Cañas, Rica do Ma ínez; Gomís, Alexis Jacobo Bañón; Sil a, G aça; Opu e, John
A icle
De e mining job sa is ac ion h ough he pe sonal g ow h
expe ience: he de imen al e ec s o supe iso s who un-
digni y he wo kplace
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De e mining job sa is ac ion h ough he
pe sonal g ow h expe ience: he de imen al
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Rica do Ma ínez Cañas, Alexis Jacobo Bañón Gomís, G aça Sil a & John
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2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2429014
De e mining job sa is ac ion h ough he pe sonal g ow h
expe ience: he de imen al e ec s o supe iso s who un-digni y
he wo kplace
Rica do Ma ínez Cañasa , Alexis Jacobo Bañón Gomísb , G aça Sil ac and John
Opu ed
aBusiness Managemen Depa men , uni e si y o Cas illa-La Mancha, Cuenca, spain; bBusiness Managemen Depa men ,
echnical uni e si y o Valencia, Valencia, spain; cManagemen Depa men , Lisbon school o economics & Managemen ,
Lisbon, Po ugal; dManagemen Depa men , London sou h Bank uni e si y, London, uni ed Kingdom
ABSTRACT
In oday’s compe i i e labo ma ke , o e ing employees he highes gene al sa is ac ion
expe ience wi h hei jobs appea s o be an impo an ing edien in e aining human
capi al. Nume ous an eceden s o his ou come ha e been disguised o e he yea s,
wi h e hical elemen s being nomina ed as in luen ial. Howe e , he ole o human
digni y in his p ocess has been aguely explo ed, and i s examina ion could o e a
new and clea e unde s anding o his ela ionship. Human digni y, which is mo e
easible o eel wi h wo k and in wo kplaces, has o do wi h a sense o sel -wo h,
sel - espec , and a ully ealized li e, which should inc ease employees’ eelings o good
pe sonal g ow h, and he eby, hei gene al job sa is ac ion. Gi en ha pe sonal g ow h
sa is ac ion migh play an impo an ole in os e ing employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion,
his s udy in es iga ed how he p esence o supe iso s who undigni y he wo kplace
is de imen al o pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion be o e nega i ely a ec ing employees’
gene al job sa is ac ion. The esul s o a sample o 151 employees om a di e se se o
Spanish indus ies e ealed ha pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion pa ially media es he
nega i e impac o undigni ying supe iso s on hei employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion.
Thus, no el in o ma ion conce ning he c i ical elemen s o human digni y and pe sonal
g ow h sa is ac ion is needed o sp ead gene al job sa is ac ion in he wo kplace.
1. In oduc ion
In he las ew decades, esea ch on e hical leade ship has g own, emphasizing i s posi i e impac on
human ela ionships in o ganiza ions (Qing e al., 2020). Consequen ly, he ole o posi i e in e ac ions wi h
supe iso s has been suppo ed since Haw ho ne’s s udies (Roe hlisbe ge & Dickson, 1939). One impo an
job ou come ha has been ho oughly s udied unde his pe spec i e is job sa is ac ion which has been
e ealed as a di ec consequence o in e ac ing wi h supe iso s who beha e e hically in he immedia e
wo kplace (Ruiz‐Palomino e al., 2011; Neube e al., 2013; Bahado i e al., 2021). Howe e , he in luen ial
elemen s ha con ibu e o o e all job sa is ac ion pe cep ions a e less explo ed (Banks e al., 2021).
