e al. con inued he discussion on
consump ion-based po e y educ ion in China. The au ho s
showed ha his app oach has a c ucial ole in u al e i aliza ion,
bu i s sus ainabili y is challenged by low consume pa icipa ion
and eliance on go e nmen p ocu emen . T us is a signi ican
ac o a ec ing consume s’ willingness o buy “po e y-alle ia ion
ag icul u al p oduc s,” p ima ily due o pas ad e se e en s
ha ha e damaged us , such as slow sales. The s udy ound
ha enhancing us h ough, among o he s, use eedback
mechanisms, pla o m supe ision, p oduc aceabili y, and
ce i ica ion mechanisms can inc ease consume s’ pu chase
in en ions and p omo e sus ainable u al de elopmen . Wu e al.
wen in o u he de ail on he po en ial o e-comme ce sys ems.
Based on collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion heo ies, hei
analysis ound ha symbolic e hical a ibu es posi i ely in luence
consume s’ willingness o buy p oduc s online mo e han hei
unc ional a ibu es. The esea ch highligh ed he media ing
oles o collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion, o e ing p ac ical
sugges ions o e-comme ce en e p ises and ma ke e s o enhance
hei a me -assis ing ma ke ing s a egies.
Theme III: he ole o heal h and
employmen in po e y mi iga ion
Ano he impo an end obse ed in he pape s included
in his Resea ch Topic is he combina ion o po e y alle ia ion
measu es wi h public heal h policies. Hou e al. p esen ed a
s udy ha explo ed he impac o he New Ru al Coope a i e
Medical Scheme (NRCMS) on he heal h s a us o he ela i ely
poo popula ion in u al China, using da a om he China
Family Panel S udies. Employing p opensi y sco e ma ching
me hods, he analysis ound ha pa icipa ion in he NRCMS
signi ican ly imp o ed he heal h s a us o low-income indi iduals.
The posi i e heal h e ec s we e a ibu ed o inc eased physical
ac i i y, mo e equen medical ca e isi s, and educed heal hca e
expendi u es. Using a di e en pe spec i e, Wang e al. ocused
on disabili y as a signi ican con ibu o o global po e y. The
au ho s s udied how China’s wel a e e o ms and employmen
in e en ions ha e been implemen ed o add ess his issue. By
employing he Alki e-Fos e me hod, he esea che s measu ed
mul idimensional po e y among subjec s wi h disabili ies aged
16–59 in China, inding ha a high pe cen age we e dep i ed
in a leas one dimension, pa icula ly educa ion and social
pa icipa ion. Employmen se ices we e shown o signi ican ly
educe mul idimensional po e y ac oss a ious ields, p o iding
c ucial e idence o in o m public policies aimed a e adica ing
po e y among people wi h disabili ies.
Theme IV: po e y and he income ax
sys em
The inal sec ion includes a s udy by Jasso ha a gued ha
he linea income ax sys em, which aligns wi h p inciples o ax
equi y by inc easing pos - ax income, he amoun o ax, and
he a e o ax as p e- ax income inc eases, is an e ec i e ool
o po e y educ ion. The s udy highligh ed a po en ial issue
whe e policies ha help he poo es may ha m he middle class,
hus weakening his c ucial segmen o socie y. Mo eo e , he
a icle con as ed di e en income dis ibu ions and demons a ed
how o main ain ax ai ness, e en wi h addi ional esou ce
injec ions, and how o es ima e ai pa ame e s o he linea
income sys em.
Conclusion
The esul s p esen ed in he a icles in his Resea ch Topic allow
he a icula ion o six di ec ions o u he esea ch. These a e:
(1) new unde s andings o po e y, absolu e and ela i e po e y
(see B ady and Bu on, 2016;G e e, 2020); (2) new app oaches
o he measu emen o po e y (see Beck e al., 2020;UNECE,
2017;Mysíko á, 2021); (3) causes, e ec s, and o ms o po e y, in
he con empo a y wo ld and his o ically (see Cu is and Cosg o e,
2021); (4) in e ac ions be ween po e y and si ua ions o c isis and
disas e s such as pandemics and con lic s (see Fi zpa ick, 2019;
G e e, 2021); (5) new links be ween po e y and inequali y (see
Edwa d and Sumne , 2019;UNRISD, 2022); and (6) na ional and
in e na ional policies and p og ams o e adica e po e y (see Wang
e al., 2020;Obe holze , 2022).
Au ho con ibu ions
AK: Concep ualiza ion, In es iga ion, Me hodology, P ojec
adminis a ion, Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing – o iginal d a ,
W i ing – e iew & edi ing. GJ: Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing –
e iew & edi ing. ME: Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing –
F on ie s in Sociology 02 on ie sin.o g
5
Klimczuk e al. 10.3389/ soc.2024.1487220
e iew & edi ing. JK: Supe ision, Valida ion, W i ing – e iew
& edi ing.
Funding
The au ho (s) decla e ha no inancial suppo was ecei ed o
he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica ion o his a icle.
Acknowledgmen s
We would like o hank all he au ho s and e iewe s who
con ibu ed o his Resea ch Topic o a icles o hei dedica ion
o ou Resea ch Topics and o hei eadiness o sha e hei
knowledge and ime. We also gi e hanks o he e e -help ul eam
a F on ie s, whose o ganiza ional skills and unde s anding made
his Resea ch Topic possible.
Conflic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could be
cons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
The au ho (s) decla ed ha hey we e an edi o ial boa d
membe o F on ie s, a he ime o submission. This had no impac
on he pee e iew p ocess and he inal decision.
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he
au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
Re e ences
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Edwa d, P., and Sumne , A. (2019). The End o Po e y: Inequali y and G ow h in
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UNECE (2017). Guide on Po e y Measu emen Guide. New Yo k, NY,
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F on ie s in Sociology 03 on ie sin.o g
6
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 12 May 2022
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.900328
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 1May 2022 | Volume 13 | A icle 900328
Edi ed by:
And zej Klimczuk,
Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
Re iewed by:
Syed Hasnain Alam Kazmi,
Shaheed Zul iqa Ali Bhu o Ins i u e o
Science and Technology, Pakis an
Sebgha ullah Rashid Rasoli,
Kunduz Uni e si y, A ghanis an
Adis Puška,
Uni e si y o Bijeljina, Bosnia
and He zego ina
Se enp i Cand a,
Binus Uni e si y, Indonesia
*Co espondence:
Xianghua Wu
[email p o ec ed]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Pe sonali y and Social Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 20 Ma ch 2022
Accep ed: 13 Ap il 2022
Published: 12 May 2022
Ci a ion:
Li GM, Wu XH and Yuan C (2022)
Resea ch on Imp o ing Online
Pu chase In en ion o
Po e y-Alle ia ion Ag icul u al
P oduc s in China: F om he
Pe spec i e o Ins i u ion-Based T us .
F on . Psychol. 13:900328.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.900328
Resea ch on Imp o ing Online
Pu chase In en ion o
Po e y-Alle ia ion Ag icul u al
P oduc s in China: F om he
Pe spec i e o Ins i u ion-Based
T us
Guangming Li1, Xianghua Wu1*and Chao Yuan2
1Business School, Hohai Uni e si y, Nanjing, China, 2The School o In o ma ion and Lib a y Science, The Uni e si y o No h
Ca olina a Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, Uni ed S a es
Po e y alle ia ion by consump ion is a powe ul way o help he poo people ge id
o po e y, which plays a signi ican ole in China’s u al e i aliza ion. Howe e , he
achie emen o po e y alle ia ion by consump ion mos ly depends on go e nmen
p ocu emen , and he en husiasm o cus ome s o pa icipa e is low, acing he se e e
challenge o poo sus ainabili y. Helping he poo is he mos common mo i a ion o
cus ome s o buy po e y-alle ia ion ag icul u al p oduc s (PAAP). Howe e , as he
nega i e e en s o po e y alle ia ion such as “ agic ma ke ing” cons an ly appea in
news epo s, cus ome s’ us in selle s has been se iously damaged. The psychological
p o ec ion sys em o ea o being chea ed hinde s cus ome s’ pu chase in en ion.
The e o e, we belie ed ha us is an impo an ac o in enhancing cus ome s’ pu chase
in en ion o PAAP. Cus ome s buy PAAP mainly h ough online channels, and ins i u ion-
based us is he mos impo an way o gene a e us in online channels. Thus, his
s udy in es iga ed he ins i u ional mechanisms ha a ec cus ome s’ us in he selle s
o PAAP and discussed he in luence o us on he online pu chase in en ion o PAAP.
Da a we e ob ained h ough a ques ionnai e su ey and es ed empi ically. The esul s
showed ha he e ec i eness o he use eedback mechanism, pla o m supe ision
mechanism, p oduc aceabili y mechanism, and p oduc ce i ica ion mechanism
can enhance cus ome s’ pu chase in en ion by enhancing hei us . Indi idual us
endency posi i ely egula ed he ela ionship be ween he e ec i eness o ins i u ional
mechanisms and consume us . The conclusion can no only p o ide new heo e ical
7
Li e al. Online Pu chase In en ion o PAAP
TABLE 4 | Analysis o he alidi y o disc iminan .
a iable UF PS PT PC CT ITT OPI
UF (0.856)
PS 0.246*** (0.851)
PT 0.203*** 0.813*** (0.834)
PC 0.256*** 0.841*** 0.767*** (0.861)
CT 0.262*** 0.781*** 0.708*** 0.757*** (0.827)
ITT 0.153*** 0.416*** 0.333*** 0.422*** 0.452*** (0.815)
OPI 0.270*** 0.686*** 0.633*** 0.676*** 0.736*** 0.471*** (0.873)
***Means P <0.010. Diagonal b acke da a a e he squa e oo o la en a iable AVE alue. UF indica es he e ec i eness o use eedback mechanism; PS ep esen s he e ec i eness
o pla o m supe ision mechanism; PT ep esen s he e ec i eness o p oduc aceabili y mechanism; PC ep esen s he e ec i eness o p oduc ce i ica ion mechanism; CT s ands
o cus ome s’ us ; ITT ep esen s indi idual us endency; OPI ep esen s online pu chase in en ion.
Hypo hesis Tes
In his s udy, SPSS20.0 was used o mul iple eg ession and
hie a chical eg ession o es he hypo hesis. To ensu e igo ,
demog aphic ac o s such as gende , age, and mon hly income o
he esponden s we e aken as con ol a iables. Be o e eg ession
analysis, mul iple collinea i y es s we e conduc ed on each
a iable. The esul s showed ha he a iance in la ion ac o
(VIF) alues o each model we e <10, and he ole ance was >0.1,
which indica ed ha he e was no mul iple collinea i y p oblem
and eg ession analysis could be conduc ed.
(1) The main e ec es
Model 2 was cons uc ed using he e ec i eness o he use
eedback mechanism, pla o m supe ision mechanism, p oduc
aceabili y mechanism, and p oduc ce i ica ion mechanism
as independen a iables and cus ome s’ us as dependen
a iables. Wi h cus ome s’ us as he independen a iable and
online pu chase in en ion as he dependen a iable, Model 4 was
cons uc ed. Model 1 and Model 3 co esponded o he in luence
o con ol a iables on cus ome s’ us and online pu chase
in en ion, espec i ely ( e e o Table 5).
The esul s in Table 5 showed ha a e he e ec i eness o
he wo ypes o ins i u ional mechanisms was added o he
model, he explana o y powe o Model 2 was signi ican ly highe
han ha o Model 1, and he del a R2 eached 0.588, which
indica ed ha he e ec i eness o he wo ypes o ins i u ional
mechanisms had a signi ican impac on cus ome s’ us . Besides,
a e cus ome s’ us was added o he model, he explana o y
powe o Model 4 was signi ican ly s onge han ha o Model 3,
and he del a R2 eached 0.474, which indica ed ha cus ome s’
us had a signi ican impac on he online pu chase willingness
o PAAP. The esul s o Model 1 and Model 3 showed ha he
con ol a iables ha e di e en e ec s on cus ome s’ us and
online pu chase in en ion o PAAP.
Fi s , he e ec i eness o in o mal ins i u ional mechanisms
posi i ely a ec ed cus ome s’ us (Model 2). Speci ically, he
e ec i eness o he use eedback mechanism and pla o m
supe ision mechanism had a signi ican posi i e impac on
cus ome s’ us . Cus ome s pe cei ed ha he mo e e ec i e he
use eedback mechanism was, he mo e hey can us he selle s
o PAAP, assuming H1 was p o ed (β=0.057, P<0.100). A
s udy o Didi Taxi cus ome s by Shao and Yin (2019) also showed
ha eedback mechanisms had a signi ican posi i e in luence on
cus ome s’ us in d i e s who p o ided se ices on he Didi
TABLE 5 | The main e ec es esul s.
Va iable Cus ome s’ us Online pu chase in en ion
o PAAP
Model Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Gende 0.102* 0.047 0.077 0.004
Age 0.077 −0.043 0.108 0.054
Educa ion le el 0.183*** 0.021 0.184*** 0.052
Ma i al s a us 0.136** −0.070* 0.169*** 0.072
Mon hly income −0.019 0.045 −0.080 −0.067
UF 0.057*
PS 0.395***
PT 0.166***
PC 0.294***
CT 0.715***
R20.073 0.661 0.090 0.564
1R20.073 0.588 0.090 0.474
1F 5.068*** 137.924*** 6.361*** 349.415***
*Means P <0.100; **Means P <0.050; and ***Means P <0.010.
UF indica es he e ec i eness o he use eedback mechanism; PS ep esen s he
e ec i eness o he pla o m supe ision mechanism; PT ep esen s he e ec i eness
o he p oduc aceabili y mechanism; PC ep esen s he e ec i eness o he p oduc
ce i ica ion mechanism; CT s ands o cus ome s’ us .
Taxi pla o m. When cus ome s pe cei ed ha he supe ision
mechanism o he pla o m played a g ea e ole in helping he
poo people, hey we e mo e inclined o us he selle s o PAAP
on he pla o m, assuming H2 was p o ed (β=0.395, P<0.010).
Xiao e al. (2019) also p o ed ha when cus ome s belie e ha an
in e media y pla o m is eliable, hey a e mo e likely o belie e
ha he pla o m has implemen ed s ic ules o manage selle s
wi h whom hey coope a e, which helps cus ome s o a oid he
oppo unis ic beha io o selle s and he eby ha e us in selle s.
Second, he e ec i eness o o mal ins i u ional mechanisms
posi i ely a ec ed cus ome s’ us (Model 2). In pa icula , he
e ec i eness o he p oduc aceabili y mechanism and p oduc
ce i ica ion mechanism signi ican ly enhanced cus ome s’ us .
The mo e e ec i e he p oduc aceabili y mechanism was
pe cei ed by cus ome s, he mo e inclined hey we e o us he
selle o PAAP, assuming H3 was p o ed (β=0.166, P<0.010).
A s udy by Yu e al. (2021) on esh ag icul u al p oduc s also
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Li e al. Online Pu chase In en ion o PAAP
p o ed ha p oduc aceabili y in o ma ion had a signi ican
posi i e e ec on cus ome s’ us . The mo e e ec i e cus ome s
pe cei ed p oduc ce i ica ion mechanisms o be in iden i ying
and helping poo people, he mo e us hey would ha e in
he selle s o PAAP, assuming H4 was p o ed (β=0.294, P<
0.010). In sus ainable consump ion, B ach e al. (2017) ound
ha he pe cei ed c edibili y o he hi d-pa y ce i ica ion
mechanism could e ec i ely educe cus ome s’ isk pe cep ion
and enhance us .
Thi d, he esul o Model 4 showed ha cus ome s’ us
would signi ican ly enhance hei online pu chase in en ion o
PAAP (β=0.715, P<0.010), assuming H5 was p o ed, which
was consis en wi h he esea ch esul s o mos schola s. Fo
example, Yang e al. (2021) conduc ed a s udy on cus ome s in
Sichuan P o ince, China, and ound ha in he con ex o a li e
b oadcas , cus ome s’ us had a signi ican posi i e impac on
hei online pu chase in en ion o esh ag icul u al p oduc s.
Agag and El-Mas y (2017) esea ch on Egyp ian consume s also
indica ed ha us could ma kedly imp o e cus ome s’ in en ion
o pu chase a el online.
Finally, he esul s o Model 1 and Model 3 showed ha he
con ol a iables ha e di e en e ec s on cus ome s’ us and
online pu chase in en ion o PAAP. Gende signi ican ly a ec ed
cus ome s’ us (β=0.102, P<0.100), indica ing ha emale
cus ome s we e mo e likely o us selle s o PAAP. Gende had
a posi i e e ec on he online pu chase in en ion o PAAP, bu
i was no s a is ically signi ican (β=0.077, P>0.100). Age
had a posi i e in luence on cus ome s’ us (β=0.077, P>
0.100) and online pu chase in en ion (β=0.108, P>0.100)
o PAAP, bu i was no s a is ically signi ican . Educa ion le el
had a signi ican posi i e impac on cus ome s’ us and online
pu chase willingness o PAAP. I showed ha he highe he
educa ion le el, he easie i was o cus ome s o us he selle s
o PAAP (β=0.183, P<0.010) and mo e willing o buy PAAP
(β=0.184, P<0.010). Ma i al s a us also signi ican ly posi i ely
a ec ed cus ome s’ us and online pu chase willingness o
PAAP, indica ing ha ma ied people we e mo e likely o us
he selle s o PAAP (β=0.136, P<0.050) and we e mo e willing
o buy PAAP online (β=0.169, P<0.010). Mon hly income
had a nega i e bu insigni ican e ec on cus ome s’ us (β=
−0.019, P>0.100) and online pu chase in en ion (β= −0.080,
P>0.100).
(2) The mode a ing e ec es
We used he hie a chical eg ession me hod o es he
mode a ing e ec o indi idual us endency. The speci ic
me hod was as ollows: The a iables we e i s cen alized, and
hen he in e ac ion e ms we e ob ained by mul iplying he
independen a iables and mode a ing a iables, espec i ely.
Then hie a chical eg ession analysis was conduc ed. Fi s ,
gende , age, educa ion le el, ma i al s a us, mon hly income,
e ec i eness o use eedback mechanism, e ec i eness o
pla o m supe ision mechanism, e ec i eness o p oduc
aceabili y mechanism, e ec i eness o p oduc ce i ica ion
mechanism, and indi idual us endency we e conside ed
independen a iables, and cus ome s’ us was conside ed
dependen a iable in Model 5. Second, based on Model 5, he
in e ac i e i ems o he espec i e a iables and he mode a ing
TABLE 6 | The mode a ing e ec es esul s.
Va iable Cus ome s’ us
Model Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8 Model 9
Gende 0.048 0.048 0.050 0.048 0.051
Age −0.050 −0.060 −0.047 −0.045 −0.041
Educa ion le el 0.012 0.010 0.014 0.018 0.018
Ma i al s a us −0.070* −0.074* −0.068* −0.068* −0.065
Mon hly income 0.048 0.051 0.048 0.045 0.049
UF 0.051 0.060* 0.056 0.054 0.058*
PS 0.362*** 0.365*** 0.358*** 0.366*** 0.365***
PT 0.262*** 0.262*** 0.266*** 0.270*** 0.253***
PC 0.178*** 0.178*** 0.178*** 0.163*** 0.184***
ITT 0.130*** 0.137*** 0.144*** 0.141*** 0.151***
UF * ITT 0.055*
PS * ITT 0.055*
PT* ITT 0.048**
PC * ITT 0.078
R20.675 0.677 0.677 0.677 0.680
1R20.602 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.005
1F 117.199*** 2.722* 2.689* 1.937** 5.301**
*Means P <0.100; **Means P <0.050; and ***Means P <0.010.
UF indica es he e ec i eness o he use eedback mechanism; PS ep esen s he
e ec i eness o he pla o m supe ision mechanism; PT ep esen s he e ec i eness
o he p oduc aceabili y mechanism; PC ep esen s he e ec i eness o he p oduc
ce i ica ion mechanism; CT s ands o cus ome s’ us ; ITT s ands o indi idual
us endency.
a iables we e, espec i ely, included o cons uc Models 6,
7, 8, and 9. The esul s a e shown in Table 6. The esul s
o Models 6, 7, and 8 showed ha indi idual us endency
posi i ely mode a ed he ela ionship be ween he e ec i eness
o he use eedback mechanism (β=0.055, P<0.100),
pla o m supe ision mechanism (β=0.055, P<0.100), p oduc
aceabili y mechanism (β=0.048, P<0.050), and cus ome s’
us , assuming ha H6a, H6b, and H6c we e e i ied. The esul s
o Model 9 indica ed ha he mode a ing e ec o indi idual us
endency be ween he e ec i eness o he p oduc ce i ica ion
mechanism and cus ome s’ us was posi i e bu no s a is ically
signi ican (β=0.078, P>0.100), assuming ha H6d was
no p o ed.
DISCUSSION ON HYPOTHESIS TEST
RESULTS
Th ough mul iple eg ession analysis and hie a chical eg ession
analysis, his s udy e i ied he ela ionship be ween he
e ec i eness o he use eedback mechanism, pla o m
supe ision mechanism, p oduc aceabili y mechanism,
p oduc ce i ica ion mechanism, and cus ome s’ us and
online pu chase in en ion o PAAP, and he mode a ing e ec
o indi idual us endency be ween ins i u ional mechanism
e ec i eness and consume us . The o e all esul s o
hypo hesis es ing in his s udy a e shown in Table 7.
Acco ding o he hypo hesis es esul s, mos o he
hypo heses in his s udy ha e passed he es . In o he wo ds,
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Li e al. Online Pu chase In en ion o PAAP
TABLE 7 | Summa y o hypo hesis es esul s.
Numbe Hypo hesis Resul s
H1 The e ec i eness o use eedback mechanism
posi i ely a ec s cus ome s’ us
P o ed
H2 The e ec i eness o pla o m supe ision
mechanism posi i ely a ec s cus ome s’ us
P o ed
H3 The e ec i eness o p oduc aceabili y mechanism
posi i ely a ec s cus ome s’ us
P o ed
H4 The e ec i eness o p oduc ce i ica ion
mechanism posi i ely a ec s cus ome s’ us
P o ed
H5 Cus ome s’ us posi i ely in luences hei
willingness o pu chase PAAP online
P o ed
H6a Indi idual us endency posi i ely mode a es he
in luence o he e ec i eness o use eedback
mechanism on cus ome s’ us
P o ed
H6b Indi idual us endency posi i ely mode a es he
in luence o he e ec i eness o pla o m supe ision
mechanism on cus ome s’ us
P o ed
H6c Indi idual us endency posi i ely mode a es he
in luence o he e ec i eness o p oduc aceabili y
mechanism on cus ome s’ us
P o ed
H6d Indi idual us endency posi i ely mode a es he
in luence o he e ec i eness o p oduc ce i ica ion
mechanism on cus ome s’ us
No p o ed
he e ec i eness o he use eedback mechanism, pla o m
supe ision mechanism, p oduc aceabili y mechanism, and
p oduc ce i ica ion could e ec i ely enhance cus ome s’ us in
he selle o PAAP, hus inc easing hei willingness o pu chase
PAAP online. Hypo heses H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 we e all
p o en, which is consis en wi h B ach e al. (2017),Shao and
Yin (2019),Xiao e al. (2019),Yang e al. (2021), and Yu e al.
(2021). The esul s o he compa a i e analysis e i y ha he
ac o s ha gene a e us in o he con ex s can also ha e an
impac on us in PAAP ansac ions and, h ough us , on
online pu chase in en ions. In his p ocess, he indi idual us
endency played a posi i e mode a ing ole in he e ec i eness o
he use eedback mechanism, pla o m supe ision mechanism,
p oduc aceabili y mechanism, and cus ome s’ us . Thus,
H6a, H6b, and H6c we e e i ied. Howe e , H6d ailed as
he indi idual us endency did no play a mode a ing ole
be ween he e ec i eness o he p oduc ce i ica ion mechanism
and cus ome s’ us . In his ega d, a e consul ing ele an
li e a u e and ma e ials, his s udy holds ha he possible eason
is he main body o PAAP ce i ica ion in China is go e nmen
depa men s a he han p i a e ins i u ions. S udies ha e shown
ha Chinese u ban cus ome s gene ally ha e a high deg ee o
us in he go e nmen , which is less a ec ed by he indi idual
us endency (Qiu e al., 2007). In Feb ua y 2022, he wo ld’s
la ges public ela ions consul ing i m Edelman’s la es global
us epo “Edelman T us Ba ome e 2022” also showed ha
Chinese esponden s’ us in hei own go e nmen eached
91%, anking i s among 28 coun ies o ou consecu i e yea s.
The e o e, e en hough cus ome s hemsel es had a low us
endency, when hey belie ed ha he go e nmen ’s po e y-
alle ia ion ce i ica ion mechanism o ag icul u al p oduc s
could accu a ely iden i y and help poo people, hey we e willing
o belie e he go e nmen ’s ce i ica ion esul s and hen belie e
he selle s o PAAP.
CONCLUSION AND POLICY
IMPLICATIONS
Conclusion
Fi s , e ec i e in o mal ins i u ional mechanisms can enhance
cus ome s’ us . Unde he ne wo k en i onmen , selle s
can only display he in o ma ion abou PAAP h ough
wo ds, pic u es, and ideos. Cus ome s canno know he
eal in o ma ion abou ag icul u al p oduc s be o e ecei ing
hem, so he expe ience o o he s becomes an impo an basis o
cus ome s o judge whe he he selle s and he PAAP hey sell
a e c edible. The mo e e ec i e he use eedback mechanism,
he mo e cus ome s can us he selle s o PAAP. Al hough he
e-comme ce pla o m does no di ec ly pa icipa e in he ade
o PAAP, i can iden i y and sc een he selle s by o mula ing
ules and p ocedu es and supe ise he ading beha io
o enhance cus ome s’ us in he selle s o PAAP on he
pla o m. The e o e, he e ec i eness o he pla o m supe ision
mechanism is conduci e o imp o ing cus ome s’ us . Second,
e ec i e o mal ins i u ional mechanisms a e conduci e o
inc easing cus ome s’ us . The p oduc aceabili y mechanism
endows each PAAP wi h a unique p oduc iden i ica ion,
which can ealize he s anda diza ion and anspa ency o
he in o ma ion o PAAP om p oduc ion, p ocessing, and
ci cula ion o consump ion and make i easy o cus ome s
o g asp he quali y and sa e y o PAAP and he in o ma ion
o po e y-s icken a ibu es. The dec ease in in o ma ion
asymme y can e ec i ely inc ease he cus ome s’ us in
selle s. The go e nmen ’s po e y-alle ia ion ce i ica ion o
ag icul u al p oduc s is a kind o commi men and gua an ee o
cus ome s, which indica es ha ce i ied ag icul u al p oduc s
can accu a ely d i e poo households o inc ease income
and ge id o po e y. When cus ome s belie e ha he
go e nmen ’s ce i ica ion mechanism is e ec i e, hey can
us he ce i ica ion esul s and hen us he selle s o PAAP.
Thi d, us can signi ican ly enhance cus ome s’ willingness
o pu chase PAAP online. Fou h, indi idual us endency
posi i ely mode a es he ela ionship be ween he e ec i eness o
he use eedback mechanism, pla o m supe ision mechanism,
p oduc aceabili y mechanism, and cus ome s’ us .
Policy Implica ions
Fi s , he selle s o PAAP should pay a en ion o he
es ablishmen and main enance o hei own epu a ion. They
should no only p o ide eal and good quali y PAAP o mee
he needs o cus ome s, bu also pay a en ion o in e ac ion
and communica ion wi h cus ome s, and encou age cus ome s
who ha e bough PAAP o exp ess hei eal expe iences and
eelings, such as he ime e iciency o logis ics and he eshness
o ag icul u al p oduc s. A he same ime, hey should ac i ely do
a good a e -sales se ice. In iew o he p oblems encoun e ed
by cus ome s in he p ocess o pu chasing PAAP, i is necessa y
o emedy hem in ime.
Second, online shopping pla o ms should s eng hen
supe ision and do publici y wo k. On he one hand, i is
F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 10 May 2022 | Volume 13 | A icle 900328
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Li e al. Online Pu chase In en ion o PAAP
necessa y o shoulde he social esponsibili y o helping
he poo , doing a good job in sc eening he selle s o PAAP,
iden i ying he selle s’ iden i ies, and p o iding supe ision
se ices o he ade o PAAP. A he same ime, hey should
imp o e he p oduc quali y s anda ds on he pla o ms and
s ic ly con ol he quali y o PAAP. On he o he hand, i is
essen ial o inc ease publici y e o s o enhance cus ome s’
pe cep ion o he po e y-alle ia ion image o he pla o m
h ough ad e ising and li e p omo ion.
Thi d, he ag icul u al p oduc egula o should imp o e
he aceabili y mechanism o PAAP. They should ully use
mode n in o ma ion echnology, apply QR code, ba code,
and RFID echnology o he ci cula ion o PAAP, and imely
eco d he in o ma ion o he whole p ocess o PAAP om
p oduc ion, p ocessing o anspo a ion and consump ion,
o ealize in o ma ion sha ing and educe he in o ma ion
asymme y o cus ome s.
Fou h, he go e nmen should enhance he anspa ency
o he ce i ica ion o PAAP. In he p ocess o iden i ying
PAAP, he go e nmen should s eng hen he s anda diza ion
o cons uc ion o he ce i ica ion mechanism o PAAP,
imp o e he anspa ency o he ce i ica ion p ocess as well
as he ce i ica ion esul s, and egula ly publish he lis o
PAAP on he “Social Assis ance o China” websi e. Besides,
he go e nmen can also encou age cus ome s o ac i ely
pa icipa e in he supe ision p ocess o PAAP and o epo
alse in o ma ion abou PAAP h ough 12,317 po e y alle ia ion
supe ision elephone.
Fi h, he go e nmen should inc ease i s e o s o educa e
he public on he concep o in eg i y. China’s go e nmen has
a high le el o c edibili y in he public; go e nmen -led o icial
media such as “People’s Daily,” “CCTV news,” and “Xinhua News
Agency” a e lo ed and suppo ed by he gene al public. Thus, he
go e nmen should make ull use o he in luence o hese mass
media o s eng hen he educa ion o public hones y and c ea e
a good a mosphe e o hones ading h ough Weibo, WeCha ,
and o he In e ne in o ma ion channels, o enhance he us
endency o indi iduals.
Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
This s udy ocused on he ole o he po e y-alle ia ion
unc ional a ibu es o PAAP in enhancing cus ome s’
willingness o pu chase PAAP online. A heo e ical model
be ween he e ec i eness o ins i u ional mechanisms, cus ome s’
us , and willingness o pu chase PAAP online is cons uc ed,
and he esea ch hypo heses a e es ed h ough empi ical
analysis. The indings o he s udy a e conduci e o enhancing
cus ome s’ willingness o pu chase PAAP online and p omo ing
sus ainable de elopmen o po e y alle ia ion by consump ion.
A he same ime, he e a e limi a ions o his s udy. Th ough
li e a u e e iew, his s udy iden i ied ou dimensions o
ins i u ional ac o s ha a ec consume us , bu he e may
be o he ac o s ha a ec consume s’ us in online ading o
PAAP, and ollow-up esea ch can be u he ca ied ou he e.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The o iginal con ibu ions p esen ed in he s udy a e included
in he a icle/Supplemen a y Ma e ial, u he inqui ies can be
di ec ed o he co esponding au ho s.
ETHICS STATEMENT
E hical e iew and app o al was no equi ed o he s udy on
human pa icipan s in acco dance wi h he local legisla ion
and ins i u ional equi emen s. W i en in o med consen o
pa icipa ion was no equi ed o his s udy in acco dance wi h
he na ional legisla ion and he ins i u ional equi emen s.
W i en in o med consen was no ob ained om he
indi idual(s) o he publica ion o any po en ially iden i iable
images o da a included in his a icle.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
GL: guidance on opic selec ion, a icle amewo k o mula ion,
a icle w i ing guidance, and a icle e ision. XW: concep
p oposal and o iginal pape w i ing. CY: analyzed and in e p e ed
he da a and modi ied pape . All au ho s con ibu ed o he a icle
and app o ed he submi ed e sion.
FUNDING
This wo k was unded by Guangming Li ( unde ), You h P ojec
o Na ional Social Science Founda ion o China-Resea ch on
New Ci izens’ Cul u al Consump ion Beha io , Cons ain s and
Guidance Measu es (No. 14CGL015 ) and Lin Liu ( unde ),
Gene al P ojec o Na ional Social Science Founda ion o China-
Resea ch on T ansi ion economy, En ep eneu Social Capi al
and En e p ise C isis Managemen (No. 17BGL021).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like o hank eache s Guangming Li and Lin Liu o
hei guidance and suppo . We also wan o ex end ou since es
hanks o he edi o s and pee e iewe s a F on ie in Sociology
and F on ie in Psychology o hei aluable opinions as well as
pa ien eply o ou manusc ip .