Fo example, human digni y is an impo an elemen . In 1948, he Gene al Assembly o he Uni ed
Na ions (Da ila-Gomez & C ow he , 2012; Uni ed Na ions, 1948). Human digni y, which is in insically ied
o human exis ence om he pe spec i e o in ol ing an end in i sel , and no a means (Bol on, 2006)-,
is de ined as human igh s ha ela e o humans’ eelings o sel -wo h, sel - espec (Ba ak, 2015),
sel -es eem, hono , digni ied s a us, and au onomy (Bol on, 2006, 2007). This concep explains how pe -
cep ions o job sa is ac ion in he wo kplace ha e been de eloped. In ac , i is he wo kplace and he
wo k, in eg al pa s o wha people a e, and hus p incipal sou ces o human digni y (Hodson, 1996,
2001; Bol on, 2006, 2007; Khandelwal, 2003), as e lec ed in he Uni ed Na ions’ (UN) in e es s in
© 2024 he au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK Limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis g oup
CONTACT Rica do Ma ínez Cañas Rica do.Ma [email p o ec ed] a . al a es 44, social sciences Facul y, uni e sidad de Cas illa-La Mancha,
16071, Cuenca, spain.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2429014
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 5 Ma ch 2024
Re ised 10 Sep embe
2024
Accep ed 8 No embe
2024
KEYWORDS
Supe iso undigni ying
beha io ; human digni y;
pe sonal g ow h
sa is ac ion; gene al job
sa is ac ion; wo k
beha io
SUBJECTS
S ess and Emo ion in
he Wo kplace; Wo k
Mo i a ion; Pe sonnel
Selec ion, Assessmen ,
and Human Resou ce
Managemen ; Leade ship;
In oduc o y Wo k/
O ganiza ional Psychology
MANAGEMENT | RESEARCH ARTICLE
2 R. MARTÍNEZ CAÑAS ETAL.
p ese ing his issue in he wo kplace (i.e. In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion, he ea e ILO), o in p o-
mo ing decen wo k (e.g. ai ea men , decen hou s wo kplace ela ions) (Uni ed Na ions, 2015).
Une hical supe iso s who exhibi undigni ying beha io s in he wo kplace can signi ican ly ha m
employees’ pe sonal digni y. Recen esea ch sugges s ha his nega i e impac ex ends o job sa is ac-
ion le els (Zheng e al., 2021). When supe iso s unde mine digni y, employees may expe ience
dec eased sel -wo h and sel -es eem, leading o nega i e job assessmen s (Xiong e al., 2021). Pe sonal
g ow h sa is ac ion, which in ol es eelings o con inued de elopmen and sel - ealiza ion, may play a
c ucial ole in media ing his ela ionship (Tu e al., 2017).
Despi e he impo ance gi en by Hackman and Oldham (1976,1980) longe han 40 yea s ago o pe -
sonal g ow h sa is ac ion as an a ec i e ou come o employees, his a iable has no been add essed
much in li e a u e. Howe e , acco ding o he pa ame e s and a ionales, his a iable, which is likely o
a ise when pe o ming a job, could be se iously and nega i ely a ec ed when employees in e ac wi h
supe iso s who undigni y he wo kplace. Employees a e mo e likely o ail in mee ing some impo an
g ow h needs (i.e. sel -es eem and sel -ac ualiza ion), wi h a di ec nega i e in luence on hei pe sonal
g ow h sa is ac ion, which would make employees see hei jobs as impo an ba ie s o hei pe sonal
de elopmen (Hodson, 2001). Thus, pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion may ac as a media ing a iable o
undigni ying supe iso s’ nega i e in luence on employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion.
To help cla i y hese issues, we use a human digni y amewo k o help dis inguish whe he pe sonal
g ow h sa is ac ion se es as a media o h ough which o he wo k con ex a iables (i.e. undigni ying
supe iso beha io ) a ec employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion. To his end, we i s explo ed he nega i e
di ec in luence o supe iso s’ undigni ying beha io on employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion. Then, we
examine he media ing ole o pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion in his ela ionship, shedding ligh on he
pa h ha undigni ying supe iso s ake be o e ha ming employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion. Finally, such
examina ions allow us o elucida e he impo an ole o pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion in de e mining
employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion.
2.Theo e ical amewo k
Simila objec i e wo king condi ions in o ganiza ions do no necessa ily imply analogous job sa is ac ion
o employees. O he wise, unde he umb ella o he MacDonaldiza ion hesis (e.g. Ri ze , 1996, 2004)
employees o McDonalds, whe e simila objec i e wo king condi ions exis in e e y shop a ound he
wo ld, would be equally sa is ied wi h hei jobs. Ra he , i appea s ha subjec i e elemen s migh come
in o he scene, such ha ou objec i e unde s anding o job sa is ac ion in he wo kplace should be
complemen ed wi h one pe spec i e, including wha indi iduals pe cei e as impo an o make hei
li es wo hy. In his ein, human digni y, which is an essen ial co e human ea u e ha should be
espec ed a wo k (Bol on, 2007)- and how i is pe cei ed o be espec ed a wo k –a sense o human
digni y (Bol on, 2007), migh become a c ucial de e minan in unde s anding he sa is ac ion o employ-
ees in di e en aspec s o he wo k.