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
The Supplemen a y Ma e ial o his a icle can be ound
online a : h ps://www. on ie sin.o g/a icles/10.3389/ psyg.
2022.900328/ ull#supplemen a y-ma e ial
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Copy igh © 2022 Li, Wu and Yuan. This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed
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F on ie s in Psychology | www. on ie sin.o g 12 May 2022 | Volume 13 | A icle 900328
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TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 16 Augus 2022
DOI 10.3389/ psyg.2022.933701
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
And zej Klimczuk,
Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
REVIEWED BY
Sonia B i o-Cos a,
Ins i u o Poli écnico de
Coimb a, Po ugal
Hai ao Wu,
Beijing Ins i u e o Technology, China
*CORRESPONDENCE
Chenzhuoe Li
[email p o ec ed]
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Pe sonali y and Social Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
RECEIVED 01 May 2022
ACCEPTED 25 July 2022
PUBLISHED 16 Augus 2022
CITATION
Xin H, Li C, Li W, Wang H, Liu P and Li S
(2022) Consump ion eplaces cha i y:
Al uis ic consump ion beha io s and
mo i a ions a ge ing ulne able
g oups—Resea ch based on po e y
alle ia ion consump ion in China.
F on . Psychol. 13:933701.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.933701
COPYRIGHT
©2022 Xin, Li, Li, Wang, Liu and Li. This
is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed
unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion License (CC BY).
The use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion
in o he o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided
he o iginal au ho (s) and he copy igh
owne (s) a e c edi ed and ha he
o iginal publica ion in his jou nal is
ci ed, in acco dance wi h accep ed
academic p ac ice. No use, dis ibu ion
o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which
does no comply wi h hese e ms.
Consump ion eplaces cha i y:
Al uis ic consump ion
beha io s and mo i a ions
a ge ing ulne able
g oups—Resea ch based on
po e y alle ia ion consump ion
in China
Huiyu Xin1,Chenzhuoe Li2*, Wei Li3, Hong Wang4, Ping Liu3
and Shouwei Li3
1College o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Glasgow, Glasgow, Uni ed Kingdom, 2School o
In o ma ics, The Uni e si y o Edinbu gh, Edinbu gh, Uni ed Kingdom, 3Business School, Sichuan
Uni e si y, Chengdu, China, 4Business School, Chengdu Uni e si y o Technology, Chengdu, China
Po e y alle ia ion consump ion, which we call al uis ic consump ion, has
become a new e ec i e way o help ulne able g oups, bu he e a e a ew
empi ical esea ches on po e y alle ia ion h ough consump ion. This a icle
akes China’s po e y alle ia ion ac ions as he esea ch objec , in es iga es
and s udies he ela ionship be ween al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions
and al uis ic consump ion beha io s ha aim o ulne able g oups. I is
ound ha al uis ic consump ion beha io is mainly a ec ed by benefi
g oup mo i a ion, benefi mo ali y mo i a ion, benefi demande mo i a ion,
and benefi supplie mo i a ion. The e is a co espondence be ween he
ou al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions and he ou al uis ic consump ion
beha io s. The s eng h o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions changes wi h
changes in al uis ic buying beha io . The s eng h o benefi g oup mo i a ion
dec eases wi h he inc ease in he imes o al uis ic pu chases, while he
s eng h o benefi mo ali y mo i a ion, benefi demande mo i a ion, and
benefi supplie mo i a ion inc ease wi h he inc ease in he imes o al uis ic
pu chases. Among he ou kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions ha
a ec he imes o al uis ic pu chases, he benefi demande mo i a ion has
a ela i ely g ea e influence. The esul s o his s udy ha e impo an guiding
significance o ulne able g oups o o mula ing a ge ed p oac i e ma ke ing
s a egies, p e en ing he al uis ic consump ion ela ionship dissolu ion, and
ealizing sus ainable al uis ic consump ion.
KEYWORDS
cha i y, ulne able g oup, al uis ic consump ion, al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion,
al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy, benefi mo ali y mo i a ion
F on ie s in Psychology 01 on ie sin.o g
19

Xin e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.933701
In oduc ion
The po e y p oblem o ulne able g oups is a social issue
ha is gene ally conce ned by he in e na ional communi y
oday. The in e na ional communi y is ying o help ulne able
g oups ge id o po e y h ough a ious channels and me hods.
Since 2018, a la ge numbe o e-comme ce pla o ms such as
JD.com, Taobao, and Pinduoduo in China, clien apps o a la ge
numbe o communica ion, a ia ion, banking, and insu ance
en e p ises such as China Mobile, Ai China, and Bank o
China, as well as “We Media” pla o ms such as Tik ok and
Kwai and social pla o ms such as WeCha and mic oblog,
ha e successi ely launched windows o display p oduc s om
po e y-s icken a eas. By encou aging consume s o buy
p oduc s om such egions, we can help ulne able g oups
o e come po e y. In 2020 alone, po e y alle ia ion p oduc s
sold h ough a ious pla o ms eached 306.94 billion yuan
(abou US$46.8 billion), success ully helping a la ge numbe o
ulne able g oups.
China’s model o se ing up special sales channels o
po e y alle ia ion p oduc s h ough In e ne pla o ms and
encou aging consume s o buy p oduc s om po e y-s icken
a eas, so as o help ulne able g oups o e come po e y,
has p o ided a new way o he in e na ional communi y o
elimina e po e y. I is a wo-way ansac ion based on al uism
and a ma ke -o ien ed way o helping o he s. Acco ding o
P osocial Beha io Theo y (Ba son and Powell, 2003), he
beha io o helping o he s h ough consump ion should be
ca ego ized as al uis ic beha io ; i is a mu ually bene icial
al uis ic beha io ha can esul in a win–win si ua ion (Sloan,
2015). We call his ype o consump ion, which akes al uism
as i s pu pose and helps ulne able g oups escape po e y by
pu chasing he p oduc s p o ided by he ulne able g oups, as
al uis ic consump ion. The co e idea o al uis ic consump ion
is o in oduce ulne able g oups in o he social ep oduc ion
sys em and elimina e po e y h ough he social-economic
cycle o p oduc ion, dis ibu ion, ci cula ion, and consump ion
and by selling hei p oduc s h ough ma ke iza ion. This
is a sus ainable way o ulne able g oups o elimina e
po e y comple ely.
The po e y alle ia ion model launched by China’s In e ne
pla o m di e s om cha i able beha io . As a humani a ian
ac wi h a long his o y, al hough cha i able beha io has played
an impo an ole in alle ia ing he po e y o ulne able
g oups, he e a e p oblems wi h using cha i able me hods o
sol e he po e y p oblem o he ollowing ulne able g oups:
Cha i y can only empo a ily alle ia e he po e y si ua ion o
ulne able g oups, while canno comple ely sol e hei po e y
p oblem (Eagles, 1993). A he same ime, he cha i y migh
e en ually lead ecipien s o become hea ily dependen on
cha i able dona ions o se ices, u ning in o oxic cha i y,
and des oying he ecology and i ali y o local economic and
social de elopmen (Lup on, 2011). Ma ke -o ien ed cha i able
ac s such as ma ke ized philan h opy, as a special cha i y a e
conside ed o ha e b ough a nega i e impac on he pu es co e
“kindness” o cha i y (Nickel and Eikenbe y, 2009).
In addi ion o cha i able beha io (Thomas and Mcga y,
2018), mos o he esea ch on po e y alle ia ion ocuses
on he ou ism (Tchouamou and Neelu, 2018; T uong, 2018;
Zhao and Xia, 2020), ag icul u al p oduc i i y (Madi e al.,
2020), in o ma ion and communica ion echnology (Galpe in
and Viecens, 2017; Mbuyisa and Leona d, 2017; Lechman and
Popowska, 2022), subsidy policy (Pan e al., 2021), insu ance
(Gab ah e al., 2020), and educa ion (B own and James, 2020).
These s udies mainly ocus on imp o ing he e iciency and
ou pu o ulne able g oups om he pe spec i e o supply.
Howe e , om he pe spec i e o consump ion, he e is a lack o
esea ch on he mo i a es and beha io o consume consuming
po e y alle ia ion p oduc s. Wha mo i a es consume s o
engage in al uis ic consump ion? Wha impac do hese mo i es
ha e on consume s’ al uis ic consump ion beha io ? Is he e
an e olu iona y end in al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion in
al uis ic consump ion beha io ?
S udying hese issues has impo an heo e ical and p ac ical
signi icance o ad oca ing social al uis ic consump ion
beha io , es ablishing al uis ic consump ion ela ionships,
and p e en ing he dissolu ion o al uis ic consump ion
ela ionships. I is also a new a emp a expanding p osocial
beha io heo y o he ield o consump ion.
Li e a u e e iew
The heo ies ela ed o his a icle mainly in ol e cha i able
beha io s, p osocial beha io s, al uis ic beha io s, as
well as he imes o consump ion and ecommenda ion
consump ion beha io s.
Cha i able beha io s
The meaning o Cha i y in Old English is “Ch is ian
lo e o one’s ellows” (Falus, 2020). La e , he meaning o
cha i y changed o “p o iding o hose in need; gene osi y
and gi ing” (Me iam-Webs e , 2021). S a ing om c.1300,
cha i y means “alms, ha which is bes owed g a ui ously on
a pe son o pe sons in need” (Online E ymology Dic iona y,
2022). This indica es ha cha i able ac s do no need o seek
ewa ds. Cha i able ac s include p o iding angible dona ions
and in angible ca e. Cha i able gi ing is he ac o gi ing money
(Chan and Sep ian o, 2022), goods (Diede ich e al., 2021), o
ime (Cos ello and Malkoc, 2022) o he un o una e, ei he
di ec ly o h ough a cha i able us o o he wo hy cause.
Cha i able ca e includes such hings as isi ing imp isoned
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o homeless people, edeeming cap i es, educa ing o phans,
and pa icipa ing in social mo emen s. The mos impo an
ea u e o cha i able beha io is ha i does no seek
any e u ns.
In he ca ego y o cha i able consump ion beha io . Cause-
ela ed ma ke ing is he c ea ion o a mu ually bene icial
ela ionship (Chang and Chu, 2020). I s cha ac e is ic is ha
when cus ome s pa icipa e in p oduc exchanges ha mee
o ganiza ional and pe sonal goals, he company p o ides a
ce ain numbe o cha i able dona ions o speci ic cha i ies.
Using cause- ela ed ma ke ing app op ia ely no only embodies
he co po a e social esponsibili y, bu also mee s he needs
o sha eholde s o inc ease p o i s and ma ke sha e (Gao
e al., 2020). Howe e , i s essence is he same as adi ional
ma ke ing, which is o enhance he co po a e image and ob ain
mo e bene i s.
P osocial beha io s
P osocial beha io is a posi i e social beha io ha in ends
o help o he s, and needs o mee wo condi ions: he
beha io is he subjec ’s spon aneous beha io (Shi e al.,
2020), including sha ing, helping, ca ing, and com o ing
(Laguna e al., 2022). The mani es a ions and scena ios o
hese beha io s a e di e en , bu he essence is basically
he same, ha is ocus on bene i ing o he s (Miles e al.,
2021).
In he esea ch on why people ha e p osocial beha io s,
he amous Ame ican psychologis Ba son e al. (2011) w o e,
“we wish o conside ou possible o ms o p osocial mo i a ion,
each o which can lead a pe son o bene i -help-someone in
need. Each o m is de ined by i s dis inc ul ima e goal: sel -
bene i (egoism), bene i ano he indi idual (al uism), bene i a
g oup (collec i ism), and uphold a mo al p inciple (p inciplism).”
P osocial beha io does no exclude egoism, and i is also
belie ed ha bo h egois s and al uis s will adop p osocial
beha io . Fo example, o he sake o hei epu a ion, egois s
ake mo e p osocial beha io in public condi ions han in
p i a e se ings (Ro ella e al., 2021). Howe e , in he absence
o bene i s, egois s a e less p osocial han al uis s (Ro ella,
2020). Rega ding he collec i ism mo i a ion, Ba son (1994)
belie es ha i people alue he wel a e o a g oup, and his
wel a e is h ea ened o can be enhanced in some way, hen
hey will ha e a collec i ism mo i a ion o p omo e ac ion
o bene i he g oup. Rega ding he p inciplism mo i a ion,
he belie es ha i s ul ima e goal is o adhe e o a mo al
p inciple in o de o elimina e he a iabili y o eso ing
o al uism due o sympa hy, while main aining a consis en
mo al p inciple.
This shows ha , unlike cha i able beha io s, p osocial
beha io s include bo h olun a y helping o he s and no
expec ing any ewa ds, as well as a emp s o help o he s o
ce ain pu poses o ewa ds.
Al uis ic beha io
The concep o al uism has a long his o y in he
ields o philosophy and e hics, and esea che s in a ious
ields ha e ied o explain al uis ic beha io om di e en
aspec s. The esea ch on al uis ic beha io mainly ocuses
on an h opology, biology, psychology, and sociology. Some
esea che s belie e ha he heo y o “kin selec ion” is de i ed
om animal al uism. F om an e olu iona y biology poin o
iew, Hamil on’s Rule (Okasha, 2020) sugges s ha he genes
o al uism can be con inued h ough na u al selec ion. The
o e all e ec may be o inc ease he numbe o copies o
al uis ic beha io genes owned by he nex gene a ion, he eby
inc easing he incidence o al uis ic beha io i sel . Ba son and
Powell (2003) s udied al uis ic beha io om he pe spec i e o
mo i a ion, and belie ed ha pu e al uis ic beha io is based
on ca ing o he in e es s o o he s, and does no expec o
bene i om helping o he s. F om he pe spec i e o human and
socie y, dis inguished i om animal al uism, some schola s
ha e explo ed heo ies such as “ ecip ocal al uism” (Eamonn
e al., 2021) and “ epu a ion-seeking” (Ro ella e al., 2021). These
s udies belie e ha common al uis ic beha io s also include
ecip ocal al uis ic beha io s ha expec o ge ewa ds a e
helping o he s.
In e ms o in e na ional ade coope a ion, Fai T ade is
ega ded as an ac o in e na ional al uism. Acco ding o he
o icial de ini ion o he Wo ld Fai T ade O ganiza ion, “Fai
T ade is a ading pa ne ship, based on dialogue, anspa ency,
and espec , ha seeks g ea e equi y in in e na ional ade.
I con ibu es o sus ainable de elopmen by o e ing be e
ading condi ions o, and secu ing he igh s o , ma ginalized
p oduce s and wo ke s.” In he Fai T ade mo emen ,
de eloped coun ies in he membe s a e p o ide be e
ading condi ions and gua an ee o he igh s o smallholde s
and wo ke s—especially in de eloping coun ies (Re e al.,
2020).
Al uis ic beha io on in e ne
Al uis ic beha io also occu s on In e ne (Zheng e al.,
2021). Al uis ic beha io could be seen as an ine i able esul o
In e ne e olu ion, since he In e ne was ini ia ed by olun ee s
who hough in o ma ion should be ee and easy o access
quickly. Since he naissance o he In e ne , i has sough a
way in which almos in ini e in o ma i e esou ces may be
in eg a ed and sha ed (Amichai Hambu ge , 2008). Compa ed
wi h ace- o- ace communica ion, people a e mo e willing o
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help o he s and mo e esponsible online, o easons such as
anonymi y o he In e ne and minimiza ion o he au ho i y
(Sule , 2004).
Times o consump ion and consump ion
ecommenda ion beha io
The beha io ha a consume adop s a new idea o new
p oduc o he i s ime is called he a emp pu chase beha io
o ini ial pu chase beha io . Ini ial pu chase was ound o be
signi ican p edic o o se ice e en ion (Da ley and Lue hge,
2019). A e pu chasing a p oduc o he i s ime, some
people will gi e up con inuing o consume, beha e as he one-
ime consump ion beha io , and become one- ime consume s.
While he o he pa o people will con inue o buy he
p oduc , which is called epea edly pu chase beha io . Fo he
impo an ac o ha a ec s epea ed pu chases in he con ex
o online business, T i edi and Yada (2020) belie e ha i is
he us and E-sa is ac ion. I he expe ience is sa is ac o y,
he consume will make a second pu chase. I he consume
does no con inue o consume a e he second pu chase, i
is called a wo- imes consume . I consume s con inue o
consume h ee o mo e imes, acco ding o Dimi ieska and
E emo a (2021), i is called loyal consump ion, o con inuous
consump ion. The co e ac o a ec ing con inuous consump ion
is b and (Kham ane and Ji kuekul, 2021). Some consume s
no only consume by hemsel es, bu also ecommend o he s
o consume. This beha io is gene ally called wo d-o -mou h
sp ead in academics (see, e.g., Bas os and Moo e, 2021).
The co e ac o a ec ing wo d-o -mou h sp ead is consume s’
sa is ac ion and hei ela ionship wi h he ecommenda ion
(Leon and Choi, 2020; O aedu, 2020). The pu pose o
s udying he imes o consump ion is o ind mo i a ions o
one- ime consump ion, wo- imes consump ion, con inuous
consump ion, and ecommenda ion consump ion, so as o
ealize he ans o ma ion om one- ime consump ion o
con inuous consump ion and loyal consump ion, o encou age
consume s o ecommend o he s o consume, p e en he
dissolu ion o al uis ic consump ion ela ionship, and ealize
he sus ainabili y o al uis ic consump ion.
Resea ch amewo k and hypo hesis
Resea ch s uc u e model
Vulne able g oups ha e low income, endu e po e y, and
a e psychologically ulne able (Shu, 2016). Some esea che s
belie e ha ulne able g oups e e o social g oups ha canno
main ain basic li ing s anda ds o hemsel es and o hei
amily by elying on hei s eng hs o abili ies and hus need
ex e nal suppo (Zheng and Li, 2003). The ulne able g oups
e e ed o in his a icle e e o coun ies, egions, e hnic
mino i ies, low-income g oups ha ha e he abili y o yield bu
a e in a s a e o po e y and backwa dness, and g oups ha a e
economically damaged due o disas e s. We call he p oduc s
p o ided by ulne able g oups and consumed by al uis ic
consume s as al uis ic consump ion p oduc s, and ma ke ing o
al uis ic consump ion p oduc s as al uis ic ma ke ing.
Acco ding o p osocial beha io heo y he mo i a ion o
p osocial beha io includes collec i ism, egoism, al uism, and
p inciplism (Ba son e al., 2011). The al uis ic consump ion
beha io s udied in his s udy is also a kind o p osocial
beha io , i should also include hese ou basic mo i a ions. In
Ba son’s heo y, collec i ism mo i a ion e e s o he mo i a ion
o bene i a speci ic g oup, including he g oup which he
implemen e o p osocial beha io belongs. In ou p e ious
esea ch, we ound ha mos o he al uis ic consump ion
beha io s a e igge ed based on he ini ia i e o he g oup o
which he consume belongs o some speci ic g oups. In addi ion
o helping ulne able g oups, consume s’ mo i a ion also lies in
main aining he g oup’s epu a ion and alues. In his a icle,
we call he consump ion mo i a ion ha bene i s o g oups
in he p ocess o al uis ic consump ion as he bene i g oup
al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion, abb e ia e i as bene i g oup
mo i a ion. In Ba son’s heo y, egoism e e s o sel -bene i ,
o bene i he implemen e o p osocial beha io sel . In he
ela ionship o al uis ic consump ion, sel -bene i is ac ually
bene i s o he consume s who consume al uis ic p oduc s. In
his a icle, we call he consump ion mo i a ion ha a e bene i s
o he consume s o al uis ic p oduc consump ion as he
bene i demande al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion, abb e ia e
i as bene i demande mo i a ion. In Ba son’s heo y, al uism
e e s o bene i ano he indi idual. In he ela ionship o
al uis ic consump ion, “ano he indi idual” is ac ually he
supplie (i.e., ulne able g oups) o al uis ic p oduc s. In his
a icle, we call he consump ion mo i a ion ha is bene i s o
he supplie o al uis ic p oduc s as he bene i supplie al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ion, abb e ia e i as he bene i supplie
mo i a ion. In Ba son’s heo y, p inciplism e e s o bene i a
mo al p inciple. In he ela ionship o al uis ic consump ion,
i is mainly mani es ed as he p omo ion o a kind o social
i ue. In his a icle, we call he consump ion mo i a ion ha
is bene i s o social mo ali y as he bene i mo ali y al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ion, abb e ia e i as he bene i mo ali y
mo i a ion. In o de o acili a e esea ch, we collec i ely e e
o hese ou al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions as 4B al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ions.
Acco ding o he li e a u e (Tucke , 1964; Bass, 1969;
Bly he, 2006; Zhu, 2014) and ou p e ious esea ch, he
al uis ic consump ion beha io in his a icle can be di ided
in o one- ime al uis ic consump ion beha io , wo- imes
al uis ic consump ion beha io , con inuous al uis ic
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consump ion beha io , and al uis ic ecommenda ion
consump ion beha io . Wha is he ela ionship be ween hese
ou kinds o consump ion beha io s and he ou kinds o
consump ion mo i a ions? Do hese ou kinds o consump ion
beha io s ha e di e en dominan consump ion mo i a ions,
espec i ely? Is he e an e olu iona y end o he ou kinds
o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions in he ou kinds o
consump ion beha io s?
Resea ch hypo hesis
The ela ionship be ween al uis ic
consump ion beha io and al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ion
Consume s’ mo i a ion o consump ion is he in e nal
d i ing o ce ha mo i a es consume s o implemen
consump ion beha io s. The e is a causal ela ionship be ween
consump ion mo i a ion and consump ion beha io . Al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ion should also be he in e nal d i ing
o ce o al uis ic consump ion beha io , and he e should
also be a causal ela ionship be ween hem. Consump ion
beha io no only includes he beha io ha consume s
pu chase by hemsel es, bu also includes he beha io ha
ecommends o he s o pu chase. I can be seen ha al uis ic
consump ion beha io should also include al uis ic pu chase
beha io and al uis ic ecommenda ion consump ion beha io .
The e o e, no ma e i is he al uis ic pu chase beha io
o consume s hemsel es o he al uis ic ecommenda ion
consump ion beha io o ecommending o he s o pu chase,
he e should be an in luen ial ela ionship be ween he al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ions.
Acco dingly, he ollowing hypo heses a e p oposed:
H1a: The e is an in luen ial ela ionship be ween he al uis ic
pu chase beha io o he ulne able g oups and he
consume ’s al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion
H1b: The e is an in luen ial ela ionship be ween he
al uis ic ecommenda ion consump ion beha io o
he ulne able g oups and he consume ’s al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ion
The ela ionship be ween ou kinds o
al uis ic consump ion beha io s and ou kinds
o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions
Whe he i is one- ime al uis ic consump ion beha io ,
wo- imes al uis ic consump ion beha io , con inuous
al uis ic consump ion beha io , o al uis ic ecommenda ion
consump ion beha io , all a e al uis ic consump ion beha io s,
and al uis ic consump ion beha io is a p osocial beha io .
Acco ding o he esea ch o Ba son e al. (2011), p osocial
beha io is a ec ed by ou kinds o mo i a ions, so hese ou
kinds o al uis ic consump ion beha io s should also be a ec ed
by ou kinds o p osocial beha io mo i a ions. The bene i
demande mo i a ion, bene i supplie mo i a ion, bene i
mo ali y mo i a ion, and bene i g oup mo i a ion p oposed
in his a icle a e based on he ou kinds o p osocial beha io
mo i a ions p oposed by Ba son e al. (2011), combined wi h
he cha ac e is ics o al uis ic consump ion, which a e he
embodimen o he ou kinds o p osocial beha io mo i a ions
in he ield o consump ion. In his sense, hese ou kinds o
al uis ic consump ion beha io s should be a ec ed by ou
kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions.
I consume s’ al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion is he same,
hei al uis ic consump ion beha io s should be consis en .
Howe e , in he p e-su ey phase o ou ques ionnai e, we
s udied he al uis ic consump ion beha io o 198 consume s
and ound ha some consume s only pu chase one- ime,
some consume s pu chase wo- imes, some consume s pu chase
mul iple imes, and some consume s no only pu chase
o hemsel es, bu also ecommend o he s o al uis ic
consump ion. I can be seen ha he e a e signi ican
di e ences in he al uis ic consump ion beha io o consume s.
Since consume s’ beha io s a e inconsis en , he s eng hs o
he ou kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions ha
a ec consume s’ al uis ic consump ion beha io should also
be di e en . Each consume beha io may ha e di e en
dominan mo i a ions.
Acco dingly, he ollowing hypo heses a e p oposed:
H2a: One- ime al uis ic consump ion beha io is a ec ed by
ou kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions, and
he e a e di e ences in he s eng h o he in luence, wi h
one o mo e dominan mo i a ions.
H2b: Two- imes al uis ic consump ion beha io is a ec ed by
ou kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions, and
he e a e di e ences in he s eng h o he in luence, wi h
one o mo e dominan mo i a ions.
H2c: Con inuous al uis ic consump ion beha io s a e a ec ed
by he ou kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions,
and he e a e di e ences in he s eng h o he in luence,
wi h one o mo e dominan mo i a ions.
H2d: Al uis ic ecommenda ion consump ion beha io is
a ec ed by he ou kinds o al uis ic consump ion
mo i a ions, and he e a e di e ences in he s eng h o
he in luence, wi h one o mo e dominan mo i a ions.
The e olu iona y end o al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ions’ influence on
al uis ic consump ion beha io
The essence o al uis ic consump ion is consump ion.
When consume s make pu chase decisions, hey will choose
solu ions wi h g ea e cus ome pe cei ed alue (Zei haml,
1988). This means ha consume s will choose p oduc s ha
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FIGURE 1
Da a ma ix o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion and al uis ic consump ion beha io .
mo i a ions. The e is a co ela ion be ween he ou kinds
o al uis ic consump ion beha io s and he ou kinds o
al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions. Howe e , in he one- ime
al uis ic consump ion beha io , he bene i g oup mo i a ion
has la ge in luence han he o he h ee mo i a ions, in
he wo- imes al uis ic consump ion beha io , he bene i
demande mo i a ion has la ge in luence han he o he h ee
mo i a ions, in he con inuous al uis ic consump ion beha io ,
he bene i mo ali y mo i a ion has la ge in luence han he
o he h ee mo i a ions, and in he al uis ic ecommenda ion
consump ion beha io , he bene i supplie mo i a ion has
la ge in luence han he o he h ee mo i a ions. The s eng h
o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions changes wi h he imes
o al uis ic consump ion beha io . Among hem, he s eng h
o bene i g oup mo i a ion dec eases wi h he inc ease o he
imes o al uis ic consump ion beha io , while he s eng h
o bene i mo ali y mo i a ion, bene i demande mo i a ion,
and bene i supplie mo i a ion inc eases wi h he inc ease o
he imes o al uis ic consump ion beha io s. Among he ou
kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions ha a ec he imes
o al uis ic pu chase, he con ibu ion o he bene i demande
mo i a ion is ela i ely la ge , and among he ou kinds o
al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions ha a ec he al uis ic
consump ion beha io , he con ibu ion o bene i supplie
mo i a ion is ela i ely la ge .
P ac ical inspi a ion
Cha i able beha io is a unila e al e o o dono s o
imp o e he pligh o ecipien s, while ecipien s a e passi e
o e en inac ion ecipien s, while al uis ic consump ion
ully mobilizes he en husiasm o bene icia ies o al uis ic
consump ion. Al uis ic consump ion can lead ulne able
g oups in o he social ep oduc ion cycle by consuming hei
yield. Th ough al uis ic bene icia ies’ planned, o ganized, and
a ge ed ecip ocal beha io , he sus ainabili y o al uis ic
consump ion beha io can be ealized. This esea ch ound ha
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TABLE 5 Dominance analysis.
Fac o s Dominance s a is ics S anda dized dominance s a is ics Ranking
Times o al uis ic consump ion Bene i g oup mo i a ion 0.028 0.246 3
Bene i mo ali y mo i a ion 0.029 0.254 2
Bene i demande mo i a ion 0.041 0.363 1
Bene i supplie mo i a ion 0.015 0.137 4
Al uis ic consump ion beha io Bene i g oup mo i a ion 0.025 0.357 2
Bene i mo ali y mo i a ion 0.005 0.073 4
Bene i demande mo i a ion 0.008 0.111 3
Bene i supplie mo i a ion 0.032 0.459 1
TABLE 6 Shapley alue decomposi ion.
Fac o s Fi s ound e ec s Shapley alue %
Times o al uis ic consump ion Bene i g oup mo i a ion 25.313 28.255 24.59
Bene i mo ali y mo i a ion 56.422 29.237 25.44
Bene i demande mo i a ion 65.869 41.687 36.27
Bene i supplie mo i a ion 42.737 15.745 13.70
Al uis ic consump ion beha io Bene i g oup mo i a ion 11.660 12.367 35.67
Bene i mo ali y mo i a ion 3.543 2.525 7.280
Bene i demande mo i a ion 7.105 3.853 11.12
Bene i supplie mo i a ion 20.473 15.921 45.93
consume s’ al uis ic consump ion is based on ou kinds o
al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions, so he supplie o al uis ic
p oduc s can adop di e en ma ke ing s a egies acco ding o
he al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions o di e en al uis ic
consume s, changing passi e accep ance o cha i y in o ac i e
al uis ic consump ion ma ke ing. Vulne able g oups can use
ou side suppo o bene i om hei own yield o comple ely
ge id o po e y, eplace cha i y wi h consump ion, and u n
hemsel es om a social bu den o a c ea o o social weal h.
As a new al uis ic consump ion model, he ac i e ma ke ing
o ulne able g oups as he supplie mus conside he
ma ke ing s a egy based on he ela ionship be ween al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ion and al uis ic consump ion beha io .
I is ound ha he imes o al uis ic consump ion a y
om pe son o pe son, and i is o g ea signi icance o
supplie s o s udy he al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions o
consume s wi h di e en consump ion imes. Fo one- ime
al uis ic consump ion consume s, g oup p omo ion is e ec i e.
The e o e, supplie s o al uis ic consump ion p oduc s should
make ull use o hei s a us as ulne able g oups, and make
use o he in luence o he g oup ini ia i es o p omo e he
a emp consump ion o hei p oduc s, p omo e hei p oduc s
o en e he ma ke , and sol e he ma ke en y case o
p oduc s o ulne able g oups. Ou esea ch ound ha he
al uis ic consump ion beha io domina ed by bene i g oup
mo i a ion has a one- ime consump ion endency, while he
wo- imes al uis ic consump ion consume s’ bene i demande
mo i a ion is ela i ely s onge , ha is o say, he bene i
demande mo i a ion is he main ac o a ec ing wo- imes
al uis ic consump ion beha io . The e o e, in o de o make
consume s consume again, he supplie should ocus on he
consume ’s demand o he p oduc i sel . Only by sa is ying he
consume ’s bene i demande mo i a ion, can he consume ’s
wo- imes al uis ic consump ion o he p oduc be ealized,
so as o sol e he p oblems o ma ke consolida ion o
he p oduc s o ulne able g oups. Ou esea ch ound ha
only mee he demand, he consump ion is also di icul
o make he con inuous al uis ic consump ion, because
he e a e many p oduc s ha can mee consume needs in
socie y and a e a ailable e e ywhe e, he e o e, in o de o
consume s o con inuous al uis ic consump ion, in addi ion
o sa is ying consume s’ bene i demande mo i a ion, supplie s
mus also mee consume s’ bene i mo ali y mo i a ion. Only
by le ing consume s ealize ha while consuming he p oduc s
hey need, hey can also p omo e social i ues and ul ill
hei social esponsibili ies, will hey ha e he mo i a ion
o con inuous al uis ic consump ion, ealize he con inuous
consump ion o al uis ic p oduc s. Only by sol ing he p oblem
o con inuous sales o p oduc s o ulne able g oups can
he p oblem o con inuous po e y o ulne able g oups be
sol ed, and he e u n o po e y caused by he consump ion
ela ionship dissolu ion can be p e en ed, and he ue goal
F on ie s in Psychology 13 on ie sin.o g
31
Xin e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.933701
FIGURE 2
Line cha o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion and he imes o al uis ic pu chases.
o al uis ic consump ion can be ealized. The esea ch also
ound ha among he ou kinds o mo i a ions ha a ec
consume s’ al uis ic ecommenda ion consump ion beha io ,
he bene i supplie mo i a ion is ela i ely s onge , which
means ha i is o g ea signi icance o mo e consume s
o ealize ha hei consump ion beha io can help he
ulne able g oups ge id o he ulne able s a us, hey a e
willing o ecommend o o he s, and d i e mo e people o
consume he al uis ic p oduc s o he ulne able g oups.