A his o ical e olu ion o he concep o digni y shows ha ini ially, digni y was associa ed wi h high
ank, o ice, o social s a us. Howe e , he S oics in oduced a mo e uni e sal no ion o digni y ha se s
humans apa om he es o na u e. O e ime, digni y became a p ope y inhe en in all humans,
emphasizing ou unique quali ies. La e , Kan ’s uni e saliza ion signi ican ly in luenced he Wes e n adi-
ion’s concep ualiza ion o digni y making i uni e sal (all humans possess i ) and es ic ed only o
humans. The abo e p o ides a polysemic concep o digni y wi h a ious s ands o meaning coexis ing.
Some iew digni y as ele a ed beha io displayed by indi iduals, while o he s emphasize i s uni e sal
aspec . In summa y, digni y encompasses bo h indi idual beha io and uni e sal human quali ies, e lec -
ing ou dis inc place in he na u al o de (Rosen, 2012).
Digni y can be unde s ood as an elemen ha sepa a es us om animal li e, making us human, as
some hing ha we possess by i ue o ou sha ed humani y (Sacks, 2002). I se es as an indica o o
public heal h, as a scien i ic amewo k o measu ing digni y and i s social de e minan s. Simila o
happiness o lo e, digni y is alued by indi iduals bu challenging o de ine. Based on a sociological
pe spec i e, di e ences in digni y s em om inequali ies in social and economic esou ces, expe iences
COGENT BUSINESS & MANAGEMENT 3
o dis espec , h ea , and li e s ess, as well as ac o s like mas e y, ma e ing, and meaning. Social
g oups wi h less powe gene ally epo lowe le els o digni y, and educa ion plays a c ucial ole in
esou ce di ides (Hi lin & Ande sson, 2023). Digni y is in luenced by social di isions, ma e ial condi-
ions, and ins i u ional sa egua ds ha signi ican ly impac indi idual well-being and o e all quali y o
li e, unde sco ing he impo ance o ai ea men and espec in main aining digni y (Roscigno
e al., 2021).
Applied o wo k, digni y is he abili y o es ablish sel -wo h and sel - espec , app ecia ing he espec
o o he s (Hodson, 2004). This concep is closely associa ed wi h issues o espec , wo h, es eem, equal-
i y, au onomy, and eedom (e.g. Hodson, 2001); connec ed o he le el o au onomy, espec , and ec-
ogni ion wo ke s expe ience (Dube e al., 2022). Such app oaches a e human needs desc ibed in
Maslow’s (1943) mo i a ion heo y, whose sa is ac ion is c ucial o a ain gene al well-being, human
h i ing, and pe sonal de elopmen (e.g. Bañón-Gomis & Ruiz-Palomino, 2015; Valcou , 2014). One way
o de e mine he bo de s o digni y a wo k is o concep ualize i as a human igh (Uni ed Na ions,
1948) based on he indica o s de ined by he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO, 2005). While he
o me appeals o he condi ion o a human igh , he la e cha ac e izes he ‘decen wo k’ concep
(Anke e al., 2003; Bol on, 2006, 2007). In 1999, Juan Soma ia, ILO’s Di ec o , desc ibed decen wo k as
‘oppo uni ies o women and men o ob ain decen and p oduc i e wo k in condi ions o eedom,
equi y, secu i y, and human digni y’ (ILO, 1999). He o e ed a comp ehensi e concep o wo k and o
he wo kplace ha explici ly includes h ee gene al dimensions ha u he subdi ide in o six
sub-dimensions in o al: a ailabili y o wo k (oppo uni ies o wo k), accep able scope o wo k (wo k in
condi ions o eedom), and quali y o employmen (p oduc i e wo k, equi y in wo k, secu i y a wo k,
and digni y a wo k) (Anke e al., 2002).