The e o e, as a supplie o ulne able g oups, i is necessa y
o eedback o he socie y he huge changes b ough abou
by al uis ic consump ion o ulne able g oups h ough
a ious channels, so ha al uis ic consume s know ha hei
al uis ic ecommenda ion consump ion beha io has p oduced
a posi i e al uis ic e ec , which is help ul o encou age
al uis ic consume s’ ecommenda ion consump ion beha io .
The al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy adop ed o consume s’ bene i
g oup al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion can be called he
bene i g oup al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy, which mainly sol es
he p oblem o a emp ing consump ion by al uis ic consume s
and he p oblem o en e ing he ma ke o al uis ic p oduc s;
The al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy adop ed o consume s’ bene i
demande al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion can be called he
bene i demande al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy, which mainly
sol es he p oblem o e-consump ion o al uis ic p oduc s
and he p oblem o ma ke consolida ion o al uis ic p oduc s;
The al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy adop ed o consume s’
bene i mo ali y al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion can be
called he bene i mo ali y al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy, which
mainly sol es he p oblem o con inuous consump ion and
he con inuous sales o al uis ic p oduc s; The al uis ic
ma ke ing s a egy adop ed o al uis ic ecommenda ion
consump ion beha io can be called he bene i supplie al uis ic
ma ke ing s a egy, which mainly sol es he p oblem o he
ecommenda ion consump ion o al uis ic consume s and he
ma ke expansion o al uis ic p oduc s. We can also collec i ely
e e o hese al uis ic ma ke ing s a egies as “4B al uis ic
ma ke ing s a egies”.
The co esponding ela ionship be ween “4B al uis ic
ma ke ing s a egy” and “4B al uis ic consump ion
mo i a ion” is ela i e. Each ma ke ing s a egy can
play a ole in e e y al uis ic consump ion beha io ,
F on ie s in Psychology 14 on ie sin.o g
32
Xin e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.933701
FIGURE 3
Ma ix o al uis ic consump ion beha io /al uis ic consump ion mo i a ion and al uis ic consump ion ma ke ing s a egy.
bu he deg ee o in luence is di e en in di e en
consump ion beha io s.
This esea ch summa izes and plo ed he ma ix o
al uis ic consump ion beha io /al uis ic consump ion
mo i a ion and al uis ic consump ion ma ke ing s a egy
(shown in Figu e 3).
Bene i g oup al uis ic ma ke ing s a egy has he g ea es
in luence on he ini ial consump ion, and as he imes
o consump ion inc ease, i s in luence g adually dec eases.
Howe e , he in luence o he bene i demande al uis ic
ma ke ing s a egy, he bene i supplie al uism ma ke ing
s a egy, and he bene i mo ali y al uism ma ke ing s a egy a e
smalle on he ini ial consump ion, as he imes o consump ion
inc eases, he in luence g adually inc eases. The e o e, in
o de o achie e good al uis ic ma ke ing e ec s, supplie s
mus be good a he combined applica ion o al uis ic
ma ke ing s a egies.
Ac i e ma ke ing o ulne able g oups should also a ange
a ge ed al uis ic ma ke ing s a egies based on he con ibu ion
o al uis ic mo i a ions. The esea ch also ound ha among
he ou kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions ha a ec
consume s’ al uis ic consump ion beha io , he con ibu ion o
he bene i supplie mo i a ion is ela i ely s onge , indica ing
ha he co e o al uis ic consump ion beha io is al uism.
The e o e, when o mula ing al uis ic ma ke ing s a egies,
supplie s mus always emphasize he alue ha al uis ic
consump ion can b ing o ulne able g oups, meaning ha
emphasizes he al uis ic na u e o consump ion, which makes
sense o he ulne able g oups o p omo e he al uis ic
consump ion o hei p oduc s. Howe e , among he ou
F on ie s in Psychology 15 on ie sin.o g
33
Xin e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.933701
kinds o al uis ic consump ion mo i a ions ha a ec he
imes o consume s’ al uis ic consump ion, he con ibu ion
o bene i demande consump ion is ela i ely s onge . This
ells us ha al uis ic consump ion is no a kind o cha i able
beha io , bu a ecip ocal al uis ic beha io . The e o e, he
p oduc mus mee he consume ’s own needs, ha is, sa is y he
consume ’s bene i demande mo i a ion. The e o e, imp o ing
he quali y o al uis ic consump ion p oduc s, imp o ing
consume se ices, se ing app op ia e p ices, and p o iding
con enien channels a e essen ial o p e en he consump ion
ela ionship dissolu ion, main ain he s abili y o he consume
ma ke , and p omo e he con inuous consump ion o al uis ic
consump ion p oduc s.
Limi a ions and p ospec s
This esea ch ocuses on he ela ionship be ween al uis ic
consump ion mo i a ion and al uis ic consump ion beha io .
Rega ding he al uis ic consump ion model, he esea ch eam
has comple ed ele an esea ch and published a icles, so
he e is no much in ol ed in his esea ch. This esea ch
only s udied he mo i a ions o di e en indi iduals’ one-
ime, wo- imes, and con inuous consump ion, while did
no s udy he mo i a ions o he same indi idual’s i s ,
second, and con inuous consump ion. The e o e, his esea ch
canno answe he ques ion o why an indi idual decides
o consume again a e he i s consump ion, and why
an indi idual decides o consume con inuously. Resea ching
hese mo i a ions is also o g ea signi icance o expanding
he al uis ic consume ma ke . This esea ch is in es iga i e
esea ch, and he objec o esea ch is consump ion mo i a ion.
Consume s’ mo i a ions a e inhe en and canno be di ec ly
exp essed h ough consume s’ consump ion beha io , no can
hey be de i ed om ac ual s a is ics da a. This s udy ocuses
on consume s who buy po e y alle ia ion p oduc s and on
ulne able g oups wi h p oduc i e capaci y in China. Whe he
he s udy ep esen s all al uis ic consume s and ulne able
g oups equi es u he in es iga ion.
The de elopmen o eal socie y is always une en, he e
a e always a la ge numbe o g oups ha in he coun ies,
egions, e hnic mino i ies, low-income g oups, and a ec ed
by disas e s ha in a s a e o po e y and backwa dness. In
he long un, i is challenging o help ulne able g oups ou
o po e y using he one-way cha i y model. Adop ing he
ecip ocal al uis ic consump ion me hod can be an e ec i e
way o help ulne able g oups escape po e y. Using ma ke ing
me hods o help ulne able g oups is an essen ial ex ension o
he heo y o cause- ela ed ma ke ing, a new ield o ma ke ing
s udy, and a mani es a ion o he new unc ion o ma ke ing.
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will
be made a ailable by he au ho s, wi hou undue ese a ion.
E hics s a emen
E hical e iew and app o al was no equi ed o
he s udy on human pa icipan s in acco dance wi h
he local legisla ions and ins i u ional equi emen s.
W i en in o med consen o pa icipa e in his s udy
was p o ided by he pa icipan s’ legal gua dian/nex
o kin.
Au ho con ibu ions
HX and CL designed and conduc ed he s udy. All au ho s
con ibu ed o he a icle and app o ed he inal e sion.
Conflic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could
be cons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he
au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed
o endo sed by he publishe .
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F on ie s in Psychology 18 on ie sin.o g
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TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 15 Sep embe 2022
DOI 10.3389/ pubh.2022.968009
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
And zej Klimczuk,
Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
REVIEWED BY
Na imasa Kumagai,
Seinan Gakuin Uni e si y, Japan
Hi oki Te agawa,
JR Hi oshima Hospi al, Japan
*CORRESPONDENCE
Bin Hou
[email p o ec ed]
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Public Heal h Policy,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Public Heal h
RECEIVED 13 June 2022
ACCEPTED 26 Augus 2022
PUBLISHED 15 Sep embe 2022
CITATION
Hou B, Wu Y and Huang S (2022)
Pa icipa ing in heal h insu ance and
heal h imp o emen s o he ela i ely
poo popula ion: A p opensi y sco e
analysis.
F on . Public Heal h 10:968009.
doi: 10.3389/ pubh.2022.968009
COPYRIGHT
©2022 Hou, Wu and Huang. This is an
open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde
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A ibu ion License (CC BY). The use,
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o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which
does no comply wi h hese e ms.
Pa icipa ing in heal h insu ance
and heal h imp o emen s o
he ela i ely poo popula ion: A
p opensi y sco e analysis
Bin Hou*, Yuxin Wu and Siyi Huang
School o Public Adminis a ion, Fujian No mal Uni e si y, Fuzhou, China
This s udy examined he causal ela ionship be ween pa icipa ion in he
New Ru al Coope a i e Medical Scheme (NRCMS) and heal h s a us among
ela i ely poo popula ion in u al China. Da a we e ob ained om he China
Family Panel S udies (CFPS) conduc ed in 2018, which con ained 4,507
samples. This s udy used p opensi y sco e ma ching (PSM) o examine he
ne e ec o pa icipa ion in he NRCMS on he heal h o he ela i ely poo
popula ion, and his e ec was es ed o equilib ium using nea es neighbo
ma ching, adius ma ching, and ke nel ma ching. This s udy showed ha
pa icipa ion in he NRCMS has a significan and posi i e e ec on he heal h
s a us o he ela i ely poo popula ion and he posi i e heal h e ec may come
om h ee channels, including he inc eased equency o physical ac i i y, he
ac ha an indi idual is mo e likely o seek medical ca e a a lowe le el o isi ,
and a plan o educe heal h ca e expendi u es.
KEYWORDS
New Ru al Coope a i e Medical Scheme, heal h s a us, u al ela i ely poo
popula ion, p opensi y sco e ma ching, influencing mechanism
In oduc ion
I has been p o en ha heal h is an impo an ac o in luencing po e y educ ion
and impo e ishmen (1), and heal h insu ance can alle ia e po e y ulne abili y unde
heal h shock (2). In China, he dis ibu ion s uc u e o he ela i ely poo popula ion
is mainly concen a ed in a eas wi h poo na u al esou ce endowmen , poo economic
condi ions and deep po e y. The g oup dis ibu ion o he ela i ely poo popula ion
mainly includes disabled indi iduals, widowed and o phaned indi iduals, elde ly
indi iduals, and indi iduals wi h long- e m po e y due o illness. The e o e, ega dless
o he dis ibu ion s uc u e o he ela i ely poo popula ion o he dis ibu ion o
speci ic g oups, heal h p oblems will become one o he main obs acles in sol ing ela i e
po e y. Heal h is an impo an issue aised by human capi al heo y. Human capi al
heo y clea ly pu s o wa d ha heal h is an impo an pa o human capi al, and high-
quali y human capi al is c ucial o p omo ing economic de elopmen and imp o ing
indi idual wel a e (3). The e o e, in ecen yea s, heal h insu ance, as an in e na ional
issue, has a ac ed he a en ion o all coun ies. Many de eloping coun ies ha e
heal h insu ance p og ams ha p o ide heal h insu ance o indi iduals o amilies
F on ie s in Public Heal h 01 on ie sin.o g
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Hou e al. 10.3389/ pubh.2022.968009
h ough subsidies om go e nmen unds (4–6). The main
pu pose o heal h insu ance is o educe he medical expenses
o an indi idual o a amily, educe he isk o becoming poo
due o majo diseases and help o sp ead he heal h isks ha
may a ise.
The e o e, o imp o e he a me s’ heal h le el, educe he
medical bu den, and sol e he p oblem o po e y due o illness,
in July 2003, he S a e Council o China s a ed he pilo wo k
o he New Ru al Coope a i e Medical Scheme (NRCMS). The
NRCMS is unded by indi idual paymen s, collec i e suppo
and go e nmen subsidies, which a e led and o ganized by he
go e nmen . I is a medical mu ual aid sys em o u al esiden s
ha ocuses on he o e all planning o se ious diseases and he
se lemen o mino diseases (7). I is a olun a y p og am and
he olun a y ea u e was adop ed o o e come public mis us
in he go e nmen - un insu ance p og am (8,9). The su ey
showed a high en olmen a e o 92% in his olun a y insu ance
scheme (10). Based on ee- o -se ice and cos -sha ing models,
he NRCMS mainly applies o inpa ien se ices and some
medical ou pa ien se ices, aiming o educe he bu den o
disease cos s o he u al popula ion (8,11). By 2008, he
NRCMS co e ed bo h inpa ien and medical ou pa ien se ices
in mos coun ies (9). The pe capi a annual p emium o he
NRCMS g adually inc eased om US $4.88 in 2005 o US $65.11
by he end o 2014 (12). By 2015, i s co e age a e had eached
98 pe cen (13). A he same ime, pe -capi a eimbu semen
caps ha e been aised, wi h ou pa ien eimbu semen ising
o $14, ou pa ien obse a ion eimbu semen o $163, and
o al medical expense eimbu semen o $32,558 by he end
o 2014. Fo hospi aliza ion, 85 pe cen o he o al expenses
can be eimbu sed by ownship hospi als, 70 pe cen by coun y
hospi als, 55 pe cen by municipal hospi als and 50 pe cen by
p o incial hospi als (14).
P e ious s udies ha e examined he impac o heal h
insu ance on heal h s a us bu ha e come o di e en
conclusions. Resea che s ha e ound ha pa icipa ion in he
NRCMS can imp o e he heal h s a us o u al esiden s
mainly by educing he incidence o po e y caused by illness
o e u ning o po e y due o illness. In e ms o ac ual
e ec s, he NRCMS has a be e po e y alle ia ion e ec
compa ed wi h p e ious medical insu ance sys ems (8,15). In
addi ion, some esea che s measu ed heal h s a us by using
sel - a ed heal h and he numbe o illnesses o inju ies in
he pas 4 weeks and s udied he impac o pa icipa ion in
he NRCMS on heal h s a us. These esea che s ound ha
pa icipa ion in he NRCMS did no signi ican ly imp o e he
heal h le el o he pa icipan s (16,17). O he esea che s
ha e s udied he e ec s o heal h insu ance in o he coun ies.
Resea che s belie e ha medical insu ance o u al a eas
will play a posi i e ole in po e y educ ion (18). Medical
insu ance can imp o e esiden s’ heal h and educe po e y
ulne abili y caused by heal h shock (19), while public medical
insu ance and p emium subsidies can educe he incidence
o heal h po e y by 1/3 (1). In addi ion, Vie nam’s Poo
Heal h P o ec ion Fund (HCFP) has signi ican ly educed
cash expendi u es on heal h o he poo popula ion (20).
Bangladesh’s mic o-heal h insu ance scheme has signi ican ly
inc eased household income and s abili y and educed he
p obabili y o alling in o po e y (18). Medica e suppo
p og ams in he Uni ed S a es ha e g ea ly educed income
inequali y and imp o ed wel a e o he poo popula ion by
p o iding go e nmen subsidies (21).
The e o e, his s udy ook he ela i ely poo u al
popula ion in China as he esea ch objec o in es iga e
whe he pa icipa ion in he NRCMS has e ec i ely imp o ed
he heal h s a us o his popula ion. I he answe was yes,
hen he mechanism h ough which pa icipa ion in NRCMS
imp o ed he heal h s a us o his popula ion was u he
analyzed. P e ious s udies ha e mainly used mul iple linea
eg ession models o explo e he ela ionship be ween heal h
insu ance and heal h, which has endogenous p oblems. In
addi ion, he causal e ec o medical insu ance on he
heal h s a us o he insu ed popula ion should no be clea .
The e o e, his s udy used he p opensi y sco e ma ching
(PSM) o cons uc a coun e ac ual amewo k o es he
causal ela ionship be ween pa icipa ion in he NRCMS and
he heal h s a us o he ela i ely poo u al popula ion in
China and hen add essed he p oblem o causal in e ence
ha canno be sol ed by adi ional eg ession analysis. In
his s udy, PSM was adop ed o balance he con ounding
a iables ha a ec pa icipan s’ beha io s, which could sol e
he sel -selec ion p oblem o he sample o some ex en ,
and he ne e ec o his policy was ob ained, p o iding
a mechanism o explaining he heal h p omo ion e ec o
medical insu ance.
Me hods
Da a
This s udy used da a om China Family Panel S udies
(CFPS), a su ey designed and conduc ed by he China Cen e
o Social Su eys a Peking Uni e si y. CFPS da a samples
a e na ionally ep esen a i e, and he su ey eam cons an ly
upda es he su ey me hods o ensu e ha he su ey esul s a e
au hen ic and eliable, ul ima ely o ming a da abase including
amily membe answe s, indi idual sel -answe s and indi idual
p oxy answe s. The da a co e 25 p o inces, municipali ies and
au onomous egions in China, gi ing a mo e comp ehensi e
pic u e o he demog aphic, economic and social cha ac e is ics
o he Chinese popula ion. In his s udy, CFPS da a om 2018
we e used. Combined wi h he da abase indica o s equi ed
by he s udy, amily sample codes we e used as ma ching
indica o s o me ge he da a om a ho izon al pe spec i e. The
inal da a con en included a iables such as household size,
F on ie s in Public Heal h 02 on ie sin.o g
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Hou e al. 10.3389/ pubh.2022.968009
household income and heal h expendi u es a he household
le el, as well as a iables such as educa ion le el, income le el,
wo k s a us, smoking s a us and le el o medical ca e a he
indi idual le el.
The objec o his s udy was he ela i ely poo u al
popula ion. In e na ional expe iences o ela i e po e y
sc eening gene ally ake a ce ain pe cen age o he median
income as he h eshold s anda d. Fo example, esea che s
p opose using 50% o he median income as he ela i e po e y
line (22). Howe e , his kind o ela i e po e y sc eening
based on he income me hod has some limi a ions; i igno es
he essence o u ili y economics ha desc ibe ha ela i e
po e y is a subjec i e eeling. This subjec i e eeling is an
indi idual’s assessmen o whe he he o she is poo , and his
sel -assessmen s anda d is usually ela ed o he e e ence
g oup se by he indi idual himsel o he sel . The e o e, his
s udy d ew on lessons om p e ious s udies on subjec i e
ela i e po e y and selec ed he ela i ely poo popula ion
based on he answe s o he subjec i e ela i e po e y ques ion
(23). This s udy i s selec ed indi iduals in u al households
om he o al sample and hen selec ed indi iduals in he
ela i ely poo popula ion acco ding o he hei answe
o he ques ion “Wha is you income in he local a ea?”
Answe s was anked on a scale o one o i e; he highe he
numbe , he highe an indi idual’s local income. This s udy
selec ed he popula ion wi h indica o s o one and wo as he
ela i ely poo popula ion. A e dele ing in alid samples and
so ing ou da a, 4,507 alid samples we e inally ob ained in
his s udy.
Va iables and measu es
Table 1 p esen s a desc ip ion o a iable.
The independen a iable in his s udy was whe he an
indi idual pa icipa ed in NRCMS. Based on he ques ion “Wha
medical insu ance sys em ha e you pa icipa ed in?” in he
ques ionnai e, he indi iduals pa icipa ing in he NRCMS we e
assigned a alue o 1, and hose pa icipa ing in o he medical
insu ance sys ems and hose no pa icipa ing in a medical
insu ance sys em we e assigned a alue o 0.
The dependen a iable in his s udy was he heal h s a us
o indi iduals in he u al ela i ely poo popula ion. Pe sonal
heal h is gene ally measu ed om subjec i e pe cep ions,
medical diagnoses and physical unc ion. Sel - epo ed heal h
s a us is an indi idual’s subjec i e judgmen , in acco dance
wi h his o he own objec i e heal h o be able o ully
e lec he mul idimensional na u e o he heal h and in eg i y.
Using his index can comp ehensi ely e lec esiden s in
e ms o hei physical, psychological, cogni i e and ex e nal
en i onmen s wi h mul idimensional in o ma ion and can o m
comp ehensi e e alua ion esul s o hei heal h mo e accu a ely
(24). The e o e, his s udy chose he ques ion o “How do you
hink you heal h is?” o measu e he sel - epo ed heal h s a us
o he sample, and he answe o his ques ion had eo de ed
alues o “1 =” unheal hy, “2 =” gene al, “3 =” mo e heal hy,
“4 =” e y heal hy, and “5 =” e y heal hy; he highe he alue,
he mo e heal hy he u al ela i e po e y popula ion was.
In addi ion, acco ding o p e ious esea ch conclusions, age,
sex, educa ion le el, ma i al s a us, wo king s a us, equency
TABLE 1 Defini ion and desc ip i e s a is ics o a ious a iables.
Va iables Va iable de ini ions
Dependen a iable Heal h s a us Con inuous a iable, anging om 1 o 5
Independen a iable NRCMS Ca ego ical a iable, NRCMS pa icipan s =1,non-NRCMS pa icipan s =0
Age Con inuous a iable
Sex Ca ego ical a iable, 0 = emale, 1 =male
Educa ion le el Con inuous a iable, a e age educa ion yea s
Con ol a iables Ma i al s a us Ca ego ical a iable, 0 =unma ied, 1 =ma ied
Wo king s a us Ca ego ical a iable, 0 =no, 1 =yes
F equency o in e ne use Con inuous a iable, anging om 0 o 6
Smoking s a us Ca ego ical a iable, 0 =no, 1 =yes
Alcohol s a us Ca ego ical a iable, 0 =no, 1 =yes
Time spen wa ching TV Con inuous a iable, anging om 0 o 50
F equency o physical ac i i y Con inuous a iable, anging om 0 o 50
The le el o medical ca e a he poin o he isi Con inuous a iable, anging om 1 o 5
Time spen pe o ming housewo k Con inuous a iable, anging om 0 o 12
Family size Con inuous a iable, anging om 1 o 15
Heal h ca e expendi u es Con inuous a iable
Bank loan epaymen s a us Ca ego ical a iable, 0 =no, 1 =yes
Family income le el Con inuous a iable, ake he loga i hm
F on ie s in Public Heal h 03 on ie sin.o g
39
Hou e al. 10.3389/ pubh.2022.968009
Funding
This s udy was suppo ed by Fuzhou Social Science Planning
(2021FZB08) and Educa ion and Scien i ic Resea ch P ojec
o Young and Middle-aged Teache s o Fujian P o incial
Educa ion Depa men (Social Science) (JAS19035) awa ded
o BH.
Conflic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in
he absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships
ha could be cons ued as a po en ial con lic
o in e es .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose
o he au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose
o hei a ilia ed o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe ,
he edi o s and he e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be
e alua ed in his a icle, o claim ha may be made by
i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o endo sed by he
publishe .
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47
F on ie s in Psychology 01 on ie sin.o g
When helping is isky: The
in luence o e hical a ibu es on
consume s’ willingness o buy
a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online
JingjingWu
1, ChaoWang
2, YingzhengYan
1 and
QiujinZheng
3*
1 College o Managemen and Economics, Fujian Ag icul u e and Fo es y Uni e si y, Fuzhou, China,
2 College o Fo es y, Fujian Ag icul u e and Fo es y Uni e si y, Fuzhou, China, 3 School o
Jou nalism and Communica ion, Minjiang Uni e si y, Fuzhou, China
Chinese e-comme ce pla o ms ha e long helped o sell ag icul u al p oduc s
h ough a me -assis ing ma ke ing ac i i ies, e ec i ely alle ia ing he
p oblem o s agnan ag icul u al p oduc s in some a eas, and ha e become
a aluable cause- ela ed ma ke ing s a egy. The e hical a ibu es o a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s ha e unique alue compa ed wi h o he
ag icul u al p oduc s. Howe e , he exis ing esea ch a ely pays a en ion o
he in luence o he e hical a ibu es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s
on consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s
online. Based on collec i e e icacy heo y and isk pe cep ion heo y, his
s udy sys ema ically explo es he in luence mechanism o e hical a ibu es
(symbolic e hical a ibu e and unc ional e hical a ibu e) on consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online h ough h ee
si ua ional expe imen s. The esul s show ha compa ed wi h unc ional
e hical a ibu es, symbolic e hical a ibu es ha e a mo e posi i e impac on
consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online. In
addi ion, i u he e eals wo media ing pa hways o e hical e ec s (collec i e
e icacy and isk pe cep ion) and bounda ies (eme gency o a me -assis ing
e en s). This s udy helps o unde s and he e hical a ibu es o a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s, and p o ides some p ac ical sugges ions
o e-comme ce en e p ises implemen ing a me -assis ing ma ke ing
communica ion ac i i ies o ma ke e s de eloping and p omo ing a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s.
KEYWORDS
e hical a ibu es, collec i e e icacy, isk pe cep ion, a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s, online shopping
TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 02 No embe 2022
DOI 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
And zej Klimczuk,
Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
REVIEWED BY
He u Nug oho,
Telkom Uni e si y,
Indonesia
Puni a Duhan,
DSEU, India
He a Feb ia Ma ilinda,
S iwijaya Uni e si y,
Indonesia
*CORRESPONDENCE
Qiujin Zheng
[email p o ec ed]
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Pe sonali y and Social Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
RECEIVED 09 Augus 2022
ACCEPTED 26 Sep embe 2022
PUBLISHED 02 No embe 2022
CITATION
Wu J, Wang C, Yan Y and Zheng Q (2022)
When helping is isky: The in luence o
e hical a ibu es on consume s’ willingness
o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online.
F on . Psychol. 13:1014972.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
COPYRIGHT
© 2022 Wu, Wang, Yan and Zheng. This is
an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde
he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion License (CC BY). The use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion in o he
o ums is pe mi ed, p o ided he o iginal
au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s) a e
c edi ed and ha he o iginal publica ion in
his jou nal is ci ed, in acco dance wi h
accep ed academic p ac ice. No use,
dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed
which does no comply wi h hese e ms.
48
Wu e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
F on ie s in Psychology 02 on ie sin.o g
In oduc ion
Unlike adi ional p omo ions, e-comme ce-assis ed
ag icul u al ma ke ing is an inno a i e model ha links he social
suppo o e-comme ce pla o ms o he sales o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s (Lee and Cha les, 2021). In ac , since he
ou b eak o he COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese e-comme ce
pla o ms ha e helped sell ag icul u al p oduc s h ough a me -
assis ing ma ke ing ac i i ies, e ec i ely alle ia ing he p oblem
o s agnan ag icul u al p oduc s in some a eas and educing he
impac o he epidemic on a me s’ income loss (Gu and Wang,
2020). In 2021, he e- ailing olume o ag icul u al p oduc s
eco ded in China eached 422.1 billion yuan, up2.8% yea on
yea , bu only accoun ed o 4% o he e- ailing olume o physical
goods, said a epo on E-Comme ce in China (2021) eleased by
he Chinese Minis y o Comme ce. The abo e da a ully
demons a es ha al hough he e-comme ce o ag icul u al
p oduc s in China is g adually de eloping, i s pene a ion a e is
s ill ela i ely low. Thus, i wewan o p omo e g ow h in u al
incomes u he , i is essen ial o ully u ilize he ac i e ole o
digi al echnology in u al e i aliza ion. In ace o he COVID-19
pandemic, e-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u al ma ke ing has
become a aluable cause- ela ed ma ke ing s a egy, which can no
only sell s agnan ag icul u al p oduc s bu also o ce u al
ad an ageous and cha ac e is ic indus ies o become bigge ,
s onge , and be e , and de elop in o an impo an channel o
online sales o ag icul u al p oduc s (Xiao e al., 2021). In e ms
o e-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u al ma ke ing, his s udy also
e e s o he ele an esea ch on cause- ela ed ma ke ing
(Gue ei o e al., 2016).
E-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u al ma ke ing has ecei ed
mo e and mo e a en ion and suppo (Li e  al., 2022). I is
essen ially a mo al economic beha io ha people’s pu chasing
beha io is imbued wi h good mo al alue by encou aging
consume s o buy ag icul u al p oduc s, wi h he help o mo al
mobiliza ion (Mai and Li, 2014; Han e  al., 2018). Thus, he
pu chase o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s by consume s
is essen ially a kind o “e hical consump ion” (Quan, 2021). E hical
consump ion is de ined as a ype o p oduc pu chased by
consume s ha con ains no only di ec use alue bu also o he
a ibu e alues (such as social de elopmen o en i onmen al
sus ainabili y; Long and Mu ay, 2013). Wang e  al. (2021)
e ealed ha e hical a ibu es a e he main mo i a ion o
consume s o buy ag icul u al p oduc s online om poo a eas
and o pay mo e. Thus, e hical a ibu es a e a po en ial in luence
on consume s’ pu chase o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s,
and his s udy uses he e m “e hical e ec ” o e e o his
in luence. This e ec is simila o ea lie s udies on p osocial
beha io , g een consump ion, and ai - ade consump ion, bu
hese s udies also poin o he complexi y o consume s’
consump ion decisions o p oduc s wi h e hical a ibu es
(He édia-Colaço and Coelho do Vale, 2018). The s udies by Bodu
e al. (2014) and He édia-Colaço and Coelho do Vale (2018) ha e
emphasized he impo ance o alignmen o e hical a ibu es and
p oduc ca ego y in e es s. Cus ome s could bewo ied abou
buying hings wi h mo al quali ies ha all sho in e ms o u ili y
and quali y o no mal use (Mai e al., 2019). Howe e , unlike he
gene al ype o e hical commodi ies p e iously in es iga ed,
a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s no only sa is y he p i a e
u ili y alue o consume heal h and sa e y bu also e lec he
public u ili y alue o assis ing s uggling a me s (Wang e al.,
2021; Zeng Q. Y. e al., 2021). As a esul , ea lie esea ch on
e hical consump ion mo i es o gene al ypes o p oduc s is no
longe use ul in assessing and o ecas ing consume pu chase
decision p oblems in ol ing a me -assis ance ag icul u al
p oduc s. Ag icul u e p oduc s a e he mos impo an componen
in he e-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u e ma ke ing scena io o
gaining ma ke ecogni ion, and i is necessa y o explo e u he
he deeply embedded psychological mechanisms and heo e ical
logic o he in luence o hei e hical a ibu es on consume s’
decisions o pu chase assis ed ag icul u e p oduc s online.
In he pas , mos schola s ha e ocused on he psychological
a iables o he indi idual le el o philan h opis s o esea ch
e hical consump ion issues. Fo example, philan h opis s o med
posi i e e hical consump ion a i udes, willingness, o beha io s
based on psychological ac o s such as e hical alues, empa hy,
guil elie , o pe sonal cos -e ec i eness (Yang e al., 2014; Sa a y
and Goldsmi h, 2020). Howe e , F i sche e al. (2018) ques ioned
he indi idualis ic iew and emphasized ha he collec i e
dimension o e hical consump ion should beadd essed. When
consume s a e conce ned abou collec i e goals, demand o
social wel a e p oduc s inc eases (Simpson e al., 2021), especially
in he ne wo k, he posi i e dynamic e en s can enhance he
ne wo k collec i e beha io in en ion h ough he digi al emo ion
in ec ion (Goldenbe g and G oss, 2020; Xie and Li, 2022). Thus,
al hough some s udies ha e indica ed ha he e-comme ce
pla o m has he po en ial o a me -assis ing and po e y
alle ia ion (Peng e al., 2021; Li e al., 2022; Zeng e al., 2022), ew
schola s conside he ole o social media communica ion in he
psychological p ocess o consume s’ online shopping o a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s. In pa icula , he e a e ew ela ed
s udies on collec i e e icacy based on e-comme ce pla o m
(Ho nsey e al., 2021; Lee and Li les, 2021; Valizadeh e al., 2022).
This s udy a gues ha he concep o collec i e e icacy is an
essen ial supplemen o e hical consump ion esea ch. I is
necessa y o u he s udy he po en ial mechanism o he
in luence o e hical a ibu es on consume s’ willingness o buy
a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online om he pe spec i e
o collec i e e icacy.
Fu he mo e, in online e ail, he physical dis ance be ween
he online e aile and he consume gene a es In e ne e hics
conce ns among consume s (Lee and Cha les, 2021). As an
illus a ion, some online e aile s “ ap” consume s h ough alse
and exagge a ed “ agic ma ke ing” icks (Zhou, 2020). F esh
ag icul u al p oduc s a e ela i ely non-s anda dized p oduc s,
and quali y issues such as shoddy p oduc s and inconsis en
pic u es exace ba e isk conce ns in he e-comme ce en i onmen
(Fan and Liu, 2021). P e ious esea ch has ound ha he deg ee
49
Wu e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
F on ie s in Psychology 03 on ie sin.o g
o which consume s a e willing o ake isks also a ec s hei
willingness o help o he s when doing so may expose hem o
ce ain isks (Gangadha an e al., 2019; Beaud e al., 2022; Cos a
e  al., 2022). Consume s’ decision o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s wi h e hical a ibu es online is complica ed
by he po en ial con lic o in e es be ween indi idual goals
(immedia e p oduc bene i s) and long- e m collec i e goals
(con ibu ing o social well-being).
The signi icance o a p oduc ’s e hical a ibu es o ma ke e s
seeking o di e en ia e hei p oduc s canno beo e s a ed, as
acknowledged by he as majo i y o academics (Iweala e al.,
2019; Hindsley e al., 2020; Quan, 2021). Howe e , i is c ucial o
conside wha e hical a ibu es ag icul u al p oduc s should ha e
in o de o inc ease consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online. Wha is he unde lying mechanism
behind he e hical e ec ? Whe e a e he bounda ies o e hical
e ec ? To add ess he abo e issues, his s udy ocuses on he
special na u e o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s hemsel es
(i.e., e hical a ibu es), and explo es he di e ences be ween
di e en e hical a ibu es (symbolic and unc ional) on he
in insic d i e s in he o ma ion o consume s’ online pu chase
decisions h ough he in oduc ion he collec i e e icacy heo y
and isk pe cep ion heo y. Simul aneously, a ious scena ios o
he u gency o a me -assis ing e en s a e in oduced in o de o
iden i y clea bounda ies.
The s udy is inno a i e in h ee aspec s. Fi s , in cause- ela ed
ma ke ing ac i i ies, schola s ha e explo ed he impac on
consume beha io al decisions om ma ke ing s a egies such as
ic im’s image (Home , 2021; Zhou e  al., 2021), ic im’s
ecognizabili y (Hou e al., 2022), and ad e ising pe sonaliza ion
(Kim and Kim, 2022). Howe e , ew s udies ha e ocused on
p oduc a ibu es. This s udy b oadens he esea ch iewpoin on
cause- ela ed ma ke ing by examining he ela ionship be ween
he e hical a ibu es o a me -assis ance ag icul u al p oduc s
and consume s’ willingness o buy online. This s udy dis inguishes
be ween symbolic and unc ional e hical a ibu es and compa es
hem. Inco po a ing collec i e e icacy heo y and isk pe cep ion
heo y cla i ies he psychological mechanisms by which he wo
e hical a ibu es e ec consume s’ willingness o pu chase
ag icul u al p oduc s online. Second, his s udy iden i ied he
impo ance o collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion o
consume s o unde s and he signi icance o e-comme ce-assis ed
ag icul u al ma ke ing ac i i ies, he eby con ibu ing o ele an
esea ch on collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion heo ies. Thi d,
he mode a ing e ec o he u gency o a me -assis ing e en s
(sudden disas e scena io and no ma i e di icul y scena io) on
he ela ionship be ween e hical a ibu es and consume s’ online
pu chase decisions was in es iga ed. The in e ac ion o he wo has
a signi ican e ec on cus ome s’ willingness o buy a me -
assis ing ag icul u al online, so complemen ing p io esea ch on
consume s’ e hical consump ion. In summa y, he indings o his
s udy p o ide a necessa y heo e ical basis o e-comme ce
pla o ms o e ec i ely de elop a me -assis ing ma ke ing
s a egies, hus helping ag icul u al p oduc s access he ma ke
and enhancing a me s’ income, as well as u al e i aliza ion.
Theo e ical backg ounds
E hical a ibu es o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s
E hical a ibu es e e o p oduc a ibu es ha e lec social
ai ness, en i onmen al p o ec ion, and o he e hical issues.
Bezençon e al. (2020) ha e e ealed ha pu chasing p oduc s
wi h e hical a ibu es (e.g., EcoConscious o No Child Labo
s a emen ) can e lec hei conce ns and suppo o social o
e hical issues, bu has no hing o do wi h he unc ion o he
p oduc i sel . Thus, e hical a ibu es also e e o symbolic e hical
a ibu es o a ce ain ex en (Peloza e al., 2013; Sama e al., 2018;
Hindsley e al., 2020; To ighi e al., 2020; Das e al., 2021; Wang
e  al., 2021; Salam e al., 2022; see Table 1). Unlike p e ious
esea ch, Bodu e al. (2014) belie ed ha p oduc s wi h e hical
a ibu es also ha e unc ional bene i s a he same ime. E hical
TABLE1 Li e a u e on e hical a ibu es.
Re e ence Topic E hical a ibu es E hical- ela ed in en ion
Peloza e al. (2013) G een ma ke ing En i onmen al sus ainabili y P oduc p e e ence
Sama e al. (2018) Fai ade Socio-en i onmen al esponsibili y Willingness o pay p emiums
Hindsley e al. (2020) Di ec - ade co ee Fa me s ecei e a p emium amoun ，ha es ing
me hod is sus ainable
Willingness o pay p emiums
To ighi e al. (2020) Sus ainable b ands Posi i e implica ions o he en i onmen ,
human igh s, social issues, and animal wel a e
B and e alua ions
Das e al. (2021) Gi -gi ing Made o eco- iendly ing edien s Pu chase in en ion
Wang e al. (2021) Po e y alle ia ion consump ion Apples om po e y-s icken a eas Willingness o pay
Salam e al. (2022) O ganic ood consump ion E hical p oduc ion Pu chase in en ion
P e ious s udies Focus on s anda dized p oduc s consump ion Focuses on symbolic bene i s o e hical a ibu es
This pape Non-s anda dized esh p oduce consump ion Focus on symbolic e hical a ibu es and
unc ional e hical a ibu es
Consume s’ willingness o buy a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online
50
Wu e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
F on ie s in Psychology 04 on ie sin.o g
a ibu es can gene ally be di ided in o unc ional e hical
a ibu es (such as p oduc pe o mance, sa e y, e c.) and symbolic
e hical a ibu es (such as public wel a e, social esponsibili y, e c.;
Bodu e al., 2014; To ighi e al., 2020).
Consume s’ pu chasing decisions a e based on e alua ions
and needs o p oduc -speci ic a ibu es. A necessa y
condi ion o p omo ing e-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u al
ma ke ing in consume g oups is ha consume s ha e an
e ec i e demand o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s.
This demand depends on whe he a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s can b ing special alue o consume s
compa ed wi h adi ional e-comme ce ag icul u al p oduc s.
Thus, acco ding o he di e ence in he cha ac e is ics o
e hical a ibu es, consume s’ demand o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s can bedi ided in o wo si ua ions: on
he one hand, a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s con ey
he message o “ unc ional e hical a ibu es,” emphasizing
he ad an ages o na u alness, sa e y and as e, and mee ing
consume s’ p ac ical needs in e ms o unc ionali y. The
common pe cep ion is ha he land in emo e moun ainous
a eas is e ile, he en i onmen is no pollu ed, he
p oduc ion condi ions a e mo e adi ional, and he p oduc s
a e heal hie and mo e nu i ious (Wang e al., 2018). On he
o he hand, a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s con ey he
message o “symbolic e hical a ibu es,” emphasizing ha he
p oduc s ha e he cha ac e is ics o helping apped o
impo e ished a me s, and can mee he emo ional needs o
consume s in e ms o mo ali y and emo ion. Zeng Q. Y. e al.
(2021) e ealed ha helping a me s is he mos common
mo i a ion o consume s o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s.
In gene al, mos o he exis ing esea ch on he e hical
a ibu es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s is s ill limi ed
o he symbolic alue o he p oduc , igno ing he unc ional alue
o he p oduc such as sa e y and as e. Thus, u he sys ema ic
analysis o he e hical a ibu es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s is equi ed.
Collec i e e icacy
Collec i e e icacy o igina es om psychology and
sociology and is based on he de elopmen o sel -e icacy
heo y. Bandu a (2002) de ined collec i e e icacy as an
indi idual’s belie in he collec i e abili y o he collec i e o
e ec i ely achie e a goal. Thus, collec i e e icacy is no he
abili y o he g oup i sel , bu he indi idual’s pe cep ion o he
collec i e abili y. When a majo i y o he g oup exp esses
suppo and app ecia ion o p osocial ac i i ies, indi iduals
espond o o he s’ p osocial beha io al expec a ions by
adjus ing hei beha io al willingness o pa icipa e in
en i onmen al p o ec ion ac i i ies (Bambe g e  al., 2015),
plas ic educ ion (Reese and Junge, 2017), and ecycling
ac i i ies (Wang e al., 2020), e c.
Collec i e e icacy is conside ed one o he c i ical ac o s in
collec i e ac i i y esea ch, and i s impo ance has been explo ed
in esea ch con ex s such as communi y ac i i y (Ca bone and
McMillin, 2019), en i onmen al p o ec ion (Higham e al., 2019;
Ho nsey e al., 2021), o ganiza ional leade ship (Valizadeh e al.,
2022), and poli ical ac i i y (Chapman e al., 2022). Valizadeh
e al. (2022) poin ed ou ha collec i e e icacy has a signi ican
posi i e impac on social esilience in he COVID-19 pandemic.
Zhao e al. (2022) also indica ed ha du ing he epidemic, people’s
pa icipa ion e icacy mo i a es hem o pa icipa e in online
collec i e ac i i ies. Al hough he e a e ew s udies on collec i e
e icacy in he con ex o e-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u al
ma ke ing, he abo e s udies con i m he ole o indi iduals’
expec ed ou comes o collec i e powe in s imula ing
p o-en i onmen al ac ions and social pa icipa ion in en ions.
Fu he , he s udy by Simpson e al. (2021) s a es ha when he
collec i e e icacy o c owd unding pa icipan s is high, hey will
bemo i a ed o pu sue and accomplish goal ou come ha bene i s
he collec i e. The esul s o his s udy also indica ed ha collec i e
e icacy enhances consume demand o socially bene icial
p oduc s bu does no a ec he demand o sel -in e es ed
p oduc s. Simila ly, Li and Sun (2022) showed ha al uis ic
appeals in g een p oduc ad e ising can mo i a e consume s o
inc ease hei pu chase in en ions when hey a e conce ned abou
collec i e in e es s. Thus, collec i e e icacy heo y p o ides a
aluable pe spec i e on how people iew he abili y and
e ec i eness o ac ions o sol e he p oblem o a me -assis ing
and po e y alle ia ion. Speci ically, e-comme ce-assis ed
ag icul u al ma ke ing can enhance he demand o a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s by inc easing consume s’ a en ion
o collec i e goals. Based on he de ini ion o Do an and Hanss
(2022), his s udy de ines he collec i e e icacy o a me -assis ing
consump ion as people’s pe cep ion o he collec i e’s abili y o
success ully help a me s sol e he p oblem o s agnan
ag icul u al p oduc s.
The u gency o a me -assis ing e en s
In cause- ela ed ma ke ing ac i i ies, consume s’ judgmen o
he u gency o causal- ela ed e en s will a ec hei a i udes and
beha io al decisions (Luo and L , 2019). Zheng e  al. (2019)
di ided cause- ela ed e en s in o wo scena ios acco ding o hei
u gency: long- e m di icul y (e.g., po e y, pollu ion) and sudden
disas e (e.g., epidemic, ea hquake). People a e mo e likely o
dona e o sudden disas e s han o long- e m di icul ies.
Acco ding o he a ibu ion heo y, when a company p o ides
help o he people su e ed a sudden disas e , no only he
uncon ollable and unp edic able na u e o he disas e can
p e en people om blaming he ic im, bu also he company’s
beha io will also inc ease he consume ’s sense o iden i y
(Vanhamme e al., 2012; Chang e al., 2021). When a company
conduc s cause- ela ed ma ke ing campaigns on long-s anding
p oblems, i o en leads consume s o associa e wi h he company’s
51

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F on ie s in Psychology 05 on ie sin.o g
sel -in e es ed pu pose (such as imp o ing pe o mance o
epu a ion; Kuo and Rice, 2015; Zhang e al., 2020; Chang e al.,
2021). Thus, he u gency o a me -assis ing e en s may a ec
consume s’ decision-making on e hical beha io o a ce ain
ex en . Combined wi h p e ious s udies on he u gency o cause-
ela ed e en s, his s udy also di ides he u gency o a me -
assis ing e en s in o sudden disas e s and no ma i e di icul ies.
A sudden disas e scena io e e s o ca ying ou a me -assis ing
ac i i ies o he p oblem o s agnan ag icul u al p oduc s caused
by sudden disas e s; a no ma i e di icul y scena io e e s o
ca ying ou a me -assis ing ac i i ies o he long- e m
disha mony be ween he p oduc ion and ma ke ing o ag icul u al
p oduc s in poo a eas.
Resea ch hypo heses
E hical a ibu es and consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online
E hical a ibu es play a c ucial ole in consume s’ e hical
consump ion (Bezençon e al., 2020; To ighi e al., 2020; Das e al.,
2021). Bo h symbolic e hical a ibu es and unc ional e hical
a ibu es can b ing u ili y o consume s (Zeng Q. Y. e al., 2021).
He édia-Colaço and Coelho do Vale (2018) and Iweala e  al.
(2019) ound ha o ganic p oduc s wi h symbolic e hical
a ibu es (e.g., en i onmen al p o ec ion, animal wel a e) lead o
highe a ings by consume s. Thus, he symbolic e hical a ibu es
o p oduc s a e conside ed o bean impo an ac o a ec ing he
e hical consump ion o consume s. Wi h he imp o emen o
consume s’ awa eness o ood sa e y, he ac ual demand o high-
quali y ag icul u al p oduc s is also inc easing. The na u al heal h
a ibu es and local cha ac e is ics o a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s pe ec ly i he consume ’s in e es mo i es (Zeng
Y. C. e al., 2021). In pa icula , sel -in e es mo i a ion based on
na u al heal h a ibu es has epea edly appea ed in consume
pu chasing decision esea ch (Chekima e al., 2017; Zhou e al.,
2017). On ha basis, his s udy belie es ha he wo ypes o
e hical a ibu es will ha e a posi i e impac on consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online.
Fu he , some schola s ha e indica ed ha consume s also
ace a ibu e ade-o s when pu chasing e hical p oduc s wi h
mul iple a ibu es (A aque-Padilla e al., 2015). When p oduc s
a e a ed low, symbolic e hical a ibu es a e mo e likely han
unc ional e hical a ibu es (o o he a ibu es) o gi e consume s
he pleasu e and sa is ac ion de i ed om he pe cei ed
assessmen o con ibu ing o he well-being o socie y (Bezençon
e  al., 2020). Fo example, in he esh p oduc s e-comme ce
scena io, he unce ain y o he quali y and s anda diza ion o
esh ag icul u al p oduc s also u he leads o lowe o e all
consume e alua ion o online ag icul u al p oduc s. Thus,
compa ed wi h unc ional e hical a ibu es, he symbolic e hical
a ibu es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s can mo e
di ec ly con ey he social bene i s o a me -assis ing o
consume s, he eby inc easing consume e alua ion and
willingness o pu chase online. Based on he abo e analysis, his
s udy p oposes he ollowing hypo hesis:
H1: E hical a ibu es in luence consume s' willingness o buy
a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online, and symbolic
e hical a ibu es ha e a mo e posi i e impac on consume s'
willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s
online compa ed o unc ional e hical a ibu es.
E hical a ibu es and consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online: The
media ing e ec o collec i e e icacy
Consume s’ pa icipa ion in cause- ela ed ma ke ing ac i i ies
is no only a p osocial beha io bu can also beconside ed a
collec i e ac i i y (Hou e  al., 2022). The s udy by Ala i and
McCo mick (2018) showed ha collec i e e icacy de e mines an
indi idual’s a emp s and e o s o engage in collec i e ac i i ies.
Fo example, Do an and Hanss (2022) ound ha sus ainable
en i onmen al p o ec ion ac ions can only bep omo ed when
people ecognize he alue o collec i e e o s. Thus, as a ype o
collec i e ac i i y, a me -assis ing consump ion equi es no only
indi idual e o s bu also collec i e e o s o join ly add ess.
Based on social iden i y heo y, A slanagic-Kalajdzic e  al.
(2022) disco e ed ha mo al appeals ela ed o social issues will
ac i a e cohesion wi hin consume g oups and inc ease he
likelihood o posi i e beha io al esponses, such as gene a ing
pu chase in en ions. an Zome en e al. (2012) combined mo al
belie s wi h a social iden i y model o collec i e ac i i y, and poin ed
ou ha mo al belie s posi i ely a ec collec i e e icacy and can
p edic collec i e ac i i y in en ions. Simila ly, his s udy in e s ha
i a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s con ey e hical appeal and
e hical alue in o ma ion o consume s, i can ac i a e he sense o
iden i y o indi iduals and g oups, he eby o ming collec i e
e icacy. Al hough bo h ypes o e hical a ibu es o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s demons a e he bene i s o pa icipa ing in
ac i i ies, symbolic e hical a ibu es a e designed o s imula e he
mo al eeling o helping o he s, while unc ional e hical a ibu es
emphasize he p ac ical u ili y o sel -in e es . Thus, symbolic e hical
a ibu es a e mo e in line wi h he public’s e hical alues, a ac
online audiences mo e widely, and o m collec i e e icacy. Based on
he abo e analysis, he ollowing hypo heses a e made:
H2a: E hical a ibu es a ec consume s' collec i e e icacy,
and symbolic e hical a ibu es can s imula e consume s'
collec i e e icacy mo e han unc ional e hical a ibu es.
H2b: Collec i e e icacy plays a media ing ole be ween e hical
a ibu es and consume s' willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online.
52
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E hical a ibu es and consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online: The
media ing e ec o isk pe cep ion
E-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u al ma ke ing is a new scena io
ex ended by he combina ion o cause- ela ed ac i i ies and esh
online shopping. Compa ed wi h adi ional o line cause- ela ed
ma ke ing, consume s ha e in o ma ion asymme y be o e
ecei ing goods, mainly acing isks in in o ma ion sea ch,
p oduc quali y, logis ics, and anspo a ion, as well as a e -sales
se ice (Zhang e al., 2015), which also hinde s consume s om
equen ly pu chasing esh ag icul u al p oduc s online o some
ex en (Zheng e al., 2020; Wu e al., 2022).
Schola s ha e poin ed ou ha e hical a ibu es may come
wi h liabili y, especially in e ms o p oduc quali y, o mi iga e
consume isk pe cep ions o some ex en (Bodu e al., 2014).
Xue e al. (2022) poin ed ou ha he g een image o he pla o m
e lec s he pla o m’s commi men o social esponsibili y and
sus ainable de elopmen , which is conduci e o enhancing
consume iden i ica ion and educing conce ns. Thus, symbolic
e hical a ibu es can, o a ce ain ex en , imp o e p oduc
c edibili y and mi iga e consume isk pe cep ions. Howe e ,
some schola s also ound ha i is no always bene icial o
p oduc s o ha e e hical a ibu es. Based on ze o-sum heu is ic
esea ch, consume s may equa e a p oduc ’s e hical a ibu es
wi h i s lowe unc ional a ibu es (Che ne , 2007; Mai e al.,
2019), i.e., posi ioning an e hical p oduc as a “humani a ian”
bu less unc ional p oduc . A ypical example is when a
unc ional p oduc (such as laund y de e gen ) is labeled as
e hical (compa ed o no label), consume s will use a la ge
amoun (Lin and Chang, 2012). Quan (2021) emphasized ha
al hough a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s con ey
in o ma ion abou unc ional e hical a ibu es such as heal h
and sa e y o consume s, conce ns abou p oduc quali y may
a ec pu chase in en ions o some ex en due o he low le el o
consume s’ o e all knowledge abou he quali y and unc ion o
cause- ela ed p oduc s. Thus, his s udy a gues ha consume s’
a i udes owa d he a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s wi h
unc ional e hical a ibu es end o bebased on mo e a ional
o p ac ical conside a ions, esul ing in mo e isk pe cep ions.
In con as , he symbolic e hical a ibu e o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s is conduci e o s imula ing posi i e
associa ions among consume s, hus educing isk pe cep ions.
Based on he abo e analysis, he ollowing hypo heses
a e p oposed:
H3a: E hical a ibu es a ec consume s' isk pe cep ion, and
symbolic e hical a ibu es can alle ia e consume s' isk
pe cep ion mo e han unc ional e hical a ibu es.
H3b: Risk pe cep ion plays a media ing ole be ween e hical
a ibu es and consume s' willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online.
The mode a ing e ec o he u gency o
a me -assis ing e en s
Ex e nal en i onmen al issues ha e a signi ican mode a ing
e ec on he ela ionship be ween consume s’ cogni i e alues and
e hical consump ion willingness (Kushwah e  al., 2019). Thus,
consume s’ cogni ion and alue judgmen on he cha ac e is ics o
e hical a ibu es will beg ea ly a ec ed by he u gency o he
a me -assis ing e en . Speci ically, he s udy by Hou e al. (2022)
showed ha consume s end o p o ide mo e help o angibly
iden i iable indi iduals o e en s han o uniden i ied o no ma i e
e en s. Tha is, consume s a e mo e esponsi e o a single sudden
disas e scena io. Fu he , sudden disas e s ecei e mo e social
media co e age and appeals han ongoing di icul ies, which end
o esona e wi h he public and c ea e a esonance e ec
(Vanhamme e al., 2012). Fo example, he epidemic has apidly
d i en he social e hics o “one side in ouble, all sides suppo ,”
and he gene al public olun a ily joins and es ablishes eme gency
o ganic ela ionships unde he social media “posi i e ene gy”
p opaganda (Zhang and Meng, 2021). A he same ime, he eal-
ime dynamic in o ma ion deli e ed by social media u he helps
consume s unde s and he p og ess and e ec i eness o he
eme gency, ac i a ing some posi i e cogni i e e alua ion while
alle ia ing isk conce ns (Mi babaie e al., 2021). Howe e , in an
eme gency, i he in o ma ion in ol es unc ional ac o s, i will
inc ease he sensi i i y and igilance o consume s (Liu e al.,
2022). Based on his, his s udy a gues ha in sudden disas e
scena ios, symbolic e hical a ibu es a e mo e e ec i e in
enhancing consume s’ e hical emo ions, and communica ion and
in e ac ion h ough social media can u he enhance collec i e
e icacy and mi iga e isk pe cep ions, hus p omo ing consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s. Howe e ,
as he scale o he g oup in need o help inc eases, consume s will
pe cei e an inc ease in he di icul y o helping (Sha ma and
Mo wi z, 2016). In con as , in a no ma i e di icul y scena io,
a me -assis ing e en s will no a ac s ong social a en ion and
consume s will no beable o see he e ec o a me -assis ing in
he sho e m (Salam e al., 2022), hus igno ing he di e ence
be ween he wo ypes o e hical a ibu es o some ex en . Thus,
he e is no signi ican di e ence be ween he collec i e e icacy and
isk pe cep ions inspi ed by symbolic and unc ional e hical
a ibu es. Based on he abo e analysis, his s udy p oposes he
ollowing hypo heses:
H4: The u gency o a me -assis ing e en s mode a es
be ween e hical a ibu es and collec i e e icacy. When in a
sudden disas e scena io, symbolic e hical a ibu es elici
mo e collec i e e icacy among consume s han unc ional
e hical a ibu es. When in a no ma i e di icul y scena io,
he e is no di e ence in he collec i e e icacy induced by
unc ional e hical a ibu es and symbolic e hical a ibu es.
H5: The u gency o a me -assis ing e en s mode a es
be ween e hical a ibu es and isk pe cep ion. When in a
53
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F on ie s in Psychology 07 on ie sin.o g
sudden disas e scena io, symbolic e hical a ibu es mi iga e
consume s' isk pe cep ions mo e han unc ional e hical
a ibu es. When in a no ma i e di icul y scena io, unc ional
e hical a ibu es do no di e om symbolic e hical a ibu es
in e ms o consume s' isk pe cep ions.
Based on he abo e heo e ical basis and discussion, his
s udy p oposes a esea ch model on he in luence o e hical
a ibu es on consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online. The de ails a e as ollows (see
Figu e1).
S udy design and esul s analysis
This s udy used an online beha io al expe imen esea ch
me hod o e i y he causal ela ionship be ween he independen
and dependen a iables. Exp essly, wese up an expe imen al
scena io o selling a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s on an
e-comme ce pla o m. Subjec s we e asked o iew di e en
in o ma ion and pic u es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s and play he ole o consume s in making online
pu chase choices. Finally, we compa e he di e ences in
consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online be ween di e en g oups o es he hypo hesis.
O e all, h ee expe imen s we e conduc ed o es hese
hypo heses (see Table2). In S udy 1, we es ed he main e ec o
e hical a ibu es on consume s’ willingness o buy a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online. Th ough S udy 2,
we e- alida ed he main e ec and e alua ed he media ing ole
o collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion. In S udy 3, he
mode a ing e ec s o he u gency o a me -assis ing e en s we e
in es iga ed. The e hical a ibu es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s we e manipula ed in wo di e en ways: as o ange
pic u es con aining “cha ac e ” images in S udy 1; as o ange
pic u es wi hou “cha ac e ” images in S udy 2 and S udy 3. The
online expe imen s we e conduc ed on he C edamo pla o m,
which has been accep ed in many e e eed jou nals and has
esul ed in many excellen pape s (Huang and Jaideep, 2020; Gai
and Pun oni, 2021).
FIGURE1
Hypo he ical model diag am.
TABLE2 Ou line o he s udies.
E ec /hypo hesis Tes ed in Subjec sou ce Independen a iable manipula ion Va iable measu emen
Main e ec : H1 S udy 1 C edamo pla o m 150 subjec s 3 ( unc ional e hical a ibu e s. symbolic
e hical a ibu e s. non-e hical a ibu e)
Consume s’ willingness o buy a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online
Media ing e ec : H2 S udy 2 C edamo pla o m 110 subjec s 2 ( unc ional e hical a ibu e s. symbolic
e hical a ibu e)
Consume s’ willingness o buy a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online;
Collec i e e icacy; Risk pe cep ion
Mode a ing e ec : H3 S udy 3 C edamo pla o m 180 subjec s 2 ( unc ional e hical a ibu e s. symbolic
e hical a ibu e) * 2 (sudden disas e scena io
s. no ma i e di icul y scena io)
Consume s’ willingness o buy a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online;
Collec i e e icacy; Risk pe cep ion
54
Wu e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
F on ie s in Psychology 08 on ie sin.o g
P e- es
The pu pose o he p e- es is o iden i y he a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s o o mal expe imen s. Th ough in e iews
wi h 10 consume s who ha e expe ience in pu chasing a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s, he ypes o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s wi h high amilia i y wi h he e-comme ce
pla o m ha e been p elimina ily de e mined, including ui s
such as o anges and apples, and ege ables such as po a oes and
ga lic. Fu he mo e, 30 esponden s we e andomly selec ed using
a con enience sample ques ionnai e o answe he ques ion “How
amilia a e you wi h he ollowing a me -assis ing ui s o
ege ables” (1 = “ e y un amilia ”; 7 = “ e y amilia ”). The esul s
showed ha consume s ha e he highes amilia i y sco e wi h
a me -assis ing o anges, M = 5.41. Thus, his s udy selec s o anges
as he ollowing expe imen al ma e ials.
S udy 1: The in luence o e hical
a ibu es on consume s’ willingness o
buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online
P e-expe imen
The pu pose o he p e-expe imen is o es he alidi y o he
expe imen al s imuli e lec ing wo dimensions o e hical
a ibu es ( unc ional e hical a ibu es and symbolic e hical
a ibu es). Re e ing o he expe imen al ma e ials and
expe imen al p ocess design o Bodu e al. (2014) and Bezençon
e al. (2020), his s udy adop s a scena io simula ion expe imen al
me hod and he s imuli a e in he o m o “pic u es + ex .”
O anges in A a ea om he Taobao Baba Fa m lo e channel a e
selec ed as he ma e ial, which has bo h “heal h” and “public
wel a e” e hical a ibu es.
The p e-expe imen andomly selec ed 30 subjec s
(% emales = 53.3%, Mage = 26.690 yea s, SD = 3.854) h ough he
sample ecommenda ion se ice o he C edamo pla o m. Fi s ,
all he subjec s we e p esen ed wi h he same in oduc ion
scena io ma e ials, ha is, a kind o s agnan o anges (29.9 yuan,
5 ca ies, 75–85 mm) in A a ea is no iced on he e-comme ce
pla o m. The subjec s hen andomly wa ched one o he wo se s
o ma e ials p esen ed. The i s g oup ead he pic o ial ma e ial
desc ibing he unc ional e hical p ope ies o he s agnan
o anges. The speci ic con en is “ he o iginal ecological plan ing o
o anges in A a ea, swee and mois u izing wi h no in lamma ion,
ich in i amin C, good o beau y and skinca e.” The second
g oup ead pic u es and ma e ials ha desc ibe he symbolic
e hical a ibu es o he s agnan o anges. The speci ic con en is
“ he o anges in A a ea a e ha d o ind a way o sell, and he
moun ain a me s a e g owing hem wi h g ea e o and u gen ly
need you suppo .” A e he subjec s ead he abo e ma e ials,
hey a ed he e hical a ibu e in o ma ion o he s agnan o anges
on he Seman ic Di e ence Scale (1 = “ unc ional e hical
a ibu es,” 7 = “symbolic e hical a ibu es”). The independen
sample - es esul s showed ha he mean sco es o he i s g oup
and he second g oup we e signi ican ly di e en (Msymbolic = 5.933,
SD = 0.961 s. M unc ional = 2.267, SD = 1.486; (28) = 8.023, p < 0.001),
and he s imuli in his g oup we e p elimina ily conside ed o
bee ec i e. The e ec on pe cei ed e hical a ibu es was u he
es ed by analysis o co a iance (ANCOVA) when con olling o
he age and gende o he subjec s, and he esul s we e consis en
wi h one-way ANOVA. The speci ic esul s we e no signi ican
e ec o gende on e hical a ibu es [F(1, 26) =1.325, p = 0.265]
and no signi ican e ec o age on e hical a ibu es [F(1,
26) = 1.821, p = 0.189; o b e i y, his es was conduc ed o all he
ollowing expe imen s, bu he esul s o his s ep o he analysis
a e no p esen ed].
Fo mal expe imen s
The pu pose o s udy 1 is o es he in luence o e hical
a ibu es on consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s online, i.e., es ing hypo hesis H1. A single-
ac o h ee-le el ( unc ional e hical a ibu e s. symbolic e hical
a ibu e s. non-e hical a ibu e) be ween-g oup expe imen was
designed. The o mal expe imen ec ui ed 150 subjec s
(% emales = 51.3%, Mage = 31.967 yea s, SD = 6.925) on he
C edamo pla o m, and andomly assigned he subjec s o he
symbolic e hical a ibu e g oup, unc ional e hical a ibu e
g oup, and non-e hical a ibu e g oup (con ol g oup). The h ee
g oups o subjec s ead he expe imen al ma e ials in he
p e-expe imen . The expe imen al ma e ials o he non-e hical
a ibu e g oup a e he same s agnan o ange pic u es as he e hical
a ibu e g oup, bu he e is no e hical a ibu e ex on he pic u e
(see Figu e2). A e he subjec s ead i , hey illed in he i ems o
consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online and demog aphic in o ma ion. The ques ionnai e
o consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online was adap ed om he s udy o Zhou e al. (2021),
wi h a o al o six ques ions, including “I plan o buy his o ange
online,” “I necessa y, Iamwilling o buy his o ange online,” e c.
The ques ion i ems we e assessed using he 7-poin Like scale
wi h 1 = “s ongly disag ee” and 7 = “s ongly ag ee.” A e
excluding 30 in alid ques ionnai es, 40 alid ques ionnai es we e
ob ained o he unc ional e hical a ibu e g oup, 40 o he
symbolic e hical a ibu e g oup, and 40 o he non-e hical
a ibu e g oup (con ol g oup).
Analysis o esul s
Fi s , he C onbach’s alpha alue o consume s’ willingness o
buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online was 0.788,
which was g ea e han 0.7, and he scale passed he eliabili y
es . Le en’s es showed ha F(2, 117) = 1.218, p = 0.299, u he
one-way ANOVA can beca ied ou (All se ies o expe imen al
analyses o he esea ch passed his es . Fo he sake o b e i y,
he ollowing expe imen al esul s a e omi ed o epo he da a
esul s o his s ep). Secondly, one-way ANOVA esul s showed
ha he in luence o symbolic e hical a ibu es, unc ional e hical
a ibu es, and non-e hical a ibu es on consume s’ willingness
55
Wu e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
F on ie s in Psychology 15 on ie sin.o g
Then, his s udy expands he an eceden psychological ac o s o
consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s
online om he pe spec i e o collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion.
Schola s ha e explained he easons o consume s’ e hical
consump ion based on a ibu ion heo y, SOR heo y, sel -signaling
heo y, and o he heo ies. They mainly ocused on indi idual
psychological a iables such as he imp o emen o e hical sense a
he le el o e hical psychology (Zheng e al., 2019) and he ade-o
o ela ed in e es s a he le el o eleological e alua ion (Das e al.,
2021). On he one hand, his s udy expands he psychological
mechanism o consume s’ e hical consump ion om he collec i e
le el. In he In e ne con ex , new media communica ion can help
consume s build and s eng hen collec i e e icacy. Consume s may
hink ha e-comme ce pla o m companies need collec i e e o s o
con ibu e o social good h ough he goal o a me -assis ing, and
hen ansla e his collec i e pe cep ion in o posi i e pu chasing
in en ions. On he o he hand, di e en om he p e ious e hical
consump ion esea ch ha ocused on o line physical consump ion
scena ios (Jin e al., 2020; To ighi e al., 2020; Salam e al., 2022), his
s udy is based on he e-comme ce-assis ed ag icul u al ma ke ing
scena io and in oduces isk pe cep ion o analyze he key ac o s ha
inhibi consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online. Based on his, he esea ch on he po en ial
mechanism a ec ing consume s’ e hical consump ion willingness is
u he imp o ed, and a mo e in-dep h heo e ical scena io
explo a ion can beca ied ou on he psychological cogni i e p ocess
o e hical consump ion. The esul s o his s udy ind ha symbolic
e hical a ibu es elici highe le els o collec i e e icacy and lowe
isk pe cep ions in consume s han unc ional e hical a ibu es.
Consume s’ collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion ha e dual
media ing e ec s be ween e hical a ibu es and consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online.
Finally, his s udy cla i ies he bounda y condi ions o he
media ing mechanisms o collec i e e icacy and isk pe cep ion
in he p ocess o e hical a ibu es in luencing consume s’
willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online.
P e ious s udies mainly emphasized ha when he unc ional and
e hical a ibu es o a p oduc a e weighed and compa ed
simul aneously, consume s ocus mo e on he unc ional a ibu es
o he p oduc (Luchs e al., 2012). In his s udy, we u he ind
ha o a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s, symbolic e hical
a ibu es can inc ease consume s’ willingness o buy a me -
assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s online by inc easing collec i e
e icacy and educing isk pe cep ions mo e han unc ional
e hical a ibu es in he sudden disas e scena io, while he e is no
signi ican di e ence in no ma i e di icul ies. This s udy
comple es he esea ch on he e hical a ibu es o p oduc s by
in oducing he a iable o a me -assis ing e en u gency.
Managemen implica ions
A e yea s o cons uc ion and de elopmen , e-comme ce o
ag icul u al p oduc s in China has become an engine and new
impe us o boos he de elopmen o ag icul u al and u al
economy. In he pos -epidemic e a, e-comme ce o ag icul u al
p oduc s in China is an essen ial and g owing ma ke segmen . As
weall know, New O ien al’s “O ien al Selec ion” pla o m has
achie ed ema kable achie emen s in ma ke ing model
inno a ion o a me assis ance. Thus, al hough he exis ing pain
poin o low s anda diza ion o esh ood emains unadd essed,
ope a o s should conside e hical posi ioning o boos consume s’
p opensi y o buy ag icul u al p oduc s online.
This s udy p o ides some heo e ical guidance alue and p ac ical
sugges ions o e-comme ce en e p ises o ma ke e s o e ec i ely use
he e hical a ibu es o ag icul u al p oduc s o enhance consume s’
willingness o pu chase. Fi s , when e-comme ce companies ca y ou
a me -assis ing ma ke ing, hey should pay a en ion o he
in o ma ion on he e hical a ibu es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s. Speci ically, he ma ke ing s a egy o en e p ises should
bebased on he symbolic a ibu es o a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s o public wel a e and po e y alle ia ion, while aking in o
accoun he unc ional e hical a ibu es such as p oduc quali y and
cha ac e is ics, o g adually o m he ma ke compe i i eness and
consume s ickiness o e-comme ce a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s. Secondly, e-comme ce companies can conside he ole o
collec i e e icacy in consume s’ pu chase decision-making p ocess,
and use In e ne social media pla o ms o p omo e he dissemina ion
o a me -assis ing e en s, o mobilize mo e ne izens o pa icipa e in
a me -assis ing ins ead o being a bys ande . A he same ime,
en e p ises should pay a en ion o he disclosu e o in o ma ion on
eal a me -assis ing e en s, imp o e he quali y o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s, enhance he anspo a ion and logis ics
sys em, and a oid he nega i e impac o educing he willingness o
buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s due o consume s’ isk
pe cep ion. Finally, e-comme ce companies should pay a en ion o
sudden disas e s and help a me s in a imely manne when choosing
wha kind o si ua ional ma ke ing o help a me s. This is because
consume s a e mo e posi i ely esponsi e o sudden disas e s. They
a e mo e likely o p o ide imely elie ac i i ies o sudden disas e
a eas h ough a me -assis ing ma ke ing ac i i ies.
Resea ch limi a ions and
pe spec i es
This s udy uses a single s imulus (o anges) and a me -assis ing
e en u gency scena ios (sudden ea hquakes and emo e
moun ainous a eas). a me -assis ing ag icul u al p oduc s include
no only ui s bu also ege ables, sea ood, and o he ca ego ies.
The e a e also o he ypes o eme gency scena ios o a me -assis ing
e en s, such as epidemics and high- empe a u e wea he . Di e en
p oduc ca ego ies and e en s may lead o di e en conclusions.
Fu u e esea ch could ul ima ely add ess hese issues by eplica ing o
es ing ex ensions ac oss mul iple ag icul u al p oduc ca ego ies.
Al hough his s udy ocuses on he in luence o e hical a ibu es
on consume s’ willingness o buy a me -assis ing ag icul u al
p oduc s online, i only lays emphasis on he p ocess o consume s’
pu chasing decisions. Due o unce ain ac o s such as p oduc
quali y in he online shopping p ocess, consume s’ expec a ions a e
62

Wu e al. 10.3389/ psyg.2022.1014972
F on ie s in Psychology 16 on ie sin.o g
pu chasing may a y. I will a ec he subsequen e alua ion,
epu chase, and o he beha io s o consump ion. Thus, he impac o
consume expec a ions on he e alua ion o a me -assis ing
ag icul u al p oduc s and he decision o epu chase can
beconside ed in he u u e.
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The o iginal con ibu ions p esen ed in he s udy a e included
in he a icle/supplemen a y ma e ial, u he inqui ies can
bedi ec ed o he co esponding au ho .
E hics s a emen
W i en in o med consen was ob ained om he indi idual(s)
o he publica ion o any po en ially iden i iable images o da a
included in his a icle.
Au ho con ibu ions
JW: concep ualiza ion, me hodology, o mal analysis, and
w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion. CW: so wa e and alida ion. YY
and CW: in es iga ion. JW and CW: da a cu a ion. QZ: w i ing—
e iew and edi ing and unding acquisi ion. All au ho s con ibu ed
o he a icle and app o ed he submi ed e sion.
Funding
This esea ch was unded by In oduc ion o Talen s o
Minjiang Uni e si y Science and Technology P e- esea ch
P ojec “Resea ch on he impac o G een Ad e ising Appeals
on consume s’ Willingness o Pay P emium o G een
Ag icul u al P oduc s” and Majo P ojec o Social Science
Fund o Fujian P o ince in 2022 “Resea ch on The S a egy o
Fujian P o ince Adhe ing o Expanding Domes ic Demand
(FJ2022Z006)”.
Con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he
absence o any comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could
becons ued as a po en ial con lic o in e es .
Publishe ’s no e
All claims exp essed in his a icle a e solely hose o he
au ho s and do no necessa ily ep esen hose o hei a ilia ed
o ganiza ions, o hose o he publishe , he edi o s and he
e iewe s. Any p oduc ha may be e alua ed in his a icle, o
claim ha may be made by i s manu ac u e , is no gua an eed o
endo sed by he publishe .
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TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 28 No embe 2022
DOI 10.3389/ soc.2022.1038006
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
And zej Klimczuk,
Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
REVIEWED BY
E y Puji Les a i,
Uni e si as Te buka, Indonesia
Joy Elly Tulung,
Sam Ra ulangi Uni e si y, Indonesia
*CORRESPONDENCE
Lislee Valle
l[email p o ec ed].ph
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Wo k, Employmen and O ganiza ions,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Sociology
RECEIVED 06 Sep embe 2022
ACCEPTED 02 No embe 2022
PUBLISHED 28 No embe 2022
CITATION
Valle L, Cos an E, Cos an F, Gene al E,
Alcan a a G, Kila RV, Ba ican I,
Oli a GM and A ila D (2022)
Communi y ex ension MSME’s
en ep eneu ial ac i i ies in ela ion o
po e y educ ion.
F on . Sociol. 7:1038006.
doi: 10.3389/ soc.2022.1038006
COPYRIGHT
©2022 Valle, Cos an, Cos an, Gene al,
Alcan a a, Kila , Ba ican, Oli a and
A ila. This is an open-access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he
C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License
(CC BY). The use, dis ibu ion o
ep oduc ion in o he o ums is
pe mi ed, p o ided he o iginal
au ho (s) and he copy igh owne (s)
a e c edi ed and ha he o iginal
publica ion in his jou nal is ci ed, in
acco dance wi h accep ed academic
p ac ice. No use, dis ibu ion o
ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which does
no comply wi h hese e ms.
Communi y ex ension MSME’s
en ep eneu ial ac i i ies in
ela ion o po e y educ ion
Lislee Valle1*, Emily Cos an1, Felix Cos an1, Ed alin Gene al1,
Ge ly Alcan a a1, Ronnel Vic o Kila 1, I y Ba ican2,
Gladies Mae Oli a 2and Denilin A ila3
1College o Educa ion, Cebu Technological Uni e si y-Danao Campus, Danao Ci y, Philippines,
2College o Managemen and En ep eneu ship, Cebu Technological Uni e si y-Danao Campus,
Danao Ci y, Philippines, 3College o Technology, Cebu Technological Uni e si y-Danao Campus,
Danao Ci y, Philippines
In oduc ion: Highe Educa ion Ins i u ions play a ole in po e y educ ion by
implemen ing communi y ex ension p og ams ocusing on capaci y building
and en ep eneu ship aining. Cebu Technological Uni e si y p og ams o e
hese p og ams h ough a ious skills aining o i s a ge ed beneficia ies. This
s udy aims o assess he communi y ex ension Mic o-, Small and Medium-
sized En e p ises (MSMEs) en ep eneu ial ac i i ies conce ning po e y
educ ion. The esea ch pa icipan s a e beneficia ies o communi y ex ension
p og ams ha p ima ily ocus on capaci y building and en ep eneu ship
aining, and hey e en ually become en ep eneu s.
Me hod: Using a c oss-sec ional su ey, 172 alid esponses we e analyzed,
wi h en ep eneu ship educa ion (EE), budge ing financial li e acy (BFL), access
o c edi acili ies (ACF), and en ep eneu ial pe o mance (EP) as p edic o s o
po e y educ ion (PR). Resul s om Pa ial Leas Squa es - S uc u al Equa ion
Modeling (PLS-SEM) gene a e insigh s om he se en hypo hesized pa hs o
he p oposed model.
Resul s and discussion: Findings e ealed ha en ep eneu ship educa ion (β
=0.258, p<0.05), budge ing financial li e acy (β=0.147, p<0.05), and access
o c edi acili ies (β=0.541, p<0.001) help educe po e y. Howe e , no
significan ela ionship was ound be ween en ep eneu ial pe o mance and
po e y educ ion (β=0.132, ns) whose cause may be di ec ly poin ed o he
pandemic’s significan impac on MSME’s en ep eneu ial ac i i ies.
Conclusion: This s udy confi ms he impo ance o en ep eneu ship
educa ion, budge ing, financial li e acy, and c edi access in p omo ing
en ep eneu ial success and educing po e y.
KEYWORDS
communi y ex ension, PLS-SEM (pa ial leas squa es - s uc u al equa ion model),
highe educa ion ins i u e, en ep eneu ship, po e y educ ion
F on ie s in Sociology 01 on ie sin.o g
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Valle e al. 10.3389/ soc.2022.1038006
In oduc ion
Po e y is a mul i ace ed issue wi h nume ous
in e connec ions. Inno a i e ways o inding solu ions a e
equi ed o lessen po e y’s e ec on people, socie y, and he
en i onmen (Moni uzzaman and Day, 2020). In o de o
be e unde s and po e y and de elop s a egies o comba
i , a ious economic, social, s uc u al, capaci y, and lea ning
echniques ha e been used o da e (So o and Wicks, 2017). A
u al communi y in he Philippines, like ishe men and a me s,
emains he poo es p ima y sec o in he Philippines (PSA,
2018). Due o he ac ha Filipino a me s a e s ill conside ed
o be poo , i ’s necessa y o gi e hem an addi ional sou ce
o income (Yamagishi e al., 2021). Highe po e y a es a e
associa ed wi h poo u al subsis ence on ishing and a ming,
illi e acy, unemploymen , and la ge amily sizes (Ce io, 2019;
Siphesihle and Lele hu, 2020).
Highe educa ion ins i u ions (HEIs) in he Philippines
play an impo an ole in educing po e y (Yulo Loyzaga
e al., 2022). Uni e si ies and colleges ca y ou a a ie y
o en ep eneu ship aining h ough communi y ex ension
p og ams ha a e o e ed o assis aspi ing en ep eneu s.
Communi y ex ension communica es and ans e s knowledge
and echnology o speci ic sec o s and a ge clien ele,
speci ically hose no en olled in o mal deg ee p og ams and
cou se o e ings (Palmén e al., 2020). The a ge bene icia ies
can imp o e p oduc ion, communi y, ins i u ion, and quali y
o li e while enhancing HEI academic and esea ch p og ams
(CHED CMO No. 08-S. 2010). A unique ecosys em o
collabo a ion o HEIs wi h communi ies, businesses, and
indus ies acili a es he ans e o knowledge and echnology
in speci ic de elopmen al sec o s ha di ec ly impac he
li es o indi iduals, amilies, and communi ies (Ve mesan
and F iess, 2022). In his case, ex ension is de ined as he
sys ema ic ans e o echnology, inno a ion, o in o ma ion
gene a ed by HEIs and i s pa ne o seek solu ions o speci ic
de elopmen al conce ns (Decla o-Ruedas e al., 2022). I is a
pu pose-speci ic, a ge -speci ic, and need-speci ic p og am o
ac ion u ilizing he bes a ailable da a, science, and e idence
om a ious disciplines o in o m sys ema ic app oaches
o de elopmen al solu ions (K asadakis, 2020). Resea ch,
inno a ion, and ex ension in Philippine highe educa ion
mus wo k con ex ually and pu pose ully (Hi su e al., 2021).
Knowledge gene a ion in HEIs should enable us o (a) deepen
ou unde s anding o ou sel es as a people and as a na ion and
disco e p ac ical e idence- and science-based answe s ha
can add ess eal-wo ld social, economic, and en i onmen al
challenges o amilies and communi ies (CHED CMO No. 52-S.
2016). Ex ension se ices a e go e nmen - un p og ams ha
o e lea ning oppo uni ies ha suppo p oduce s’ echnical
abili y and expe ise (Ullah e al., 2021). These p og ams had
been implemen ed o each ou o he local people o mo e
signi ican de elopmen (ElMassah and Mohieldin, 2020). They
in luenced hem o pu sue a passion ha main ains di e en
aspec s, especially employmen , business, cul u e, no ms, and
alues. Ex ension se ices a e essen ial, and he bes way o each
ou o young people is h ough e ec i e ex ension and ad iso y
se ices (O iz-C espo e al., 2021). Thus, i is possible o c ea e
ex ension p og ams ha in ol e you hs using pa icipa o y
me hodologies o p o ide inpu on p og am p io i ies (I anich
e al., 2020).
In he Philippines, highe educa ion ins i u ions a e
h us o s eng hen uni e si y-communi y engagemen h ough
ex ension ac i i ies (Medina, 2018). Fo he a o emen ioned
poin s o be aken se iously, i is impo an o keep in mind
he ollowing: (a) ac ions and decisions made in he o m o a
p og am ha e an impac on o he people; (b) ex ension se ices
planning is a coo dina ed e o ha en ails he iden i ica ion,
e alua ion, and assessmen o needs, issues, esou ces, p io i ies,
and solu ions; (c) while many o he bene i s, such as pa icipan
educa ion, may esul om he p ocess, an ex ension se ices
s a egy is a ma e ha mus be aken se iously. As a esul ,
he unc ion o ex ension p og ams con inues o change. This
echnique acili a es an i e a i e, collabo a i e lea ning p ocess
whe e op ions a e p esen ed o use s, who hen modi y hem
in esponse o local ci cums ances (Mo one, 2017;Villanue a
e al., 2020).
The Cebu Technological Uni e si y acili a es sus ainable
de elopmen in poo communi ies h ough ex ension se ices.
CTU communi y ex ensions we e made possible h ough he
s ong linkage be ween Cebu Technological Uni e si y and he
Local Go e nmen Uni . Ngaka and Zwane (2018) s essed ha
pa ne ships a e indispensable in ex ension se ices. Simila ly,
pa ne ships can help ein o ce, suppo , and e en eno a e
indi idual pa ne s, esul ing in highe p og am quali y, mo e
well o ganized esou ce use, and be e alignmen o goals and
p og ams (Weiss e al., 2010;Campos-Sil a e al., 2021). As a
esul , se e al communi y ex ension se ices we e success ully
conduc ed wi h all suppo om he Uni e si y Ex ension
Se ices O ice and he pa ne ins i u ion (Gu e e al., 2020;
An wi-Agyei and S inge , 2021).
Mos o CTU’s ex ension se ices p og ams we e designed
o help he communi y o igh po e y (e.g., FEU communi y
ex ension se ices 2020, Building You Communi y Resou ces
o Local En ep eneu s 2021, and C ea ing En ep eneu ial
Communi ies Con e ence 2022,). These p og ams we e ocused
mainly on capaci y building and en ep eneu ship aining. On
he one hand, capaci y building is he p ocess whe eby ele an
s akeholde s and o ganiza ions unleash, suppo , gene a e,
acclima e and main ain capaci y o e ime, usually o p omise
sus ainable g ow h and imp o e he li es o he s akeholde s
(Jones e al., 2020;Loss e al., 2020;Casado-Asensio e al., 2022).
I equi es acqui ing speci ic skills and de eloping oppo uni ies
o pu he skills o p oli ic use (Issa e al., 2010;Ha ley e al., 2020;
Ng e al., 2021). Full implemen a ion o a well-designed capaci y-
building p og am ensu es a sus ainable ex ension se ice
F on ie s in Sociology 02 on ie sin.o g
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Valle e al. 10.3389/ soc.2022.1038006
deli e y sys em whe e ex ension wo ke s can ope a e in he
expec ed comme cial economy (Issa, 2013;Cos a and And eaus,
2020). On he o he hand, he goal o en ep eneu ship
p og ams o low-income sel -employed people is o enhance
hei li elihood a he han p omo e cu ing-edge inno a ion
and business g ow h (Cho e al., 2016;Geo ge e al., 2021).
Mazi i i and Chi andi (2020) and Babajide e al. (2021) a e ed
ha en ep eneu ship p og ams ha e a iables ha include
en ep eneu ship educa ion, budge inancial li e acy, access o
c edi acili ies, and en ep eneu ial pe o mance.
As an HEI, CTU’s ole in po e y educ ion h ough
en ep eneu ship is ca ied ou h ough i s communi y
ex ension p og ams ha ocus mainly on capaci y building and
en ep eneu ship aining, which o e a ious skills aining
o he bene icia ies. This pape e alua es he en ep eneu ial
ac i i ies o he communi y ex ension p og am by examining
he a iables ha include en ep eneu ship educa ion, budge
inancial li e acy, access o c edi acili ies, and en ep eneu ial
pe o mance. E alua ing he e ec i eness and sus ainabili y
o hese p og ams ha mainly assis he bene icia ies wi h
becoming en ep eneu s impac s whe he hey should be
o wa ded, co ec ed, o e mina ed (Rahma and Izudin, 2018).
The es o he pape is o ganized in o ou sec ions:
Sec ion Li e a u e e iew and hypo hesis de elopmen p esen s
he concep ual model and he hypo heses. Sec ion Me hods
desc ibes he me hodological p ocedu es. Sec ion Da a analysis
and esul s epo s he esul o he PLS-SEM analysis. Sec ion
Discussions p esen s he discussion o he indings, while Sec ion
Recommenda ions p o ides concluding ema ks, limi a ions,
and some ecommenda ions.
Li e a u e e iew and hypo hesis
de elopmen
En ep eneu ship educa ion and
en ep eneu ial pe o mance
Acco ding o Manyaka-Boshielo (2019), en ep eneu ship
educa ion (EE) is de ined as ‘ he skills and knowledge ha
indi iduals acqui e h ough in es men in schooling, on- he-
job aining, and o he ypes o expe ience. While Mabenge
e al. (2020) s a ed he abili y o inno a ion o d i e e e y
i m ac i i y, such as cos educ ion, e enue g ow h, and
agg essi eness, is e e ed o as en ep eneu ial pe o mance.
The ela ionship be ween en ep eneu ship educa ion and
en ep eneu ial pe o mance mus be cla i ied. Van de Sluis
e al. (2008) con end ha in es ing in he educa ion o
imminen business isiona ies esul s in g ea e en ep eneu ial
pe o mance. The human capi al idea a i ms ha p e iously
acqui ed knowledge is c ucial o academic execu ion. Coad
e al. (2022) u he poin ou ha educa ion enhances he
pe o mance o he en ep eneu in se e al a eas, including
business su i al, i m de elopmen , and he associa ion’s en y
in o specula ion. Based on he cases abo e, his heo y is
pu o h:
H1: En ep eneu ship educa ion posi i ely and signi ican ly
impac s he en ep eneu ial pe o mance o MSMEs.
Budge ing financial li e acy and
en ep eneu ial pe o mance
The capaci y o manage s o success ully manage money
when making inancial decisions is e e ed o as inancial
li e acy (Ma colin and Ab aham, 2006). Acco ding o Ripain
e al. (2017), MSMEs play a c ucial ole in he economic
de elopmen o many na ions, and hei pe o mance and
expansion ha e come o he a en ion o a numbe o
s akeholde s, including he go e nmen , policymake s, and
inancial ins i u ions. The elemen o inancial managemen
is one o he mos equen ly men ioned success aspec s o
MSME, pe Salikin e al. (2014). In Uasin Gishu Coun y,
Chepnge ich (2016) obse ed a ela ionship be ween inancial
li e acy and MSMEs’ en ep eneu ial success and disco e ed ha
inancial li e acy signi ican ly impac ed MSME pe o mance.
Fu he , Ibo e al. (2017) disco e ed ha inancial se ices
had a a o able and signi ican impac on he unc ioning and
expansion o MSMEs. Access o inancial se ices is bene icial o
MSMEs and o he ulne able and unde p i ileged businesses.
Acco ding o Ra nawa i (2020), inancial inclusion has a di ec
and indi ec impac on MSMEs’ pe o mance h ough he use
o inancial in e media ion and capi al access. As a esul , we
can specula e:
H2: Budge ing inancial li e acy posi i ely a ec s
he en ep eneu ial pe o mance o he communi y
ex ension MSMEs
Access o c edi acili ies and
en ep eneu ial pe o mance
Ku ga e al. (2017) and S ubbs e al. (2021) de ined a
c edi acili y as an ag eemen wi h a bank o o he c edi
ins i u ions ha enables a pe son o o ganiza ion o bo ow
money when needed. Chege’s (2014) and Mazi i i and Chi andi
(2020) in es iga ion o he impac o c edi acili ies on he
de elopmen o he 100 bes MSMEs in Kenya ound ha access
o c edi acili ies has a signi ican e ec on he de elopmen o
hese en e p ises. The e o e, he execu ion o an en ep eneu ial
en u e elies on he en ep eneu ’s access o inance (Amou i
e al., 2021). Enhancing he poo ’s access o inancial se ices
empowe s hem o de elop bene icial esou ces and imp o e
hei p o i abili y and po en ial o manageable jobs (Mazi i i
F on ie s in Sociology 03 on ie sin.o g
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Valle e al. 10.3389/ soc.2022.1038006
and Chi andi, 2020;Se iawan e al., 2020;Tisdell e al., 2020).
When an MSME has access o c edi acili ies, i enhances he
execu ion o i s en ep eneu ial endea o s (Madan, 2020). As
such, he ollowing hypo hesis can be o mula ed
H3: Access o c edi acili ies posi i ely a ec s he
en ep eneu ial pe o mance o he communi y
ex ension MSME.
En ep eneu ial educa ion and po e y
educ ion
Fo low-income indi iduals who wan o s a and g ow
hei indi idual i ms, en ep eneu ship educa ion can be
help ul in deli e ing undamen al unde s anding, capabili ies,
and a i udes (San os e al., 2019). The e o e, en ep eneu ship
p o ides educed people a way ou o po e y and an
oppo uni y o enhance hei socie y, c ea e jobs, engage in
sel -employmen , educe c ime, sus ain hei amilies, and
ealize o he public wel a e (Mo is e al., 2020). Pa icula ly
du ing economic down u ns (Lewis and Lee, 2020). Small-scale
indi idual inno a ion and en ep eneu ship ha e eme ged as
c ucial elemen s in he igh o e adica e po e y ollowing
decades o la ge-scale s a e planning ailu e (P ideaux e al.,
2020). Resea ch in inancial economics (Schwe , 2021) and
applied economics and en ep eneu ship. Ka imi and Mak ee
(2020) ecen ly a i med he signi icance o en ep eneu ship
in he engagemen o “bo om o he py amid” consume s and
he sensible decisions hey may make ega ding p oduc s and
consume wel a e (Mehe a and O donez-Ponce, 2021). As such,
we can hypo hesize:
H4: En ep eneu ship educa ion posi i ely a ec s
po e y educ ion
Budge ing financial li e acy and po e y
educ ion
P esen ed he me hod o de eloping a inancial plan
ha p ojec s u u e expendi u es and income is known as
budge ing (Wa ue and Wanji a, 2013;Moshashai e al.,
2020;S i hong ung e al., 2021). On he one hand, Ayhan
(2019), Sha i and Nagha i (2020), Pu e al. (2021) de ined
inancial li e acy as he in o ma ion, se ices, and capabili y
o di ec inc easingly mul i ace ed economic ma ke places.
I is hough o gi e cus ome s he powe o make wise
inancial decisions. Addi ionally, Mazi i i e al. (2018), Singla
and Mallik (2021), Anshika and Singla (2022) emphasized
ha MSMEs’ pe o mance is signi ican ly impac ed by hei
lack o inancial li e acy ega ding budge ing. Manage s o
u al MSMEs mus become inancially li e a e, speci ically in
budge ing (Gosal and Kamase, 2021). Thus, many Filipinos a e
su e ing ou wa d economic unce ain y om he de iciency o
inancial li e acy, hinde ing hei abili y o su i e du ing he
pandemic. The e o e, we hypo hesize ha :
H5. Budge ing Financial Li e acy posi i ely a ec s
po e y educ ion
Access o c edi acili ies and po e y
educ ion
Tasos e al. (2020) saw po e y as a uni e sal ac ha no
one can deny; i was also ecognized as he g ea es ca as ophic
economic and social c isis mankind has encoun e ed om i s
incep ion. This p oblem has made i di icul o mos people
o achie e hei goals, such as ecei ing an educa ion, ea ning
money, s a ing businesses, o e en inding a job. I akes a lo
o e o o o e come po e y in many ways, depending on how
an indi idual deals wi h all he si ua ions. On he o he hand,
he go e nmen al and p i a e sec o s ha e de eloped p og ams
and ad an ages ha could assis he Philippines in anscending
po e y, such as expanding c edi access. Implica ing a c edi
acili y, acco ding o Chen e al. (2022), is a ype o loan issued
in he con ex o a business o co po a e inancing. I enables
he bo owing company o bo ow money o e a longe ime
a he han eapplying o a loan each ime i equi es unds;
in e ec , a c edi acili y enables a company o ake ou an
umb ella loan o gene a e capi al o e a longe pe iod o ime.
Gichuki e al. (2014) s a ed ha he high cos o payback,
s ingen colla e al equi emen s, people’s unwillingness o ac
as gua an o s, expensi e c edi acili y p ocessing cha ges, and
sho epaymen e ms we e p ohibi ing mic o and small
businesses om ob aining c edi . As a esul , i is ecommended
ha inancial ins i u ions es ablish mo e lexible, a o dable,
and appealing e ms o inancing mic o and small businesses.
Wa e , elec ici y, and ood a e c i ical esou ces o egional
social and economic de elopmen , acco ding o Pan e al. (2022).
They can be used as indica o s o me hods o measu ing
sus ainable de elopmen goals o ge inance, and he esul s can
aid in he coo dina ion o esou ce managemen and hence he
educ ion o po e y. The c edi acili ies will undoub edly assis
an indi idual in o e coming he challenge o po e y. Thus, we
hypo hesize ha :
H6: Access o c edi acili ies posi i ely a ec s
po e y educ ion
En ep eneu ial pe o mance and po e y
educ ion
Mic o, Small, and Medium En e p ises (MSMEs) con ibu e
signi ican ly o income gene a ion, employmen c ea ion,
po e y educ ion, and income inequali y educ ion (Ma wa,
F on ie s in Sociology 04 on ie sin.o g
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Valle e al. 10.3389/ soc.2022.1038006
2014;S ia y and Nyoman, 2020). Small businesses, acco ding
o Ma chaba-Ho e e al. (2015), ha e an impo an ole in
imp o ing de elopmen , p og ess, and i ali y, as well as
lowe ing unemploymen and po e y. Simila ly, Sa ka and
Kuma , 2011;Ege e e al., 2022 emphasized i s impo ance in
imp o ing he socioeconomic condi ions o he poo , c ea ing
job oppo uni ies, allowing o g ea e exploi a ion o local
aw ma e ials and o he esou ces, and boos ing he coun y’s
economic p og ess. Acco ding o Soko o and Abdullahi (2013),
he po en ial o any o ganiza ion o gene a e employmen is
c i ical in educing he incidence o po e y among economic
agen s. Addi ionally, Yasa Ke i e al. (2013); O ji e al. (2022)
conclude ha imp o emen s in MSME pe o mance ha e a
signi ican and undamen al impac on po e y educ ion. The
g ea e he change in MSME pe o mance, he mo e signi ican
he po e y educ ion. The e o e, we can hypo hesize,
H7: En ep eneu ial pe o mance o he communi y
ex ension MSME posi i ely a ec s po e y educ ion.
Me hods
Resea ch model
This pape adop ed and modi ied he s uc u al model
o Mazi i i and Chi andi (2020) o he key p edic o s ha
s imula e he en ep eneu ial pe o mance o small and medium
en e p ises (SMEs) and po e y. The aim o his s udy
is o assess he communi y ex ension bene icia ies u ned
en ep eneu s and hei en ep eneu ial ac i i ies conce ning
po e y educ ion du ing and a e a c isis (e.g., heal h
c isis, economic c isis due o calami ies). Pa icula ly, he
e ec s o en ep eneu ship educa ion, budge inancial li e acy,
access o c edi acili ies, and en ep eneu ial pe o mance in
alle ia ing po e y. The s uc u al equa ion model is shown
in Figu e 1.
Sampling and da a collec ion
The measu emen i ems o each cons uc in his s udy we e
adop ed om measu es in p io wo ks (see Appendix A).
En ep eneu ial educa ion (EE) has 13 measu emen
i ems, en ep eneu ial pe o mance (EP) has en, po e y
educ ion has en, access o c edi acili y has eigh , and
budge ing inancial li e acy has eigh . The da a we e ga he ed
h ough ace- o- ace ques ionnai e comple ion. The su ey
was dis ibu ed o a ound 200 pa icipan s o 4 weeks.
The e we e 187 esponses collec ed. The 15 esponses
had non-in e ac i e esponses and we e subsequen ly
emo ed. O 187, only 172 we e alid and used o he
inal analysis.
Ins umen s
This s udy used a modi ied su ey ques ionnai e o
collec he necessa y da a. The ques ionnai e was di ided
in o 3 sec ions. The i s pa includes ques ions such as
he esponden s’ age, gende , special skills and communi y
ex ension p og am. Second, he assessmen o en ep eneu ship
educa ion (Mwiya, 2014) and pe o mance (Sa iwulan e al.,
2020), budge ing inancial li e acy (Siekei e al., 2013), access
o c edi acili ies (Ku ga e al., 2017), and po e y educ ion
(Duclos and Tibe i, 2016) we e ga he ed.
Pa icipan s
A o al o 172 communi y ex ension bene icia ies u ned
in o mic o-, small and medium sized en ep eneu s (56 males
and 116 emales). They we e ained in di e en communi y
ex ension p og ams; speci ically, 46.02% a ended B ead and
Pas y, 17.44% had compu e aining, 15.12% de e gen
p oduc ion, 14.53% was ained in bo h Coco wa e ea ed
bo led milk ish in Spanish s yle wi h Rosema y P oduc ion and
Coco wa e ea ed bo led milk ish sa dines. Ano he 14.53%
we e ained in Vi gin Coconu oil and Coconu wa e ea ed
po k ocino p oduc ion. O he aining a ended by a mos 10%
o he esponden s we e as ollows; Kamias-based dishwashing
liquid, ug making, -shi /mug p in ing, comme cial cooking,
sewing, cosme ology, and massage. The pa icipan s came om
di e en municipali ies in he P o ince o Cebu, Cen al Visayas
Region. 6.40% o he pa icipa ing en ep eneu s ha e below
40 hou s o en ep eneu ial educa ion. 9.88% had 41–80 hou s,
28.49% had 81–120 hou s, while he majo i y o esponden s,
54.65%, had 121 hou s and abo e en ep eneu ial educa ion. All
esponden s olun ee ed o pa icipa e and we e assu ed ha
hei answe s would be kep s ic ly con iden ial. The p o ile o
he pa icipan s is e lec ed in Table 1.
Da a analysis and esul s
This s udy u ilized pa ial leas -squa ed s uc u al equa ion
modeling (PLS-SEM) o de e mine he causal ela ionships
be ween he in es iga ed a iables. PLS-SEM is a s a is ical
echnique ha has become a po en me hod o examining
co ela ions be ween a iables, e en in he p esence o non-
no mali y (Chinomona and Su ujlal, 2012). Da a we e ed
in o Sma PLS so wa e o ensu e he in e nal consis ency o
he i ems wi hin each sec ion. Sma PLS s a is ical so wa e
es ima es he pa ame e s o he s uc u al model and assesses
he psychome ic quali ies o he measu emen model. All
su ey ques ions equi ed a o ced esponse in o de o
gua an ee ha all esponses we e comp ehensi e and con ained
F on ie s in Sociology 05 on ie sin.o g
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Valle e al. 10.3389/ soc.2022.1038006
FIGURE 1
Model o en ep eneu ial ac i i ies in ela ion o po e y educ ion (adop ed om Mazi i i and Chi andi, 2020).
all necessa y in o ma ion. Fu he mo e, suspicious esponse
pa e ns we e dele ed.
Measu emen model assessmen
The PLS analysis allows pa allel es ing o he ou e
measu emen model and he inne s uc u al model and he
p esence o e lec i e and o ma i e la en a iables (Fo nell
and Books ein, 1982). Since he p oposed model in his s udy
includes e lec i e measu es, he i s c i e ion in e alua ing he
model is o examine he measu es’ eliabili y and alidi y (Hai
J e al., 2017). Based on he measu emen model assessmen
esul , all indica o s we e con e gen and eliable, as shown
in Table 2, whe e he ac o loading o each i em is g ea e
han 0.70 (Hensele e al., 2009). Fac o loadings less han
0.7 we e emo ed (Chin, 1998). Nine een i em indica o s (i.e.,
ACF2, ACF3, ACF4, ACF8, BFL1, BFL2, BFL3, EE1, EE2, EE3,
EE4, EP1, EP3, EP9, PR1, PR2, PR3, PR4, and PR6) we e
emo ed a e calcula ions h ough he Sma PLS algo i hm
un il all he i em indica o s eached he h eshold alue o
0.70. The e we e 30 measu emen indica o s ha emained
o he inal analysis. All measu es o each cons uc we e
alid. Wi h A e age Va iance Ex ac ed (AVE) s a is ics g ea e
han he h eshold alue o 0.5, all cons uc s ha e app op ia e
con e gen alidi y (Fo nell and La cke , 1981), anging om
0.609 o 0.768. Fu he mo e, he measu emen i ems we e all
eliable, wi h all he cons uc s ga ne ed abo e he C onbach’s
alpha (α) h eshold alue o 0.60, which is conside ed o
accep able eliabili y and an accep able index (Nunnally, 1994;
U sachi e al., 2015) and composi e eliabili y (CR) h eshold
alue o 0.70 (Hai J e al., 2017). The C onbach’s alpha anges
om 0.893 o 0.927, while he CR alues ange om 0.895
o 0.932. These esul s indica e high- eliabili y alues. Table 2
p o ides a summa y o he measu emen model esul s.
The co ela ions o he measu es o po en ial o e lapping
a iables a e used o assess he deg ee o which he measu emen
i ems measu e dis inc i ely among cons uc s (Hai J e al.,
2014). The squa e oo o AVE was calcula ed o ensu e
disc iminan alidi y. The AVE o he cons uc s was ound
o suppo disc iminan alidi y because i is g ea e han
he squa ed co ela ion o each la en a iable (Fo nell and
La cke , 1981). Table 3 bolds he squa e oo s o he AVE, while
non-bolded alues ep esen he in e co ela ion alue be ween
cons uc s. All o -diagonal alues a e less han he squa e
oo s o AVE, indica ing ha Fo nell and La ke ’s condi ion
is sa is ied. O e all, he measu emen model’s eliabili y and
alidi y es s we e me . All i ems used in his s udy o measu e
cons uc s a e alid and i o es ima e pa ame e s in he
s uc u al model.
In Table 3, he esea ch model i ness demons a es an
accep able i wi h a S anda dized Roo Mean Squa e Residual
(SRMR) alue o 0.077 and a common accep able i alue o
0.08. The No med Fi Index (NFI) alue is 0.696, e lec ing a
mode a e accep able alue wi h he h eshold o NFI <0.90. The
NFI gene a es alues anging om 0 o 1. The close he NFI is
o one, he be e he i . In gene al, NFI alues g ea e han 0.9
imply an excellen i .
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F on ie s in Sociology 13 on ie sin.o g
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TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 10 Feb ua y 2023
DOI 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1093978
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
And zej Klimczuk,
Wa saw School o Economics, Poland
REVIEWED BY
Li Zhang,
Fudan Uni e si y, China
Wei Chen,
Renmin Uni e si y o China, China
*CORRESPONDENCE
Hu Li
[email p o ec ed]
SPECIALTY SECTION
This a icle was submi ed o
Public Heal h Policy,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Public Heal h
RECEIVED 09 No embe 2022
ACCEPTED 25 Janua y 2023
PUBLISHED 10 Feb ua y 2023
CITATION
Wang X, Guo J and Li H (2023)
Mul idimensional po e y o pe sons wi h
disabili ies in China: An analysis o po e y
educ ion e ec o employmen se ices.
F on . Public Heal h 11:1093978.
doi: 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1093978
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dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion is pe mi ed which
does no comply wi h hese e ms.
Mul idimensional po e y o
pe sons wi h disabili ies in China:
An analysis o po e y educ ion
e ec o employmen se ices
Xiao eng Wang, Jiamin Guo and Hu Li*
No heas Asian Resea ch Cen e , Jilin Uni e si y, Changchun, China
In oduc ion: Disabili y is a global public heal h p oblem, and po e y due o illness
and disabili y has always been a majo p oblem and challenge o global po e y
go e nance. In o de o e adica e po e y, China has ca ied ou a se ies o wel a e
e o ms and employmen in e en ions o people wi h disabili ies. The pu pose o his
s udy is o examine he le els o mul idimensional po e y o pe sons wi h disabili ies
aged 16–59 in China and he po e y educ ion e ec o employmen se ices.
Me hods: The Alki e-Fos e (AF) me hod is applied o measu e and decompose he
mul idimensional po e y index (MPI) o people wi h disabili ies in his s udy. In o de
o make he esul s mo e obus , o dina y leas squa es (OLS) eg ession and he
combina ion o p opensi y sco e ma ching and di e ence-in-di e ences (PSM-DID)
a e used o s udy he e ec o employmen se ices on mul idimensional po e y o
he disabled.
Resul s: The esul s show ha among pe sons wi h disabili ies aged 16–59, abou
90% a e dep i ed in a leas one dimension, and abou 30% a e in a s a e o
se e e mul idimensional po e y un il 2019. The con ibu ions o dep i a ion in
he dimensions o educa ion and social pa icipa ion a e ema kably highe han
dimensions o economy, heal h and insu ance. In addi ion, employmen se ices ha e
a significan imp o emen e ec on mul idimensional po e y, which is eflec ed no
only in he economic dimension, bu also in he dimensions o educa ion, insu ance
and social pa icipa ion.
Conclusion: People wi h disabili ies a e gene ally in mul idimensional po e y
in China, and hei abili ies in lea ning and social in eg a ion a e se iously
inadequa e. Employmen se ices ha e played a g ea ole in imp o ing po e y,
bu he imp o emen has been di e en in di e en dimensions and di e en
disabili y ca ego ies. These findings p o ide impo an e idence o ecognizing
mul idimensional po e y o pe sons wi h disabili ies and he po e y educ ion e ec
o employmen se ices, which will help o o mula e mo e easonable public policies
o e adica e po e y.
KEYWORDS
disabili y, mul idimensional po e y, employmen se ices, AF me hod, PSM-DID
1. In oduc ion
Disabili y is a complex si ua ion which a ec s indi iduals and amilies a ound he wo ld.
Acco ding o he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) and he Wo ld Bank (WB), abou 15% o
he wo ld’s popula ion li es wi h some o m o disabili y, and 80% o hose wi h disabili ies li e
in low- and middle-income coun ies (1). Acco ding o he da a o China’s six h census and he
Second China Na ional Sample Su ey on Disabili y, he o al numbe o pe sons wi h disabili ies
in China a he end o 2010 was 85.02 million (2). Po e y due o illness and disabili y is a long-
e m and complex p oblem, which has always been a majo p oblem and challenge o global
po e y go e nance. China has a la ge popula ion wi h disabili ies, and po e y due o disabili y
is common. In 2018, he po e y a e due o disabili y has exceeded 14% (3). By he end o
2020, China’s po e y alle ia ion goals and asks ha e been ully comple ed as scheduled, bu he
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dep i a ion o educa ion, heal h, housing and o he bene i s has
become he main mani es a ion o po e y. In he pos po e y
alle ia ion e a, he po e y alle ia ion goal will ace a s a egic
ans o ma ion, ha is, om absolu e po e y o ela i e po e y. Due
o ac o s such as physical disabili ies, limi ed labo capaci y, and low
educa ional a ainmen , pe sons wi h disabili ies a e mo e likely o
su e om poo quali y o li e and become a p ominen g oup in
ela i e po e y (1,4). The e o e, in he p ocess o consolida ing he
achie emen s o po e y alle ia ion, i is necessa y no only o p e en
he disabled om e u ning o po e y, bu also o help hem imp o e
hei heal h, educa ion, social secu i y, e c., ha is, on he basis o
sol ing he absolu e po e y o he disabled, i is necessa y o imp o e
he mul idimensional po e y wi h insu icien basic capabili ies.
The analysis o po e y has gone beyond he lack o income and
ma e ial, and en e ed in o he s udy o he na u e o po e y om he
dimensions o human de elopmen and spi i uali y. The capabili y
heo y o Sen has been a he o e on o he mo emen away om
he unidimensional income app oach o po e y measu emen , wi h
Sen de ining po e y as a lack o eedom due o he dep i a ion
o basic capabili y (5). The capabili y no only has he ool alue
o elimina ing po e y, bu also ep esen s a kind o human
wel a e. Based on his heo y, ele an s udies ha e shown ha in
mos de eloping coun ies, disabili y is ound o be signi ican ly
associa ed wi h highe mul idimensional po e y as well as lowe
educa ional a ainmen , lowe employmen a es, and highe medical
expendi u es (6). Pe sons wi h disabili ies ha e a lowe quali y o li e
and ace a highe isk o mul idimensional po e y (7), and social
policies should aim o educe hei high le els o mul idimensional
po e y and dep i a ion o capabili ies (8).
Based on he se e e mul idimensional po e y o he disabled,
ele an s udies ha e poin ed ou ha employmen can be an
e ec i e way o imp o e pe sonal wellbeing (9), and ull and
e ec i e employmen is a key link o ealize he eplacemen
o “blood ans usion” assis ance wi h “hema opoie ic” suppo
and he eplacemen o main aining basic su i al gua an ee wi h
p omo ing de elopmen -o ien ed wel a e in he ield o disabled
people’s unde akings. Howe e , pe sons wi h disabili ies consis en ly
ha e lowe employmen a es han non-disabled pe sons (10), and
ace signi ican challenges in wages, p omo ion, wo kplace and
accommoda ion (11). The employmen o pe sons wi h disabili ies
has become a long- e m conce n o many go e nmen s a ound he
wo ld, and has led o a se ies o wel a e e o ms and employmen
in e en ion policies. Bu i appea s ha pu ing he ac ual policies
and legisla ion in o p ac ice has had limi ed success ac oss China
and, o he mos pa , China’s disabled popula ion emains ou o he
mains eam whe ein access o educa ion, aining, and good-paying
jobs a e a minimum (12). Long- e m unemploymen o pe sons wi h
disabili ies is se ious p oblem in China, wi h millions o unemployed
disabled pe sons li ing in po e y (13). The e o e, easonable and
e ec i e employmen suppo measu es a e he key o sol e he
mul idimensional po e y p oblem.
Employmen se ices play an impo an ole in p omo ing and
ensu ing he employmen o pe sons wi h disabili ies. In 2007,
China p omulga ed he Regula ions on Employmen o Pe sons
wi h Disabili ies (14). Employmen se ices a e an impo an pa
o he egula ions, and i is e y necessa y o e alua e he cu en
implemen a ion e ec . As an impo an in e en ion means o
alle ia e po e y and imp o e he quali y o li e o he disabled,
employmen se ices ha e been e alua ed by some schola s. The
e ec i eness o di e en occupa ional in e en ions in imp o ing
employmen , educa ional, clinical, and quali y-o -li e ou comes o
pe sons wi h psychia ic disabili ies has been e alua ed, and he
esea ch shows ha he oca ional and educa ional ou comes ha e
been signi ican ly imp o ed (15). Some s udies ha e poin ed ou ha
oca ional ehabili a ion se ices aimed o imp o e li e unc ioning
will lead o an imp o emen in quali y o li e (16,17). The Indi idual
Placemen and Suppo (IPS) has been s udied by se e al schola s
and has shown ha i can inc ease li e sa is ac ion and ime spen
in daily occupa ions and communi y li e o pe sons wi h disabili ies
(18), and i is e ec i e in gaining employmen and in eg a ing in o
he local communi y (19). I can be seen ha he ole o employmen
se ices on disabled people may no only be e lec ed in he economy.
I is mo e ho ough and comp ehensi e o e alua e he po e y
educ ion e ec o employmen se ices om he pe spec i e o
mul idimensional po e y o he disabled.
The goal o he employmen se ice is o p omo e pe sons wi h
disabili ies o be in a s a e o op imal economic sel -su iciency, and
he ul ima e goal is ha he ecipien o employmen se ices should
expe ience imp o emen in his o he quali y o li e. The e o e,
he e alua ion o he po e y educ ion e ec o employmen
se ices should no be limi ed o income, bu should ocus on he
pe spec i e o mul idimensional po e y. In addi ion, achie emen
o he ul ima e goal can be expec ed o esul om a p ocess in
which oca ional ou comes such as he imp o emen o employmen
oppo uni ies, oca ional skills and employmen o ms a e ob ained
ia a ge ed employmen se ices. In iew o he abo e analysis, he
da a in Basic Se ice S a us and Demand In o ma ion o Pe sons
wi h Disabili ies egis e ed in 2018 and 2019 we e used in his s udy.
Fi s , his pape expands he po e y measu emen s anda d o he
disabled om one-dimensional income po e y o mul idimensional
capabili ies po e y, and iden i ies mul idimensional po e y om
i e dimensions o economic capaci y, physical unc ion, lea ning
capaci y, isk esis ance and social in eg a ion capaci y. Second, he
imp o emen e ec o employmen se ices on mul idimensional
po e y o he disabled is e alua ed om a mic o pe spec i e. Finally,
in o de o gain a deepe unde s anding o he ela ionship be ween
employmen se ices and mul idimensional po e y o he disabled,
he media ion e ec s o he h ee oca ional ou comes o employmen
oppo uni ies, oca ional skills and In e ne employmen a e e i ied.
Based on he abo e analysis, his pape p oposes he mechanism
o employmen se ices o imp o e mul idimensional po e y o
pe sons wi h disabili ies (as shown in Figu e 1).
Based on he colla ion and analysis o he li e a u e, we can
ind ha he e a e s ill some de iciencies in he cu en esea ch.
Fi s , China has achie ed ema kable esul s in po e y educ ion.
Howe e , i canno be igno ed he ac ha exclusion o disabled
pe sons om educa ion, employmen , social and poli ical ac i i ies
ha e no been imp o ed by he inc ease in hei income (20). A
single mone a y indica o does no cap u e o he nega i e aspec s
ha a ec pe sons wi h disabili ies and hei amilies, such as
social exclusion. The e o e, i is undamen al o analyze he po e y
si ua ion o he disabled om a mul idimensional pe spec i e.
Howe e , he exis ing esea ches on mul idimensional po e y mos ly
ocus on u al households, and he e a e ela i ely ew s udies on
he mul idimensional po e y o he disabled, especially in China.
Second, he exis ing esea ch ocuses on heo e ical analysis and
e alua ion o employmen se ices o he disabled, lacking empi ical
da a. A e iew o he s udies sugges s ha China’s employmen
legisla ion is qui e p og essi e in e ms o access o employmen and
in e ms o p o ec ing employmen igh s o pe sons wi h disabili ies,
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FIGURE 1
The mechanism o employmen se ices o imp o e mul idimensional po e y o pe sons wi h disabili ies.
bu he e appea s o be a huge disconnec ion be ween he ac ual
legisla i e policies and implemen a ion o he s a ed policies (12,
20). Social se ices, ehabili a ion se ices, employmen se ices and
o he se ices a e insu icien o mee de elopmen needs, esul ing
in po e y o he majo i y o pe sons wi h disabili ies (20). A schola
explained quali a i ely why he ac ual employmen si ua ion in China
s agna ed o e en wo sened despi e he imp ession ha employmen
suppo o he disabled was imp o ing (21). I can be seen ha
mos schola s belie e ha he ac ual e ec o employmen se ices
is ex emely limi ed in China. I is wo h no ing ha hese s udies a e
mos ly mac o quali a i e analysis, lacking quan i a i e demons a ion
using mic o da a. Thi d, some schola s poin ed ou ha employmen
should no be used as he sole indica o o ehabili a ion success.
They ad oca e ha assessing changes a ibu able o oca ional
in e en ions should ocus on he impac o imp o emen o li e skills
h ough oca ional in e en ions on mul iple a eas o quali y o li e
(17). A numbe o schola s ha e e alua ed he e ec s o employmen
se ices o pe sons wi h disabili ies in e ms o employmen ,
educa ion, daily ac i i ies, communi y in eg a ion, quali y o li e,
e c. (15–18). Howe e , he e a e s ill sho comings in he cu en
esea ch. On he one hand, mos o he esea ch only akes he men al
disabled as he esea ch objec , which leads us o no ha e a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding o he disabled g oup. On he o he
hand, mos s udies only e alua e employmen suppo measu es
om a single a ea o he li ing condi ions o he disabled, which
may unde es ima e he impac o employmen suppo measu es on
he disabled.
Based on he abo e analysis, his pape has he ollowing
con ibu ions o measu e mul idimensional po e y o he disabled
and o e alua e he po e y educ ion e ec o employmen se ices.
Fi s , his pape builds a mul idimensional po e y index sys em
o he disabled based on Sen’s capabili y heo y, which no
only en iches he esea ch esul s o he applica ion o capabili y
heo y o he ield o he disabled in China, bu also helps o
imp o e ou o e all unde s anding o he po e y si ua ion o
he disabled. Second, based on he exis ing quali a i e esea ch
on he employmen suppo policies o he disabled in China,
quan i a i e analysis using mic o da a can p o ide mo e accu a e
e idence o he implemen a ion e ec o employmen suppo
policies. Thi d, employmen se ice is a de elopmen -o ien ed policy
aimed a disabled pe sons wi h wo king abili y in China’s po e y
alle ia ion policy. Mul idimensional po e y in ol es mul iple a eas
o disabled pe sons’ li es. This pape e alua es employmen se ices
and analyzes di e en ca ego ies o disabled people om he
pe spec i e o mul idimensional po e y, which makes he e alua ion
o employmen se ice mo e comp ehensi e and accu a e. In
addi ion, his s udy p o ides guidance o China o alle ia e po e y
by imp o ing he employmen se ice sys em in he pos -po e y
e a. Fou h, he PSM-DID me hod o causal in e ence is used o
analysis, which helps o sol e he endogenous p oblem in he model
and ensu es he eliabili y o he benchma k eg ession esul s.
2. Ma e ials and me hods
2.1. Da a
The da a used in his s udy come om Basic Se ice S a us and
Demand In o ma ion o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies. This is a la ge-
scale su ey o ganized and coo dina ed by he S a e Council Disabled
Pe sons’ Wo king Commi ee, and he speci ic wo k is unde aken
by he China Disabled Pe sons’ Fede a ion. The pu pose is o g asp
he basic se ice s a us and needs o pe sons wi h disabili ies in a
imely manne , es ablish and imp o e he na ional basic da abase
o ce i ied pe sons wi h disabili ies, and p omo e he high-quali y
de elopmen o he cause o pe sons wi h disabili ies. The subjec s
o he in es iga ion a e he disabled who hold he Disabled Pe son
Ce i ica e o he People’s Republic o China. The su ey con en
includes main su i al and de elopmen i ems (basic in o ma ion,
housing, educa ion, employmen , social secu i y, basic medical ca e
and ehabili a ion, accessibili y, cul u e and spo s, e c.) and basic
public se ice acili ies in all illages (communi ies) ac oss he
coun y. Due o he di icul y in ob aining da a, his pape only uses
he da a o Jilin P o ince in 2018 and 2019 o esea ch, and akes he
wo king-age disabled people aged 16–59 as he main esea ch g oup.
Finally, he 435,312 samples in 2018 a e selec ed and he in o ma ion
in 2019 is acked.
2.2. Analysis me hod: Mul idimensional
po e y measu emen
2.2.1. Alki e-Fos e me hod
Alki e and Fos e , schola s o Ox o d Po e y and Human
De elopmen Ini ia i e (OPHI), p oposed AF me hod o measu e
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Wang e al. 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1093978
mul idimensional po e y (22). A p esen , he AF me hod has
become he mains eam me hod o measu e mul idimensional
po e y and has been ecognized by he Uni ed Na ions De elopmen
P oga mme (UNDP). The AF me hod was adop ed in ou s udy o
measu e mul idimensional po e y based on he capabili y heo y.
The undamen al logic o selec ing he AF me hod is ha i admi s
he independence o se e al dimensions o po e y, and i also
highligh s he h eshold o he numbe o dep i ed dimensions o
be mul idimensional po e y. Gene ally, h ee key p ocesses we e
used o accomplish he measu emen : iden i ica ion, agg ega ion and
decomposi ion. Fo he p ocess o iden i ica ion, he me hod o dual
cu o iden i ica ion is adop ed o iden i y poo disabled pe sons
acco ding o wo dis inc cu o s: dep i a ion and po e y cu o s.
Fi s , a dep i a ion cu o is used o iden i y whe he a pe son wi h
disabili ies is dep i ed in each dimension, and each disabled pe son’s
dep i a ion sco e is de ined as he sum o weigh ed sco es o all
dimensions. Second, a po e y cu o is used o de e mine whe he
a pe son wi h disabili ies could be conside ed mul idimensionally
poo . A disabled pe son is iden i ied as mul idimensionally poo i
his o he dep i a ion sco e is g ea e han o equal o a gi en po e y
cu o (k) (22,23).
The p ocess o agg ega ion needs o be imi a ed o agg ega e
mul iple dimensions o ge a composi e index a e iden i ying he
dep i a ion o dimensions o po e y. The agg ega ion s ep o ou
me hodology p oposes an adjus ed headcoun a io, which builds
upon he s anda d FGT echnology and o e comes i s sho comings
(22). The adjus ed headcoun a io (M0), also e e ed o he MPI,
is calcula ed by mul iplying he incidence (H) and in ensi y (A) o
po e y. The incidence o po e y (H), namely he mul idimensional
headcoun a io, is de ined as he p opo ion o pe sons wi h
disabili ies who a e poo in mul iple dimensions. I is calcula ed as he
numbe o pe sons wi h disabili ies iden i ied as mul idimensionally
poo (q) di ided by he o al numbe o pe sons wi h disabili ies
(n). The in ensi y o po e y (A) indica es he a e age dep i a ion
sco e among he poo . Based on he abo e desc ip ion, M0is de ined
as ollows:
M0=H×A=q
n×Pn
i=1cik
qd =Pn
i=1cik
nd (1)
whe e cik/d ep esen s he sha e o possible dep i a ions
expe ienced by a poo pe son i, and hence he a e age dep i a ion
sha e ac oss he poo is gi en by A=Pn
i=1cik/(qd). This pa ial
index con eys ele an in o ma ion abou mul idimensional po e y,
namely, he ac ion o possible dimensions din which he a e age
poo pe son is dep i ed.
Decomposi ion analysis can p o ide a ge ed policies o
po e y alle ia ion. In his s udy, M0was decomposed acco ding
o dimensions in o de o e eal he unde lying s uc u e o
dep i a ion. Dimensional b eakdown e e s o he con ibu ion o
each dep i a ion dimension o o e all po e y (M0). The e o e, he
con ibu ion o each dimension (P0j) is calcula ed as he po e y
index o each dimension (M0j) di ided by he o e all po e y
index (M0).
2.2.2. Selec ing dimensions, indica o s and
dep i a ion cu o
Measu emen o po e y is an essen ial p e equisi e o
a ge ing in e en ions and designing p og ams and policies o
alle ia e po e y. Gi en i s mul idimensional na u e, he e a e
a ious indica o s, such as income, expendi u e, dep i a ion, and
social exclusion, ha could be used o measu e mul idimensional
po e y (24). UNDP has es ablished a mul idimensional human
de elopmen index o measu e he de elopmen le el o each
coun y, including h ee dimensions o educa ion, heal h and li ing
s anda ds (25), which has been adop ed by he exis ing s udies
o mul idimensional po e y (8,26–28). Rele an esea ch schola s
ha e expanded he measu emen dimensions o mul idimensional
po e y. Fou dimensions o heal h (disabili y), educa ion, housing
and li ing s anda ds we e used o measu e mul idimensional po e y
among I anian olde adul s (29); six dimensions o economy,
heal h, housing, employmen , social p o ec ion and in e pe sonal
ela ionship we e used o measu e mul idimensional po e y o
disabled amilies in Sou h Ko ea (30); o he dimensions a e added
o measu e mul idimensional po e y o pe sons wi h disabili ies
in di e en coun ies, such as social pa icipa ion, in o ma ion and
communica ion, basic daily ac i i ies, subjec i e and psychological
wellbeing, e c. (31,32). I can be seen ha he e is no consensus
on how o design a mul idimensional po e y measu e, and
he mos app op ia e dep i a ion indica o s and he esul s o
mul idimensional po e y s udies a y ac oss coun ies, egions,
and g oups.
In his esea ch, i e dep i ed dimensions—economy, heal h,
educa ion, insu ance and social pa icipa ion—including eigh
indica o s we e selec ed o o m ou MPI based on p e ious s udies
and he a ailabili y o da a. Acco ding o he cons uc ion me hod
issued by UNDP, each dimension is assigned equal weigh ( he
indica o s unde each dimension a e also assigned equal weigh ) o
e lec he equal impo ance o each dimension in he e alua ion
sys em (25). The wo indica o s o income and housing a e used
o measu e he dimension o economy. The po e y line in income
is no ixed bu changes along wi h economic de elopmen . In he
p ocess o egis e ing disabled in o ma ion, he income o disabled
people will be di ided in o di e en ca ego ies acco ding o he
po e y line o he yea . P e ious s udies only used income o
e lec economic s a us (30), and housing si ua ion was added o his
pape o deepen he s udy o economic capaci y. As a as heal h
dimension is conce ned, a se ies o a iables, such as nu i ion, child
mo ali y, sel -assessed heal h s a us, and he p esence o a ch onic
illness a e usually selec ed o measu e he heal h dep i a ion (8,23).
Due o he limi a ion o egis a ion con en , he indica o o o he
diseases besides disabili y is used o measu e he physical unc ion o
pe sons wi h disabili ies, and he heal h dimension needs o be u he
imp o ed. As a as educa ion dimension is conce ned, wo indica o s
a e o en selec ed: yea s o schooling (p ima y school incomple e o
adul s) and child school a endance (child en aged 6–16 yea s old a e
no a ending o school) (8,33). Pe sons wi h disabili ies aged 16–56
a e he esea ch g oup in his pape , and educa ional a ainmen
plays a c ucial ole in hei li es, so adul s’ comple ion o p ima y
school is used as an indica o o measu e he educa ional dimension.
As o insu ance dimension, heal h insu ance is selec ed o measu e
he insu ance dep i a ion (30). Fo pe sons wi h disabili ies, he
capaci y o esis isk is c i ical, and medical insu ance and pension
insu ance a e chosen o ep esen insu ance s a us. As o social
pa icipa ion dimension is conce ned, pa icipa ion in communi y
ac i i ies is usually selec ed o measu e i s dep i a ion (31), bu
such measu emen is somewha singula . This pape ies o e alua e
social pa icipa ion om mul iple pe spec i es. The In e ne is an
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TABLE 1 Dimensions, indica o s, dep i a ion c i e ia and weigh s.
Dimension Indica o Dep i a ion cu o (dep i ed i …) Weigh
Economy Income le el The pe son’s a e age annual income is below he na ional po e y line 1/10
Housing si ua ion The pe son has no housing i le in u ban a eas o poo housing condi ions in u al a eas 1/10
Heal h O he diseases besides
disabili y
The pe son has o he diseases besides disabili y 1/5
Educa ion Educa ion le el The pe son has no comple ed p ima y school educa ion 1/5
Insu ance Medical insu ance The pe son has no medical insu ance 1/10
Pension insu ance The pe son has no pension insu ance 1/10
Social pa icipa ion Cul u al and spo s ac i i ies The pe son does no o en pa icipa e in cul u al and spo s ac i i ies 1/10
In e ne The pe son does no use he in e ne 1/10
impo an channel o in o ma ion acquisi ion and communica ion,
especially o he wo king-age popula ion, i s ole in social li e is
indispensable. Thus, pa icipa ion in social ac i i ies and he use o
In e ne a e chosen o ep esen social pa icipa ion s a us.
Table 1 p esen s he dep i a ion dimensions, indica o s, and
cu o s used in his s udy. The le els o mul idimensional po e y a y
acco ding o he selec ion o po e y cu o s (k). Based on p e ious
s udies, a cu o (k =0.33) is selec ed because i has a no ma i e
jus i ica ion and p o ided a wide dis ibu ion o po e y esul s (25).
Tha is, a pe son is conside ed mul idimensionally poo i his o
he weigh ed sum o dep i a ions is equal o 33% o highe . In
addi ion o his mul idimensional po e y line, se e e (50%) and
ulne able (20%) po e y cu o s a e used o calcula e he pe cen age
o people who a e se e ely mul idimensionally poo and ulne able
o mul idimensional po e y (34). In o de o make he esul s
mo e objec i e, a iable po e y cu o s (20–50%) a e adop ed in his
sec ion o desc ibe he le els o mul idimensional po e y o pe sons
wi h disabili ies.
2.3. Analysis me hod: The po e y educ ion
e ec o employmen se ices
2.3.1. Benchma k model
In o de o p elimina ily in es iga e he impac o employmen
se ices on he MPI o he disabled, o dina y leas squa es (OLS) is
used in his pape , and he model is se as ollows:
Mi=β0+β1Si+βjXi+εi(2)
whe e i ep esen s he indi idual wi h disabili ies; Miis he
explained a iable, ep esen ing he MPI o he disabled; Siis he
explana o y a iable, ep esen ing ha he disabled a e p o ided wi h
employmen se ices; Xi ep esen s a se ies o co a ia es such as
pe sonal, amily and social suppo o he disabled; εi ep esen s
andom e o e m. The explained a iable is a ca ego ical a iable,
so OLS is selec ed o eg ession analysis.
2.3.2. PSM-DID
I is wo h no ing ha pe sons wi h disabili ies in se e e
mul idimensional po e y a e mo e likely o ecei e employmen
se ices, social assis ance, wel a e subsidies and o he assis ance, ha
is, whe he pe sons wi h disabili ies ecei e employmen se ices is
no andom, bu is a ec ed by hei own cha ac e is ics and needs.
The e o e, in o de o sol e endogenous p oblems such as sample
selec ion bias and missing a iables, he PSM-DID me hod is adop ed
o in es iga e he imp o emen e ec o employmen se ices on
mul idimensional po e y.
The DID me hod has ad an ages in in es iga ing he e ec i eness
o policy by compa ing he di e ences in he e ec s o a ce ain
policy be ween he ea men g oup and he con ol g oup. In he
DID model, he ea men g oup and he con ol g oup mus mee
he pa allel end assump ion in he base pe iod, howe e , in eali y,
he pa allel end assump ion canno be easily sa is ied (35). In o de
o sol e his p oblem, his s udy in oduces he PSM me hod o ma ch
he ea men g oup and he con ol g oup in he base pe iod. By
con olling he he e ogenei y o he wo g oups, he ea men g oup
and he con ol g oup a e he base pe iod ma ching a e close o
he na u al expe imen , so as o ensu e ha he DID me hod mee s
he pa allel end assump ion o a ce ain ex en . The PSM-DID
eg ession app oach can be applied o causal in e ences o coun e
selec ion bias o con ounding (36), and is widely used in academic
esea ch (35,37–40).
We used he samples a e conduc ing a panel balance o
he da a in 2018 and 2019. The samples ha did no ecei e
employmen se ices in 2018 and 2019 we e de ined as con ol g oup
C, and he samples ha did no ecei e employmen se ices in
2018 bu ecei ed employmen se ices in 2019 we e de ined as
ea men g oup T. A he same ime, age, gende , hukou s a us,
disabili y ca ego ies, disabili y g ades, ma i al s a us and o he wel a e
policies we e selec ed as he con ol a iables. The ixed e ec model
cons uc ed in his pape is as ollows:
Mi =β2+β ea i× ime +ρXi +µi+ϑ +εi (3)
whe e Mi is he explained a iable, which ep esen s he MPI o
he disabled, i ep esen s he indi idual wi h disabili ies, and
ep esen s he ime be o e and a e he disabled ob ain employmen
se ices; he ea men a iable ea iis a bina y indica o ha
ep esen s he g oup dummy a iable, ea =1 ep esen s he
ea men g oup ha he indi iduals ob ain employmen se ices,
and ea =0 ep esen s he con ol g oup ha he indi iduals do
no ob ain employmen se ices; ime ep esen s he ime dummy
a iable, ime =1 ep esen s he ime a e he implemen a ion o
employmen se ices ( he yea o 2019), and ime =0 ep esen s
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he ime be o e he implemen a ion o employmen se ices ( he yea
o 2018); he a iable ea i× ime deno es he in e ac ion be ween
g oups and ime; Xi ep esen s a se o indi idual co a ia es o
disabled ia ime ;µiand ϑ ep esen he indi idual and ime
le el ixed e ec s, espec i ely; εi deno es he andom e o e m
and con ains in o ma ion o he han he main a iables o he model.
βis calcula ed by he PSM-DID model and ep esen s he ne e ec
o employmen se ices on he imp o emen o mul idimensional
po e y. The o mula o calcula ing βis as ollows:
β=E(YT
2019i−YT
2018i|p(X2018i), Di=1)
−E(YC
2019i−YC
2018i|p(X2018i), Di=0) (4)
whe e Y2018i ep esen s he MPI o indi iduals in 2018, and Y2019i
ep esen s he MPI o indi iduals in 2019; p(X2018i) is he p obabili y
o ob aining employmen se ices in 2019 calcula ed acco ding o
he cha ac e is ics o indi iduals in 2018. Di ep esen s he ea men
a iable in 2018, Di=1 ep esen s he ea men g oup, and Di=0
ep esen s he con ol g oup.
2.3.3. Media ion e ec model
In he abo e mechanism analysis, we p opose ha employmen
se ices may imp o e mul idimensional po e y o he disabled
by p omo ing employmen , imp o ing employmen skills and
p omo ing in e ne employmen . In o de o es he media ion e ec ,
he model is cons uc ed as ollows:
Mi =β0+β1Si +βjXi +µi+ϑ +εi (5)
Zi =α0+αSi +βjXi +µi+ϑ +εi (6)
Mi =θ0+θSi +θ1Zi +βjXi +µi+ϑ +εi (7)
In o mula (5), he coe icien β ep esen s he o al e ec o
employmen se ices on he MPI. In o mula (6), he coe icien
α ep esen s he e ec o employmen se ices on he media ion
a iable Zi . In o mula (7), he coe icien θ ep esen s he di ec
e ec o employmen se ices on he MPI unde he con ol o he
media ion a iable, and he coe icien θ1 ep esen s he e ec o he
media ion a iable on he MPI unde he con ol o employmen
se ices. When βis signi ican in o mula (5), he media ion e ec is
join ly es ed by o mulas (6) and (7). I α,θand θ1a e all signi ican ,
he e is a pa ial media ion e ec ; i αand θ1a e signi ican , θis no
signi ican , he e is a ull media ion e ec .
3. Resul s
3.1. Mul idimensional po e y es ima es
Table 2 p esen s H,Aand M0 o pe sons wi h disabili ies aged
16–59 unde di e en po e y cu o s. Fi s , he incidence o po e y
(H) in 2018 a ies om 93.9% (k =20%) o 78.0% (k =30%)
and 39.0% (k =50%). Meanwhile, M0 alues a e 0.390, 0.358, and
0.220 o hese h ee cu o s, espec i ely. Wi h he inc ease o he
po e y cu o , Hand M0show a downwa d end, and he same
end is shown in 2019. This is because he inc ease o he po e y
cu o means ha he h eshold o iden i ying mul idimensional
po e y ises, and he numbe o people who each he h eshold
o mul idimensional po e y dec eases. Second, wi h he inc ease o
TABLE 2 Incidence (H), In ensi y (A), and MPI (M0) o di e en po e y
cu o s.
Cu o s
(k)
Yea Incidence (H) In ensi y (A) MPI (M0)
0.2 2018 93.9% 41.5% 0.390
2019 90.8% 39.2% 0.356
0.3 2018 78.0% 45.9% 0.358
2019 71.9% 44.2% 0.318
0.4 2018 60.3% 50.6% 0.305
2019 53.5% 49.2% 0.263
0.5 2018 39.0% 56.4% 0.220
2019 31.7% 55.5% 0.176
he po e y cu o , Ashows an inc easing end. Since A e lec s he
po e y in ensi y o he poo , he disabled who a e in po e y a e
dep i ed in mo e dimensions when he mul idimensional po e y
h eshold ises, which leads o an inc ease in he po e y in ensi y.
Thi d, compa ed wi h 2018, H,A, and M0all dec eased o a ying
deg ees in 2019, which shows ha he le els o mul idimensional
po e y among pe sons wi h disabili ies has dec eased. In gene al, he
esul s show ha abou 90% a e dep i ed in a leas one dimension,
and abou 30% a e in a s a e o se e e mul idimensional po e y
un il 2019. I can be seen ha he disabled aced a highe le el o
mul idimensional po e y.
In o de o see he dep i a ion deg ee o he disabled in each
dimension, we decompose he MPI in o he sum o he po e y index
o each dimension, and hen calcula e he pe cen age con ibu ion.
Table 3 p esen s M0jand P0j o pe sons wi h disabili ies aged 16–59.
Unde di e en po e y cu o s, P01,P02 and P04 change sligh ly, and
a e basically below 20%, indica ing ha he dimensions o economy,
heal h and insu ance p esen simila le els o dep i a ion. Compa ed
wi h 2018, P01,P02 and P04 dec ease in 2019, indica ing ha po e y
in he dimensions o economy, heal h and insu ance has imp o ed.
The yea 2020 is he yea o China o achie e he goal o building
a mode a ely p ospe ous socie y in all espec s, and he end o
he ba le o win he igh agains po e y in all espec s. Towa d
2020, China’s po e y educ ion policy is commi ed o sol ing
absolu e po e y and imp o ing people’s li elihood. The dimensions
o economy, heal h and insu ance a e di ec ly ela ed o he basic
su i al o pe sons wi h disabili ies, which has been g ea ly imp o ed.
In addi ion, P03 and P05 a e highe han 20%, indica ing ha he
disabled ha e highe le els o dep i a ion in he dimensions o
educa ion and social pa icipa ion. The disabled ace many di icul ies
in educa ion and social pa icipa ion due o physiological de ec s. I
is necessa y o u he imp o e he educa ion sys em o he disabled
and s eng hen he in as uc u e and in o ma ion cons uc ion.
The e a e la ge in e nal di e ences among pe sons wi h
disabili ies. In o de o see he dep i a ion deg ee o he disabled
in di e en disabili y ca ego ies, we decompose he MPI in o he
sum o he po e y index o each disabili y ca ego y. Table 4 shows
M0jo pe sons wi h di e en disabili y ca ego ies aged 16–59. Unde
di e en po e y cu o s, he mul idimensional po e y o pe sons
wi h di e en disabili y ca ego ies p esen s he same cha ac e is ics,
ha is, M0jo pe sons wi h in ellec ual disabili ies is he highes ,
and M0jo pe sons wi h physical disabili ies is he lowes . I can
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TABLE 3 Decomposi ion esul s o MPI o di e en po e y cu o s: di e en dimensions.
k Yea Economy Heal h Educa ion Insu ance Social pa icipa ion
M01 P01 M02 P02 M03 P03 M04 P04 M05 P05
0.2 2018 0.074 18.9% 0.007 1.8% 0.081 20.7% 0.057 14.6% 0.172 44.0%
2019 0.066 18.6% 0.005 1.4% 0.075 21.1% 0.047 13.2% 0.163 45.7%
0.3 2018 0.071 19.9% 0.007 1.9% 0.081 22.5% 0.054 15.1% 0.145 40.6%
2019 0.063 19.8% 0.005 1.5% 0.075 23.5% 0.043 13.6% 0.132 41.5%
0.4 2018 0.061 20.0% 0.006 2.1% 0.078 25.7% 0.045 14.6% 0.115 37.6%
2019 0.052 19.8% 0.004 1.7% 0.071 27.1% 0.034 12.9% 0.101 38.5%
0.5 2018 0.045 20.5% 0.006 2.5% 0.061 27.8% 0.032 14.6% 0.076 34.6%
2019 0.037 21.0% 0.004 2.1% 0.050 28.3% 0.024 13.4% 0.062 35.1%
TABLE 4 Decomposi ion esul s o MPI o di e en po e y cu o s: di e en disabili y ca ego ies.
Cu o s
(k)
Yea Visual
disabili y
Hea ing
disabili y
Speech
disabili y
Physical
disabili y
In ellec ual
disabili y
Psychia ic
disabili y
Mul iple
disabili y
0.2 2018 0.369 0.368 0.426 0.355 0.509 0.434 0.459
2019 0.338 0.329 0.388 0.316 0.485 0.409 0.434
0.3 2018 0.332 0.332 0.404 0.315 0.500 0.413 0.442
2019 0.295 0.287 0.361 0.269 0.475 0.384 0.414
0.4 2018 0.274 0.276 0.360 0.254 0.478 0.363 0.406
2019 0.235 0.227 0.315 0.208 0.449 0.329 0.375
0.5 2018 0.187 0.186 0.275 0.168 0.411 0.271 0.324
2019 0.147 0.138 0.213 0.124 0.366 0.230 0.280
be seen ha pe sons wi h in ellec ual, mul idimensional, psychia ic
o speech disabili ies ace a se ious po e y si ua ion, while hose
wi h physical, isual o hea ing disabili ies ha e a ela i ely good
li ing condi ion. F om he pe spec i e o ime, M0jo all ca ego ies
o disabled pe sons in 2019 has dec eased compa ed wi h ha in
2018, which indica es ha he li ing condi ions o all ca ego ies o
disabled people ha e imp o ed, and he imp o emen o pe sons
wi h physical, hea ing o speech disabili ies is ela i ely la ge. In
he p ocess o po e y educ ion, he di e si y wi hin he disabled
dese es a en ion.
3.2. The po e y educ ion e ec o
employmen se ices
3.2.1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o a iables
Explained a iable: MPI. Acco ding o ele an li e a u e (26,
34), k =0.33 is se as he po e y cu o in his pa . Pe sons
wi h disabili ies whose MPI is ≥0.33 a e conside ed o be in
mul idimensional po e y, and he highe he MPI, he mo e se e e
mul idimensional po e y o he disabled.
Explana o y a iable: employmen se ice. Employmen se ices
in Regula ions on he Employmen o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies a e
mainly p o ided ee o cha ge by he China Disabled Pe sons’
Fede a ion and i s a ilia ed employmen se ice agencies o he
disabled. In he egis a ion o m o Basic Se ice S a us and
Demand In o ma ion o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies o mula ed
by China Disabled Pe sons’ Fede a ion, employmen se ices
include oca ional skills aining, ca ee in oduc ion, u al p ac ical
echnical aining, unding and c edi suppo , oca ional guidance,
e c. The employmen se ice is se as a bina y a iable, which is
assigned a alue o 1 i he disabled pe son ob ains any o he abo e
se ices, o he wise, i is assigned a alue o 0.
Con ol a iable: indi idual cha ac e is ics, amily cha ac e is ics
and social suppo . Indi idual cha ac e is ics include gende , age,
hukou s a us, disabili y le el, and disabili y ype. Among hem,
gende and hukou s a us a e bo h bina y a iables; disabili y
ca ego ies (mul iple, isual, hea ing, speech, physical, in ellec ual
and psychia ic disabili ies) and disabili y g ades (g ades 1–4) a e
ca ego ical a iables. Family cha ac e is ics include ma i al s a us,
which is assigned a alue o 1 i he disabled pe son has a spouse,
o he wise, i is assigned a alue o 0. Social suppo includes social
assis ance, wel a e subsidies, ehabili a ion se ices and ba ie - ee
econs uc ion, all o which a e bina y a iables.
Media ion a iable: employmen oppo uni y is a bina y a iable,
which is assigned a alue o 1 i he disabled pe son is employed,
o he wise, i is assigned a alue o 0; oca ional skill is se as a
ca ego ical a iable, ep esen ing he numbe o oca ional skills
mas e ed by pe sons wi h disabili ies; In e ne employmen is a
bina y a iable, which is assigned a alue o 1 i he disabled pe son
uses he In e ne o employmen , o he wise, i is assigned a alue o
0. Table 5 shows he speci ic de ini ions o each a iable.
Pe sons wi h disabili ies aged 16–59 who a e no incapaci a ed
and in need o employmen se ices a e mainly p o ided wi h
employmen se ices. The samples o s udying in school, e i emen
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TABLE 5 Defini ion o a iables.
Va iable Va iable ype Va iable meaning
MPI Nume ic Be ween 0 and 1
Age Nume ic Be ween 16 and 59
Gende Ca ego ical Male =1; emale =0
Hukou s a us Ca ego ical Non-ag icul u al =1;
ag icul u al =0
Disabili y ca ego ies Nume ic Be ween 1 and 7
Disabili y g ades Nume ic Be ween 1 and 4
Ma i al s a us Ca ego ical Wi h spouse =1; wi hou
spouse =0
Social assis ance Ca ego ical Ge =1; no ge =0
Wel a e subsidies Ca ego ical Ge =1; no ge =0
Rehabili a ion se ices Ca ego ical Ge =1; no ge =0
Ba ie - ee econs uc ion Ca ego ical Ge =1; no ge =0
Employmen oppo uni y Ca ego ical Yes =1; no =0
Voca ional skill Nume ic Be ween 0 and 10
In e ne employmen Ca ego ical Yes =1; no =0
and no employmen in en ion we e dele ed in his pa , and inally
57,510 people in 2018 we e selec ed and he in o ma ion in 2019
was acked ( o al sample o 115,020 in wo pe iods). The desc ip i e
s a is ics o each a iable a e shown in Table 6. I can be seen ha he
MPI o pe sons wi h disabili ies who ecei ed employmen se ices
was 0.323, and ha o pe sons wi h disabili ies who did no ecei e
employmen se ices was 0.344. The MPI o pe sons wi h disabili ies
who ecei ed employmen se ices was signi ican ly lowe . In
addi ion, he mean alues o employmen oppo uni ies, employmen
skills and In e ne employmen o pe sons wi h disabili ies who
ecei ed employmen se ices we e highe han hose who did no
ecei e employmen se ices.
3.2.2. OLS eg ession analysis
The OLS me hod in his pa is used o p elimina ily in es iga e
he ela ionship be ween employmen se ices and mul idimensional
po e y o pe sons wi h disabili ies, and he esul s a e shown
in Table 7. As China implemen s a ious suppo policies o he
disabled, he mul idimensional po e y o he disabled will no only
be impac ed by employmen se ices, bu also by o he social suppo .
In o de o enhance he obus ness o he model, he pe sonal
cha ac e is ics and social suppo a e g adually inco po a ed in o
he model. The esul s o models (1), (3) and (5) show ha he
co ela ion coe icien s be ween employmen se ices and he MPI o
pe sons wi h disabili ies a e −0.028, −0.012 and −0.020, espec i ely,
which a e signi ican a he le el o 0.1%, indica ing ha employmen
se ices can signi ican ly educe he MPI o pe sons wi h disabili ies.
A e adding social suppo indica o s, he esul s o models (2), (4)
and (6) show ha he co ela ion coe icien s be ween employmen
se ices and he MPI o pe sons wi h disabili ies a e −0.034, −0.018
and −0.024, espec i ely, which a e also signi ican a he le el
o 0.1%, indica ing ha employmen se ices can s ill signi ican ly
educe he MPI o pe sons wi h disabili ies a e con olling o he
policy shocks. The empi ical analysis p o es ha China’s cu en
employmen se ices ha e played a g ea e ole in sol ing he po e y
p oblem o he disabled in he p ocess o po e y alle ia ion, and
he e ec o employmen in e en ion measu es is no as nega i e
as expec ed.
3.2.3. PSM-DID analysis
In o de o mo e accu a ely in es iga e he po e y educ ion
e ec o employmen se ices on he mul idimensional po e y o he
disabled and sol e he endogenous p oblems such as sample selec ion
bias and missing a iables, PSM-DID me hod is used o analysis in
his pa . The ea men g oup is he disabled who did no ecei e
employmen se ices in 2018 and ecei ed employmen se ices in
2019, and he con ol g oup is he disabled who did no ecei e
employmen se ices in 2018 and 2019. The e a e 6,482 samples in
he ea men g oup and 40,626 samples in he con ol g oup.
The e ec o employmen se ices on MPI and di e en po e y
dimensions is shown in Table 8. The DID alue is he esul o ou
main conce n and ep esen s he e ec o employmen se ices on
he mul idimensional po e y o pe sons wi h disabili ies. The DID
alue o he MPI is −0.015 (p=0.000), which means ha he
MPI o pe sons wi h disabili ies has dec eased by 0.015 uni s a e
ecei ing employmen se ices, indica ing ha employmen se ices
ha e a signi ican e ec on imp o ing he mul idimensional po e y
o pe sons wi h disabili ies. In o de o u he analyze he ole
o employmen se ices in imp o ing each po e y dimension, his
pape uses he same me hod o s udy he i e po e y dimensions
o he disabled espec i ely. The esul s show ha he DID alues
o he po e y index in economy, educa ion, insu ance and social
pa icipa ion a e −0.002 (p=0.008), −0.003 (p=0.008), −0.005
(p=0.000) and −0.008 (p=0.000), espec i ely, which means ha
he po e y index in he ou dimensions dec eases by 0.002 uni s,
0.003 uni s, 0.005 uni s and 0.008 uni s espec i ely a e he disabled
ob ain employmen se ices. I can be seen ha employmen se ices
ha e a posi i e impac on many a eas o li e o he disabled. As
poin ed ou by ele an schola s, assessing changes a ibu able o
oca ional in e en ions should ocus on he impac o imp o emen
o li e skills h ough oca ional in e en ions on mul iple a eas o
quali y o li e (17). I is wo h no ing ha employmen se ices play
ag ea e ole in imp o ing he po e y o educa ion, insu ance and
social pa icipa ion han in economic po e y, which o some ex en
indica es ha China p o ides a minimum gua an ee in ensu ing ha
he disabled and hei amilies ha e a decen income (12).
The e ec o employmen se ices on MPI o di e en disabili y
ca ego ies is shown in Table 9. DID alue is he esul o ou main
conce n and ep esen s he change o MPI o di e en ca ego ies o
disabled people a e ecei ing employmen se ices. The DID esul s
o models (1)–(7) a e −0.026 (p=0.000), −0.018 (p=0.003),
−0.011 (p=0.007), −0.011 (p=0.000), −0.023 (p=0.001), −0.015
(p=0.049), −0.014 (p=0.213), espec i ely. I can be seen ha ,
compa ed wi h o he ypes o disabili ies, employmen se ices ha e
he g ea es e ec on po e y educ ion o pe sons wi h isual
disabili ies, which may be ela ed o China’s s ong suppo o he
de elopmen o blind massage indus y and encou aging he scale
and b anding o blind massage du ing he 13 h Fi e-yea pe iod.
I is wo h no ing ha , he DID esul s o pe sons wi h psychia ic
disabili ies o mul iple disabili ies a e no signi ican , which means
ha employmen se ices ha e li le e ec on po e y educ ion o
F on ie s in Public Heal h 08 on ie sin.o g
86
Wang e al. 10.3389/ pubh.2023.1093978
TABLE 6 Desc ip i e s a is ics o a iables.
Va iable All Employmen se ices No employmen se ices
(n=115,020) (n=20,443) (n=94,577)
Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Mean SD
MPI 0.340 0.159 0 1 0.323 0.161 0.344 0.158
Age 45.918 9.203 16 59 46.122 8.997 45.874 9.246
Gende 0.682 0.466 0 1 0.705 0.456 0.677 0.468
Hukou s a us 0.263 0.440 0 1 0.161 0.368 0.285 0.452
Disabili y ca ego ies 4.572 1.366 1 7 4.580 1.324 4.571 1.375
Disabili y g ades 3.047 0.941 1 4 3.075 0.940 3.041 0.941
Ma i al s a us 0.751 0.433 0 1 0.760 0.427 0.749 0.434
Social assis ance 0.472 0.499 0 1 0.574 0.495 0.450 0.497
Wel a e subsidies 0.352 0.478 0 1 0.432 0.495 0.335 0.472
Rehabili a ion se ices 0.218 0.413 0 1 0.334 0.472 0.192 0.394
Ba ie - ee econs uc ion 0.021 0.143 0 1 0.057 0.231 0.013 0.113
Employmen oppo uni y 0.620 0.485 0 1 0.762 0.426 0.589 0.492
Voca ional skill 0.406 0.541 0 18 0.708 0.590 0.341 0.507
In e ne employmen 0.012 0.108 0 1 0.022 0.145 0.010 0.098
TABLE 7 E ec o employmen se ices on MPI: OLS es ima e esul .
Va iable 2018 2019 All
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Employmen se ice −0.028∗∗∗
(0.002)
−0.034∗∗∗
(0.002)
−0.012∗∗∗
(0.002)
−0.018∗∗∗
(0.002)
−0.020∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.024∗∗∗
(0.001)
Age 0.002∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.002∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.002∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.001∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.001∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.001∗∗∗
(0.000)
Gende −0.021∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.021∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.024∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.024∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.022∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.022∗∗∗
(0.001)
Hukou s a us −0.016∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.018∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.004∗
(0.001)
−0.007∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.010∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.013∗∗∗
(0.001)
Disabili y ca ego ies 0.006∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.005∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.005∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.004∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.005∗∗∗
(0.000)
0.005∗∗∗
(0.000)
Disabili y g ades −0.031∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.023∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.032∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.023∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.031∗∗∗
(0.000)
−0.023∗∗∗
(0.001)
Ma i al s a us −0.066∗∗∗
(0.002)
−0.061∗∗∗
(0.002)
−0.066∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.059∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.065∗∗∗
(0.001)
−0.059∗∗∗
(0.001)
Social assis ance 0.027∗∗∗
(0.001)
0.038∗∗∗
(0.001)
0.034∗∗∗
(0.001)
Wel a e subsidy 0.026∗∗∗
(0.002)
0.022∗∗∗
(0.002)
0.023∗∗∗
(0.001)
Rehabili a ion se ice −0.006∗∗
(0.002)
−0.003∗
(0.001)
−0.020∗∗∗
(0.001)
Ba ie - ee econs uc ion 0.020∗∗∗
(0.005)
−0.032∗∗∗
(0.004)
−0.015∗∗∗
(0.003)
Cons an 0.425∗∗∗
(0.004)
0.385∗∗∗
(0.004)
0.392∗∗∗
(0.004)
0.346∗∗∗
(0.004)
0.412∗∗∗
(0.003)
0.372∗∗∗
(0.003)
N57,510 57,510 57,510 57,510 115,020 115,020
Pseudo R2 0.077 0.093 0.081 0.103 0.075 0.096
F 682.105 535.262 722.540 603.083 1,340.193 1,115.182
∗p<0.01, ∗∗p<0.005, ∗∗∗p<0.001; s anda d e o s a e gi en in b acke s.
F on ie s in Public Heal h 09 on ie sin.o g
87
Jasso 10.3389/ soc.2023.1334925
F on ie s in Sociology 02 on ie sin.o g
A is o le (1952) (Poli ics, Book IV) o be he backbone o socie y, he
“solid co e” (Blau, 1964, 296-297).1
The s udy o po e y—how o de ine i , how o measu e i , and
how o alle ia e i —has a ich and long his o y. Pla o (c.428–
348/7 BCE), conce ned ha socie ies su e om bo h po e y and
weal h, has he A henian S ange say (Pla o, 1952, Laws, Book V):
[T]he e should exis among he ci izens nei he ex eme po e y,
no , again, excess o weal h, o bo h a e p oduc i e o bo h hese
e ils [ ac ion and dis ac ion]…[The minimum lo assigned in he
beginning] ough o bep ese ed, and no ule , no anyone else
who aspi es a e a epu a ion o i ue, will allow he lo o
beimpai ed in any case… [The law] will pe mi a man o acqui e
double o iple, o as much as ou imes he amoun o his
[minimum lo ]. Bu i a pe son ha e ye g ea e iches, whe he
hehas ound hem, o hey ha e been gi en o him, o hehas
made hem in business, o has acqui ed by any s oke o o une
ha which is in excess o he measu e, i hegi e back he su plus
o he s a e, and o he Gods who a e he pa ons o he s a e,
heshall su e no penal y o loss o epu a ion.
S . John Ch ysos om (c.347–407 CE), in he Homily 66.3, On he
Gospel o Ma hew (Ch ysos om, 1860, c. 386–407), es ima ed he
p opo ions ich and poo in he p ospe ous ci y o An ioch a
one- en h each.
2
O he highligh s in he oluminous li e a u e
spanning philosophy, social sciences, humani ies, and public policy
include Fishe (1992), F iedman (1965), Fuchs (1967), Himmel a b
(1984), O shansky (1965), Rawls (1971), Smi h (1976a,b), and Vi es
(1947, 1520–1540), oge he wi h single-coun y and c oss-coun y
schola ly esea ch on all aspec s o po e y, as well as epo s by he
majo in e na ional o ganiza ions (e.g., he Uni ed Na ions and he
Wo ld Bank) and non-p o i “ hink anks.”3
This pape i s explo es he wo o igina ing ideas and hen links
hem. O cou se, inequali y is an ac i e pa ne in he a e o he poo
and he middle class. Indeed, e en ea lie han Pla o, Con ucius
(c. 551–c. 479 BCE) augh ha he unde lying d i e o social ills is
inequali y (An, 2021). Acco dingly, inequali y is ne e a om
ou discussion.
1 The e m “ ax” includes bo h axes and ans e s; “ ax” can beposi i e ( ax
paid) o nega i e (a subsidy). The e ms “p e ax” and pos ax” a e used
in e changeably wi h “ini ial” and “ inal,” espec i ely.
2 Ch ysos om appa en ly de ines ich and poo by speci ied income amoun s
and es ima es he p opo ion in each class, p o iding an ea ly example o one
o he wo majo app oaches o class s uc u e, he o he being o de ine
classes by speci ied p opo ions o he popula ion and es ima e he ela i e
sha e o income held by each class (Jasso, 1983, 284).
3 Fo example, o a succinc o e iew o schola ly esea ch on po e y,
amily ac o s, measu emen equi alence, and o he pe inen ma e s in he
Uni edS a es and Eu ope, see Da ido e al. (2014), Edin and Nelson (2013),
Edin and Shae e (2015), Pa olin e al. (2023), Reinl e al. (2023), Sosu and
Schmid (2017), and he e e ences ci ed he ein. O cou se, po e y plays an
impo an pa in li e a u e, a , e en music, as in Mon e e di’s (1567-1643),
Bach’s (1685-1750), and o he s’ se ings o Ma y’s lines, esu ien es imple i
bonis, e di i es dimisi inanes, “The hung y he has illed wi h good hings, and
he ich he has sen away emp y” (Magni ica , Luke 1:53).
The p esen wo k may come a a p opi ious ime, as he wo ld
p epa es o celeb a e he 500 h anni e sa y o he classic and p obably
ea lies book on po e y educ ion, De Sub en ione Paupe um (On he
Relie o he Poo ), w i en in 1526 by Juan Luis Vi es (1493–1540) o
he Sena e o B uges.
2 Dis ibu ion and edis ibu ion o
income ia p obabili y dis ibu ions
We begin wi h wo iconic p obabili y dis ibu ions widely used in
he s udy o wages, ea nings, income, weal h, and o he money
a iables ( o con enience, e med “income”)—indeed, “ he wo
classical size dis ibu ions” (Kleibe and Ko z, 2003, 126, 238): he
logno mal and he Pa e o.
4
They a e con inuous uni a ia e
wo-pa ame e dis ibu ions de ined on posi i e numbe s. The wo
pa ame e s a e a loca ion pa ame e (such as he mean) and a shape
pa ame e , which go e ns all measu es o ela i e inequali y and is
hus called a gene al inequali y pa ame e , deno ed c (Jasso and Ko z,
2008). Bo h dis ibu ions pe mi incomes o ange o in ini y.
Howe e , hey di e in hei beha io a he bo om; while he
logno mal goes o ze o ( om he igh ), he Pa e o has a minimum
posi i e amoun . Thus, he logno mal is a easonable ep esen a ion
o ini ial income and he Pa e o o inal income, he Pa e o’s
minimum income ep esen ing he social sa e y ne . The e is a la ge
li e a u e on he wo dis ibu ions, o which Kleibe and Ko z (2003)
p o ide aluable and succinc in oduc ion, oge he wi h an
in oduc ion o size dis ibu ions in gene al and biog aphies o he
majo o igina o s and con ibu o s.5
Fo s udying po e y and he middle class, impo an dimensions
o income dis ibu ions include he minimum, he median, and he
p opo ion below he a i hme ic mean, as well as o e all inequali y
and inequali y wi hin selec ed egions. Fo o e all inequali y,
we epo h ee measu es: he widely used Gini coe icien (Kleibe
and Ko z, 2003, 30) and wo membe s o he class o gene alized
en opy inequali y measu es (Cowell and Kuga, 1981), he Theil MLD
(Theil, 1967, 125–127) and he A kinson (1970, 1975) measu e (he e
called ATK) ha a ises when he inequali y a e si eness pa ame e in
he A kinson amily app oaches one. All ha e excellen p ope ies and
an a ay o pa isans. Fo example, Sho ocks (1980, p.625) iews he
MLD as he “mos sa is ac o y o he decomposable measu es,” and
Cowell and Flachai e (2023, p.23) obse e ha he MLD “has all o
he a ac i e p ope ies o he Gini coe icien ” and also “es ima es
a ia ions in inequali y mo e accu a ely” han he Gini. Wealso epo
4 Because all income dis ibu ions a e subjec o he same unde lying
ma hema ical ela ions o p obabili y dis ibu ions, his app oach makes i
possible o explo e he ela ion be ween po e y and he middle class wi h
some gene ali y.
5 The shape pa ame e appea s by di e en names in di e en dis ibu ions.
Fo example, in he Pa e o, i is called Pa e o’s cons an and is usually deno ed
by α. The Pa e o pa ame e is some imes exp essed no as c (=α) bu as an
in e ed Pa e o coe icien deno ed β and equal o c/(c−1). This usage has wo
use ul p ope ies: (1) inequali y inc eases as β inc eases; and (2) he a e age o
he op subg oup is equal o β imes he x alue a he pe cen spli p. See, o
example, Al a edo (2011, p.275) and A kinson e al. (2011, p.13–14).
94

Jasso 10.3389/ soc.2023.1334925
F on ie s in Sociology 03 on ie sin.o g
he sha e held by he op1%, a leas since 2011 an iconic ma ke o
inequali y (A kinson e  al., 2011; S igli z, 2011; Jasso, 2020). In
con inuous, uni a ia e wo-pa ame e dis ibu ions, he Gini,
A kinson, Theil, and op sha e measu es a e mono onic unc ions o
he gene al inequali y pa ame e . Fo measu ing inequali y among he
poo , ollowing Pa olin e al. (2023), weuse he a io o he 15 h
pe cen ile o he 5 h pe cen ile. Fo mulas o all hese measu es in
bo h ma hema ically speci ied and obse ed dis ibu ions a e widely
a ailable (e.g., Jasso, 1980, 2018, 2020; Jasso and Ko z, 2008, p. 38–39).
6
Fo isualiza ion, we ely on g aphs o income ela i e amoun on
income ela i e ank, o mally, on g aphs o he quan ile unc ion
(QF) o income ela i e amoun .
7
I income is equally dis ibu ed ( he
benchma k case), he g aph is a ho izon al line a one ( he a e age o
he ela i e amoun s). Fo unequal dis ibu ions, he g aph inc eases
as ela i e ank inc eases. As Pen (1971) pu i , he QF o income
dis ibu ion is like a pa ade ha begins wi h dwa s and ends wi h
gian s. Impo an ly, he la e he cu e, he lowe he inequali y, and
he e may be egions o g ea e o lesse la ness.8
E en mo e impo an , o p esen pu poses, is ha he QF signals
no only he magni ude o inequali y bu also, in compa isons o wo o
mo e dis ibu ions, he exac cu o poin s iden i ying who gains and
who loses in a swi ch om one dis ibu ion o ano he (Schu z, 1951;
Budd, 1970; Budd and Seide s, 1971; Jasso, 1983). When he al e na i es
pe ain o absolu e income, i is possible ha e e yone gains o e e yone
6 The Theil MLD and he A kinson measu e bo h depend on a ios o he
geome ic mean and he a i hme ic mean and a e hus algeb aic ans o ma ions
o each o he : ATK = 1–exp(–MLD) and MLD = −ln(–ATK). Indeed, gi en ha
ATK si s on he uni in e al bu he MLD anges beyond one, he A kinson
measu e may be ega ded as a “no maliza ion” o he MLD (Cowell, 2011, p.186;
Jasso, 2023, p.312–313).
7 Rela i e income is income di ided by he a i hme ic mean. I he incomes
a e a anged in ascending o de , hei absolu e anks ange om 1 o he g oup
o popula ion size N, and ela i e ank is absolu e ank di ided by N + 1. Fo mally,
g aphs o ( ela i e) income amoun on income ela i e ank a e g aphs o he
quan ile unc ion, one o he h ee main associa ed unc ions o p obabili y
dis ibu ions, also known as he in e se dis ibu ion unc ion, he pe cen poin
unc ion, and, when used o income o o he money a iables, Pen’s Pa ade
(Pen, 1971; Cowell, 1977, 2011; Jasso, 1983; A kinson, 2017; U.S. Na ional
Ins i u e o S anda ds and Technology, 2018).
8 Among he h ee main associa ed unc ions o p obabili y dis ibu ions, he
mos basic is he cumula i e dis ibu ion unc ion (CDF), he bes known is he
p obabili y densi y unc ion (PDF), and pe haps he mos use ul in s udies o
income inequali y is he quan ile unc ion. The h ee a e ela ed o each o he
in speci ied ways (Jasso, 1983, p.276–277). Fo example, he QF is he in e se
o he CDF (hence one o i s al e na e names), and in con inuous dis ibu ions
he PDF is he i s de i a i e o he CDF. Fo u he de ail on he QF and i s
ela ion o he o he associa ed unc ions o p obabili y dis ibu ions, oge he
wi h o mulas and g aphs, see he Galle y o Dis ibu ions in he online
eHandbook o S a is ical Me hods (also known as he Enginee ing S a is ics
Handbook) published by U.S. Na ional Ins i u e o S anda ds and Technology
(2018); he one- olume handbook by Fo bes e  al. (2011); and he
comp ehensi e compendia o igina ed by Johnson and Ko z (1969-1972) and
con inued wi h Balak ishnan and Kemp (e.g., Johnson e al., 1994–1995, 2005).
Fo mulas and g aphs o he basic associa ed unc ions o he logno mal and
Pa e o a e widely a ailable, o example, in he sou ces abo e and Jasso and
Ko z (2008, 36-37).
loses. Howe e , when he al e na i es pe ain o ela i e income, he e
a e always winne s and lose s; he QF g aphs c oss a leas once,
p o iding in o ma ion abou bo h he ela i e anks and he ela i e
income amoun s a he bounda ies o he “ ans e g oups.” Indi iduals
a e be e o in he dis ibu ion whose QF g aph gi es hem he highe
e ical placemen . When wo QF g aphs o ela i e income c oss once,
all ans e s occu in one di ec ion. Thus, he e a e wo ans e g oups,
and he poin o in e sec ion shows whe he he le mos o he
igh mos g oup is in he majo i y. When wo QF g aphs o ela i e
income c oss wice, ans e s occu in bo h di ec ions. In his case, he e
a e h ee ans e g oups, wi h he poo es and he iches gaining unde
he same al e na i e and he middle g oup losing. The h ee ans e
g oups can mani es any con igu a ion o loca ion and size, such as he
middle g oup being he majo i y o he mino i y.9, 10
2.1 Rep esen ing he ini ial income
dis ibu ion by he logno mal
The logno mal (Ai chison and B own, 1957; Kleibe and Ko z,
2003, p.107–145), whose applica ion o economic a iables began wi h
he pionee ing wo k o Gib a (1931), is he classical dis ibu ion o
he case whe e incomes can bebo h e y low (going o ze o) and e y
high (going o in ini y). I would no bea good model o he ini ial
income dis ibu ion in e as when pay schemes ha e igid minimums
o , as in Elizabe han England, igid maximums (McA hu , 1900).
Howe e , i is no un easonable as an ea ly s ep in ep esen ing he
ini ial dis ibu ion in con ex s whe e i is possible o ea n bo h e y
li le and e y much.11
Figu e1A shows he g aph o he ela i e amoun on ela i e ank
o one membe o he logno mal amily, wi h gene al inequali y
pa ame e c equal o 0.5. The g id ea u es a e ical line a he median
and a ho izon al line a he mean (equal o one in a dis ibu ion o
ela i e amoun s, as no ed abo e). The g aph enables isualiza ion o
he ela i e income co esponding o each ela i e ank, o example,
9 As shown, he QF is use ul no only o s udying he income s uc u e and
how i changes bu also, when indi iduals e ain hei anks, how indi iduals
become be e -o and wo se-o . Thus, wo elemen s c ucial o unde s anding
income dis ibu ion and discussed by Ma x (1818–1883) a e impo an in his
a icle— ela i e amoun s (Ma x, 1968) and ank in a iance (Ma x, 1964).
10 We no e in passing ha he li e a u e con ains impo an links be ween
he QF and inequali y and be ween he QF and he Lo enz cu e. Fo example,
wo QFs o ela i e income in e sec one mo e ime han he co esponding
Lo enz cu es, so ha he canonical case o nonin e sec ing Lo enz cu es is
equi alen o he case o QFs in e sec ing once—and hese indica e ha he
wo dis ibu ions can beunambiguously anked on hei deg ee o inequali y.
Fu he pe inen li e a u e includes A nold and Sa abia (2018), A kinson (1970,
1975, 2017), Budd (1970), Budd and Seide s (1971), Cowell (1977, 2011), Fields
and Fei (1978), Jasso (1983, 2020), Kleibe and Ko z (2003), and Schu z (1951).
11 No able ecen de elopmen s include (1) wo k by Ba is in e al. (2009)
no ing ha he logno mal’s i is be e o consump ion han o income and
ha “ he logic o Gib a ’s law applies no o o al income, bu o pe manen
income and o ma ginal u ili y” and (2) wo k by Venka asub amanian (2017)
and Venka asub amanian e al. (2015) showing ha sel -o ganizing ee-ma ke
dynamics each an equilib ium s a e wi h an eme gen equilib ium dis ibu ion
which u ns ou o belogno mal.
95
Jasso 10.3389/ soc.2023.1334925
F on ie s in Sociology 04 on ie sin.o g
a he 25 h pe cen ile, he median, o he mean. The median is
app oxima ely 0.882, and he mean occu s a app oxima ely he
ela i e ank o 0.599, so app oxima ely 59.9% ha e incomes below he
mean. As o o e all inequali y, he alues o he Gini, MLD, and ATK
measu es a e 0.276, 0.125, and 0.118, espec i ely. The sha e held by
he op1% is 3.39%. Mo eo e , he g aph makes i possible o gauge
he amoun o inequali y in selec ed egions o he dis ibu ion; o
example, ollowing Pa olin e al. (2023), inequali y among he poo
can beassessed by aking he a io o he 15 h o he 5 h pe cen ile. In
he logno mal depic ed in Figu e1A, he 5 h and 15 h pe cen iles a e
0.388 and 0.526, yielding a P15/P5 a io o 1.356. Simila ly, eyeballing
la ness in he cu e, i is clea ha inequali y is much g ea e among
he op25% han among he bo om 25%.
2.2 Rep esen ing he inal income
dis ibu ion by he Pa e o
The Pa e o (Kleibe and Ko z, 2003, 59–106), pionee ed by Pa e o
(1895), accommoda es a dis ibu ion whe e incomes ha e a posi i e
minimum and can also be e y high—going o in ini y. I is a
easonable model o he inal income dis ibu ion in con ex s whe e
edis ibu ion assu es a social sa e y ne bu allows high ea ne s o
e ain la ge amoun s.
Figu e1B shows he g aph o ela i e amoun on ela i e ank o he
membe o he Pa e o amily wi h gene al inequali y pa ame e c equal o
2. As wi h he logno mal in Figu e1A, he g id ea u es a e ical line a
he median and a ho izon al line a he mean, and he g aph enables
isualiza ion o he ela i e income co esponding o each ela i e ank.
The minimum is hal he mean, he median is ((√2)/2≈) 0.707, and he
mean occu s a app oxima ely he 75 h pe cen ile. As o o e all
inequali y, alues o he Gini, MLD, and ATK measu es a e 0.333, 0.193,
and 0.176, espec i ely. The sha e held by he op1% is 10%—highe han
in he logno mal (c = 0.5), highligh ing he di e gen pa hs ha inequali y
and po e y can ake. Meanwhile, he 5 h and 15 h pe cen iles a e 0.513
and 0.542, so ha , ollowing Pa olin e al. (2023), he P15/P5 a io egis e s
1.057, sugges ing less inequali y among he poo han in he logno mal.
Simila ly, he cu e is much la e among he bo om hal han among
he op hal , sugges ing a less inequali y among he bo om hal han
among he op hal .
2.3 Redis ibu ion om he logno mal
(c = 0.5) o he Pa e o (c = 2)
Suppose now ha a socie y wi h an ini ial dis ibu ion
app oxima ed by he logno mal (c = 0.5) decides o edis ibu e o a
Pa e o (c = 2), pe haps o e looking he ac s ha in his Pa e o 75% o
he incomes a e below he mean and inequali y is g ea e (e.g., a Gini
o 0.333 s. 0.276 and a op1% sha e o 10% s. 3.39%), so compelling
is he o he ac ha he lowes income canno go below hal he mean.
Figu e1C illus a es he esul : h ee ans e g oups, wi h he le mos
and he igh mos gaining and he middle g oup losing.
12
In
12 The h ee ans e g oups isible in Figu e 1C eme ge om he wo
in e sec ions o he dis ibu ions’ quan ile unc ions. Equi alen ly, he wo
dis ibu ions’ Lo enz cu es in e sec once. Thus, his si ua ion echoes Cowell’s
(1977, 36, 49) insigh ul ema ks ha “ he e has been a edis ibu ion away om
Logno mal (c=0.5)
A
C
B
Rela i e Amoun
Rela i e Rank
0.25 .5 .75 1
0
1
2
3
Pa e o (c=2)
Rela i e Amoun
Rela i e Rank
0.25 .5 .75 1
0
1
2
3
Logno mal (c=0.5)
Redis ibu ed o Pa e o (c=2)
Rela i e Amoun
Rela i e Rank
0.25 .5 .75 1
0
1
2
3
X
X
Y
Y
FIGURE1
Redis ibu ion om logno mal o Pa e o. The poo and ich a e be e o , and he middle is wo se o . The ini ial Logno mal dis ibu ion deno ed X and
he inal Pa e o dis ibu ion deno ed Y. Figu e1C is based on Figu e 3(a) in Jasso (2015, p. 889).
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Jasso 10.3389/ soc.2023.1334925
F on ie s in Sociology 05 on ie sin.o g
edis ibu ions o ela i e income om a logno mal o a Pa e o, he e
a e h ee ans e g oups— he bo om and op a e always be e o in
he Pa e o and he middle in he logno mal—bu he ans e g oups
may di e ma kedly in hei size and bounda ies. In he case o he
wo dis ibu ions used in his illus a ion, he logno mal and he
Pa e o cu es, deno ed X and Y, espec i ely, c oss a app oxima ely
he 17 h and 92nd pe cen iles, so ha a la ge middle majo i y o some
75% becomes wo se o , while he poo es 17% and he iches 8%
become be e o . Pu di e en ly, pe sons immedia ely abo e he 17 h
pe cen ile who migh ha e expec ed o bene i om edis ibu ion o
he poo appea o beunde w i ing he ad ancemen o pe sons no
much poo e han hemsel es.13, 14
The illus a ion in his sec ion e okes con empo a y discussions
o he middle egion o he income dis ibu ion losing g ound (S igli z,
2015; Case and Dea on, 2020). Mo eo e , i p omp s a sea ch o a
possibly be e way o achie e po e y educ ion.
3 Dis ibu ion o income ia
p obabili y dis ibu ion, edis ibu ion
o income ia he linea income ax
sys em
The linea income ax sys em has been widely s udied (Fei, 1981;
Musg a e, 1959, 1963; In iliga o , 1979; King, 1983; Seidl, 2007a,b;
Jasso and Wegene , 2022), and i s p ope ies and simplici y make i an
appealing op ion. I sa is ies he h ee p inciples o ax jus ice, namely,
ha as p e ax income inc eases, so do inal income, ax amoun , and
ax a e. The linea income ax sys em begins wi h a simple equa ion
middle-income ecei e s o he op and o he bo om” and ha he “Lo enz
cu es ha wewish o compa e o en in e sec .”
13 To illus a e he a iabili y in size and bounda ies o he ans e g oups, i
he ini ial income dis ibu ion we e a logno mal (c = 0.6) a he han he
logno mal (c = 0.5) in Figu e1, edis ibu ion o he same Pa e o (c = 2) in Figu e1
would lead o a smalle middle egion o some 67% ex ending om he 28 h
pe cen ile o he 95 h pe cen ile becoming wo se-o , and i he ini ial income
dis ibu ion we e a logno mal (c = 1), edis ibu ion o he same Pa e o (c = 2)
would lead o an e en smalle “middle” egion o some 38% ex ending om
he 61s pe cen ile o he 99.76 h pe cen ile becoming wo se-o (Jasso, 1983,
291–294). Mo eo e , i he ini ial income dis ibu ion we e a logno mal (c = 0.82),
edis ibu ion o he same Pa e o (c = 2) would lead o he case in which he
majo i y comp ises he bo om 49% and he op1.3%—and hence does no
include he median pe son (Jasso, 2015, 888–889). Always, howe e , he
“poo es ” (o le mos ) and he “ iches ” (o igh mos ) sha e he same a e,
hei in e es s opposi e he in e es s o he “middle” egion. Finally, a ans e
g oup may beso iny ha i would bedisce nible only in a e y la ge popula ion;
o example, in a edis ibu ion om a logno mal (c = 2) o a Pa e o (c = 2), he
poin o in e sec ion be ween he “middle” egion and he “ op” egion occu s
be ween 0.999999999 and 0.9999999999.
14 O cou se, he logno mal and Pa e o pai a e no he only dis ibu ions
gi ing ise o h ee ans e g oups. O he examples include a powe unc ion
and Pa e o pai (Jasso, 2015, 888–889). As well, obse ed empi ical dis ibu ions
also may in e sec . Fo example, Budd (1970) and Weissko (1970) epo ha
in he Uni edS a es in he 1945–1965 pe iod and in Mexico in he 1950–1963
pe iod, a la ge bo om segmen and a small op segmen became wo se-o
in ela i e income, while he middle g oup became be e -o .
in which pos ax income y is a linea unc ion o p e ax income x. The
slope b ep esen s he ac ion o p e ax income kep by he axpaye ,
no coun ing he in e cep a. When a is posi i e, i ep esen s he
minimum pos ax income, known as he demog an o social
componen , and, in Islamic law, he Nisab (Seidl, 2007a,b; Jasso and
Wegene , 2022). I a is ze o, he linea ax sys em educes o a la ax,
which iola es he hi d p inciple o ax jus ice, ailing p og essi i y.
Fo mally, he jus linea ax sys em is w i en as:
yabx ,
ab
00 1,
3.1 P ope ies o he jus linea ax sys em
Explo ing he jus linea ax sys em in a popula ion o axpaye s
leads o h ee use ul u he p ope ies (Jasso and Wegene , 2022).
Fi s , besides he in e cep a and slope b, he e is a hi d pa ame e , he
le el o ex ac ion/injec ion o esou ces, ep esen ed by he a io o
he a e age pos ax income o he a e age p e ax income and deno ed
k. Resou ces may beex ac ed o und he go e nmen , o secu i y,
e c. Con e sely, he injec ion o esou ces may e lec colonial
e enues, oil e enues, de ici spending, o economic g ow h.
15
Impo an ly, when p e ax income and pos ax income a e exp essed
as ela i e amoun s, he pa ame e k equals one.
Second, embedded in he jus linea ax sys em is a s anda d o m
o he in e cep and slope, deno ed by as e isks and called he signa u e
sys em. This s anda d pai — iz., a* and b*—occu s na u ally when
p e ax income and pos ax income a e exp essed as ela i e amoun s
and has he p ope y ha he wo pa ame e s sum o one. Mo eo e ,
because a* ep esen s he jus ela i e minimum inal income and
1−b* is he s anda d o m o he ma ginal ax a e, i ollows ha a*
ep esen s bo h he jus ela i e minimum inal income and he
ma ginal ax a e. Thus, “inc easing he ela i e minimum is he same
as inc easing he ma ginal ax a e” (Jasso and Wegene , 2022, p.210),
and he a es o he poo and ich a e in e wined.
Thi d, i u ns ou ha he second p inciple o jus ice— ha as
p e ax income inc eases, he ax amoun should also inc ease—is
iola ed i he injec ion o esou ces g ows o he poin ha k eaches
o exceeds 1/b*. Thus, o gi en signa u e pa ame e s, i is possible o
know a p io i how much injec ion o esou ces can be ole a ed
wi hou iola ing he second p inciple (Jasso and Wegene , 2022,
p.213, Table4).
3.2 Redis ibu ion om he logno mal
(c = 0.5) ia he jus linea ax sys em
Suppose now ha a socie y wi h an ini ial dis ibu ion
app oxima ed by he same logno mal (c = 0.5) as in Sec ion 2 decides
o edis ibu e ia he linea ax sys em. Two ax sys ems a e
conside ed, speci ied by hei signa u e s anda d pa ame e s. The i s
signa u e se has a* o 0.225 and b* o 0.775. This is he signa u e
15 Fo a line o inqui y explo ing he ela ions among g ow h, edis ibu ion,
and po e y, see Chene y e al. (1974).
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F on ie s in Sociology 06 on ie sin.o g
pa ame e se es ima ed empi ically o a p obabili y sample o
Ge man ea ne s in 2009, based on hei esponses o ques ions asked
in he Ge man SocioEconomic Panel (GSOEP) abou hei cu en
ac ual p e ax income and hei idea o he jus pos ax income o
hemsel es (Jasso and Wegene , 2022). The second signa u e se has
a* o 0.3 and b* o 0.7. O cou se, he socie y could speci y any o he
signa u e se , cognizan ha a* ep esen s he s anda d o m o bo h
he ela i e minimum income and he ma ginal ax a e, o i could
es ima e empi ically i s popula ion’s ideas abou he jus sys em.16
Figu e2C depic s he g aphs o ela i e amoun on ela i e ank
o he p e ax dis ibu ion (logno mal o c = 0.5), deno ed X, and he
pos ax dis ibu ion ob ained om he 0.225 o 0.775 ax sys em,
deno ed Y. As shown, he wo g aphs in e sec only once, a he mean
o one and he ela i e ank o app oxima ely 0.599. Thus, he le mos
60% ha e gained om he edis ibu ion, and he igh mos 40% ha e
los . The lowes income has inc eased om close o ze o (in a
popula ion o a 1,000, app oxima ely 18.8% o he mean) o 37.1% o
he mean. The highes income has declined om 4.14% o he mean
16 Empi ical app oxima ion o he signa u e sys em iewed as ai by a
popula ion is s aigh o wa d i da a a e a ailable on each esponden ’s own
ac ual p e ax income and own jus pos ax income ( iz., he pos ax income
ega ded as jus o sel by he esponden ); he p ocedu e simply eg esses
jus pos ax income on ac ual p e ax income, bo h in ela i e o m (Jasso and
Wegene , 2022). Such da a ha e been a ailable in Ge many since 2009 and
a e now a ailable o almos 30 coun ies in he Eu opean Social Su ey, Round
9 (2018–2019).
(again, in a popula ion o a housand) o 3.43% o he mean. O cou se,
in a popula ion o millions, he igu es a he ex emes would di e .
The h ee o e all inequali y measu es—Gini, MLD, and ATK—
egis e 0.213, 0.0713, and 0.0688, espec i ely, indica ing a non i ial
decline in inequali y. The sha e held by he op1% is 2.76%. Finally, o
gauge inequali y among he poo , ollowing Pa olin e al. (2023),
weob ain he 5 h and 15 h pe cen iles (0.525 and 0.632), yielding a
P15/P5 a io o 1.203 and sugges ing less inequali y among he poo
han in he logno mal, whe e i is 1.356 (bu mo e han in he Pa e o,
whe e i is 1.057, isible in he cu e’s la ness).17
Now suppose ha a combina ion o economic g ow h and de ici
spending pe mi s he a e age o he inal income dis ibu ion o
inc ease. How much could beused in edis ibu ion wi hou iola ing
he second p inciple o ax jus ice? The answe is ha k could inc ease
o 1/b*, o app oxima ely 1.29, o an injec ion o esou ces equal o
29% o he ini ial income dis ibu ion (Jasso and Wegene , 2022,
p. 213, Table 4). I he socie y wan ed o ake k o 1.5, injec ing
esou ces equal o hal he ini ial o al income, hen o sa egua d he
second p inciple o ax jus ice, he ax sys em pa ame e s would ha e
o change o 0.333–0.667 (Jasso and Wegene , 2022, p.214, Table5).
Tha is, he s anda d ela i e minimum inal income (and, iden ically,
he s anda d ma ginal ax a e) would ha e o inc ease om 0.225 o
0.333, o app oxima ely 33%.
17 Figu es2A,B epea Figu es1A,C enabling isual con as o all h ee
edis ibu ions.
Logno mal (c=0.5)
AB
CD
Rela i e Amoun
Rela i e Rank
0.25 .5 .75 1
0
1
2
3
Logno mal (c=0.5)
Redis ibu ed o Pa e o (c=2)
Rela i e Amoun
Rela i e Rank
0.25 .5 .75 1
0
1
2
3
X
X
Y
Y
Logno mal (c=0.5)
Redis ibu ed ia Linea Tax (.225 & .775)
Rela i e Amoun
Rela i e Rank
0.25 .5 .75 1
0
1
2
3
X
X
Y
Y
Logno mal (c=0.5)
Redis ibu ed ia Linea Tax (.3 & .7)
Rela i e Amoun
Rela i e Rank
0.25 .5 .75 1
0
1
2
3
X
X
Y
Y
FIGURE2
Redis ibu ion om logno mal ia linea ax. Le mos be e o , igh mos wo se o (plus con as wi h edis ibu ion o Pa e o). The ini ial logno mal
dis ibu ion deno ed X and he inal dis ibu ions deno ed Y. Figu e1B is based on Figu e 3(a) in Jasso (2015, 889)
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Jasso 10.3389/ soc.2023.1334925
F on ie s in Sociology 07 on ie sin.o g
Analyzing he 0.3–0.7 ax sys em exac ly as abo e o he 0.225–
0.775 sys em, Figu e2D depic s he g aphs o ela i e amoun on
ela i e ank o he p e ax dis ibu ion (logno mal o c = 0.5) and he
pos ax dis ibu ion ob ained om he 0.3–0.7 ax sys em. As shown,
he wo g aphs in e sec only once, a he mean o one and he ela i e
ank o app oxima ely 0.599. This is exac ly as in he 0.225–0.775
sys em, which is no su p ising gi en ha he ax sys em is a linea
ans o ma ion. The lowes income has inc eased om close o ze o
(in a popula ion o a housand, app oxima ely 18.8% o he mean) o
37% o he mean. The highes income has declined om 4.14% o he
mean (again, in a popula ion o a housand) o 3.20% o he mean. O
cou se, in a popula ion o millions, he igu es a he ex emes would
di e . The h ee o e all inequali y measu es—Gini, MLD, and ATK—
egis e 0.192, 0.0579, and 0.0563, espec i ely, indica ing a u he
decline in inequali y. The sha e held by he op1% is 2.59%. Finally, o
gauge inequali y among he poo , ollowing Pa olin e al. (2023), he
5 h and 15 h pe cen iles a e 0.571 and 0.668, yielding a P15/P5 a io
o 1.169 and sugges ing less inequali y among he poo han in he
logno mal (whe e i is 1.356) o ia he 0.225–0.775 sys em (whe e i
is 1.203) bu mo e han in he Pa e o (whe e i is 1.057).
As men ioned abo e, wenow ask how much o a wind all (o
de ici spending) could beused in edis ibu ion wi hou iola ing he
second p inciple o ax jus ice. The answe is ha k could inc ease o
1/b*, o app oxima ely 1.429, o an injec ion o esou ces equal o
42.9% o he ini ial income dis ibu ion (Jasso and Wegene , 2022,
p.213, Table 4). I he socie y wan ed o ake k o 1.5, injec ing
esou ces equal o hal he ini ial o al income, hen, exac ly as abo e,
o sa egua d he second p inciple o ax jus ice, he ax sys em
pa ame e s would ha e o change o 0.333–0.667 (Jasso and Wegene ,
2022, p.214, Table5). Tha is, he s anda d ela i e minimum inal
income (and, iden ically, he s anda d ma ginal ax a e) would ha e
o inc ease om 0.3 o 0.333, o app oxima ely 33%.
4 Con as ing he wo app oaches o
edis ibu ion and po e y educ ion
Figu e2 makes i possible o isualize a a glance he o iginal
p e ax dis ibu ion and he h ee pos ax dis ibu ions achie ed ia a
p obabili y dis ibu ion and ia he linea ax sys em. I is e iden ha
while edis ibu ion ia he Pa e o (Figu e2B) ende s a middle egion
wo se o , edis ibu ion ia he linea ax sys em (Figu es2C,D) does
no ha m o he middle. Fo u he conc e eness, Table1 epo s all
he key measu es epo ed abo e— he minimum, he median, he
p opo ion below he mean, he h ee measu es o o e all inequali y,
he sha e held by he op1%, and he P15/P5 measu e o inequali y
among he poo .
I is e iden om bo h Table1 and Figu e2 ha he Pa e o op ion
p o ides he highes minimum income. Wemay wonde whe he e en
he mos commi ed Rawlsian would hesi a e be o e choosing i ,
knowing ha i ha ms he middle, has he lowes median, has he
la ges p opo ion below he mean, and has he highes o e all
inequali y. The di e ences in his illus a ion a e no sub le. The
Pa e o’s minimum income o hal he mean is la ge han he wo ax
sys ems’ minimums o 0.371 and 0.432 o he mean. The Pa e o’s
median o 0.707 is smalle by o e 20 pe cen age poin s han he wo
ax sys ems’ medians o 0.909 and 0.918. The Pa e o’s 75% p opo ion
below he mean exceeds by 15 pe cen age poin s he p opo ion below
he mean in he wo ax sys ems’ edis ibu ion. Fu he , by all he
measu es o o e all inequali y, he Pa e o’s o e all inequali y is he
la ges — o example, a Gini coe icien o 0.333, o e 10 pe cen age
poin s g ea e han he wo ax sys ems’ Ginis o 0.213 and 0.192.
Finally, he sha e held by he op1% is o e h ee imes g ea e in he
Pa e o han in he wo ax sys ems (10% s. 2.76% and 2.59%). In he
Pa e o’s de ense, howe e , he P15/P5 a io egis e s he lowes
magni ude o inequali y among he poo —1.057 s. 1.203 and 1.169.
O cou se, his illus a ion is based on speci ic membe s o he
logno mal and Pa e o dis ibu ional amilies and speci ic signa u e
pa ame e s o he linea ax sys em. Exac esul s will di e by he
exac combina ions.
18
Wha migh besome gene al conclusions? Fi s ,
he iconic Pa e o is no panacea, gi en i s ha m o he middle. Second,
edis ibu ions ia membe s o lowe inequali y om he same
dis ibu ional amily will no ha m he poo , as hey gene a e only wo
ans e g oups, and hus i would seem use ul o explo e “shi ed” o
“gene alized” o ms o he logno mal as app oaches o bo h
dis ibu ion and edis ibu ion. Thi d, i would also seem use ul o
explo e o he dis ibu ional amilies, such as he shi ed exponen ial,
he shi ed gamma, and he quad a ic wi h i s beau i ul symme y.19
5 Discussion
This pape combined wo well-known ideas—(1) edis ibu ion
om one o ano he dis ibu ion can yield h ee ans e g oups such
ha he poo es and iches gain and he middle loses and (2) he
linea income ax sys em sa is ies h ee basic p inciples o ai ness,
namely, ha as ini ial income inc eases, so do inal income, ax
amoun , and ax a e, sugges ing ha he linea income ax sys em
may be he na u al and mos e ec i e way o gua d agains po e y
educ ion policies which, while helping he poo es , ha m he middle.
Fu he wo k migh examine, mo e deeply and bo h heo e ically
and empi ically, he links be ween po e y, edis ibu ion, and he
middle class, on he one hand, and inequali y and bo h income
ai ness and ax ai ness, on he o he hand.
18 Conside he ocal dis ibu ions used in his pape o model p e ax and
pos ax income, he logno mal (c = 0.5) and he Pa e o (c = 2), espec i ely. The
eade will ha e no iced in he ex and in Table1 ha by all h ee measu es o
o e all inequali y, he Pa e o has g ea e inequali y han he logno mal. Bu
his is no uni e sally he case. In ac , by he Gini measu e, he Pa e o (c = 2)
is less unequal han any logno mal o c g ea e han 0.609, and by he A kinson
measu e, i is less unequal han any logno mal o c g ea e han 0.622. Thus,
he e is a “zone o ambigui y” in anking he Pa e o (c = 2) and membe s o he
logno mal amily wi h c be ween 0.609 and 0.622 (Fields and Fei, 1978, p.315;
Jasso, 1982, p.319–321).
19 The ou small “ oy dis ibu ions” p o ided by Jasso (2018, 202) a e based
on he logno mal, Pa e o, shi ed exponen ial, and quad a ic, and hus can
beused o expe imen wi h u he op ions o edis ibu ion. No e ha he
oy quad a ic has a minimum income o hal he mean and a maximum income
o h ee imes he mean, well wi hin he maximum allowed by he A henian
S ange in Pla o’s Laws (quo ed abo e).
99

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