Based on his concep , Bol on (2006, 2007) dis inguished wo cons i u i e elemen s o digni y in he
wo kplace: digni y a wo k and digni y in wo k. His app oach can be seen as a p oposi ion o a
bi-dimensional unde s anding o -digni y a wo k, which concei es i as a human igh -digni y a wo k–
and as a quali y condi ion o gene a e decen wo k–digni y in wo k–. The o me dimension, digni y a
wo k, elies on ac o s associa ed wi h ma e ial ewa ds (i.e. pay, secu i y, gende equi y) and is ex e nal
o he indi idual. The la e dimension, digni y in wo k, con empla es a subjec i e expe ience concep ion
o digni y (i.e. a o m o ewa d, such as ca ing as a oca ion), he inhe en pa o he human condi ion
achie ed and p o ec ed by indi idual endea o s. This is also associa ed wi h human connec edness and
social ies and ep esen s an impo an pa o he concep ion o human digni y concep ion (Bol on,
2006). Using MacDonald’s as an example, digni y a wo k would consis o c ea ing objec i e wo king
condi ions in all i s shops a ound he wo ld o each ma e ial condi ions a o dable o indi iduals, a he
han enac ed by hem. This includes elemen s such as well-being, ewa ds, oice, secu i y, and equal
oppo uni y. Howe e , achie ing digni y a wo k in MacDonald’s would include dealing wi h elemen s
such as au onomy, job sa is ac ion, meaning ul wo k, espec , and/o lea ning and de elopmen , which
can be conside ed ei he digni ying o undigni ying depending on he pe son.
O e all, he concep o human digni y is o med by wo insepa able componen s. One componen
includes an ‘objec i e o de o digni y’–digni y a wo k– ocused on ma e ial condi ions, wi h which he
i s i e ILO’s sub-dimensions o a decen wo k should be me . One ano he impo an componen ,
which would explain he eason why ma e ial condi ions a e no enough o employees o ge job sa -
is ac ion, includes a ‘subjec i e o de o digni y’-digni y in wo k- ocused on employees as pe sons, hei
pe cep ions o how hey a e ea ed and hei in e - ela ionships wi h o he s –wi h which he emaining
sub-dimension o digni y in he wo kplace should be me - (see Table 1). Acco dingly, o os e sa is ac-
ion in he wo kplace, supe iso s should be e y a en i e o he abo e-desc ibed aspec s. Supe iso s
should hus make su e ha he ‘objec i e o de o digni y’, i.e. p ocesses and p ocedu es, is being applied
in o hei o ganiza ions; he e o e, wo k condi ions such as a ailabili y o wo k, he accep able scope o
wo k and he quali y o employmen would be imp o ed (see Table 1). Supe iso s play a c ucial ole in
ensu ing subjec i e o de o digni y. T ea ing employees ai ly wi h espec o humani y os e s hei
sa is ac ion ac oss a ious li e aspec s, pe sonal g ow h, and sel - ealiza ion. Howe e , supe iso s who
unde mine us , au onomy, ecogni ion, and espec h ea en employees’ sense o digni y, nega i ely
a ec ing bo h gene al job sa is ac ion and pe sonal g ow h.
4 R. MARTÍNEZ CAÑAS ETAL.
2.1. The impo ance o human digni y in he wo kplace: di ec e ec s o un-digni iying
supe iso beha io on employee’s gene al job sa is ac ion and pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion
In ecen decades, he nega i e e ec s o oxic supe iso s in he wo kplace ha e become a g owing
body o esea ch (Lipman-Blumen, 2006; Pelle ie , 2010, 2012). These supe iso s usually cha ac e ize
hemsel es o disempowe hei employees (Singh e al., 2016), b eak down hei employees’ sel -es eem,
h ea en hei employees’ pe sonal secu i y, p omo e a cul u e o inequi y in he wo kplace, in imida e
hei employees bo h physically and psychologically, ca y ou dishones beha io s, os e a di isi e cul-
u e, and ail o lis en o ac on employee conce ns (Pelle ie , 2010). Being e y egois ical, na cissis ic, and
Machia ellian (Singh e al., 2016), hese indi iduals also end o lie o hei employees, demean and
ma ginalize some o hei people, and do no mind b eaching hei basic human igh s (Lipman-Blumen,
2006), which on he whole becomes hem in supe iso s who dehumanize he wo kplace (Ta an i, 2011).
Because human in e ac ions in he wo kplace usually cons i u e an impo an in luen ial elemen on
he digni y o people in he wo kplace (S u m & Delle , 2016), human digni y is closely associa ed wi h
issues o espec , wo h, es eem, equali y, au onomy, and eedom (Gini, 2001; Hodson, 2001; Saye ,
2005), and is hus se iously ha med in such wo kplaces, whe e undigni ying and dis espec ul supe iso s
a e p esen (S u m & Delle , 2016). Al hough he ela ionships ha a e es ablished be ween hese supe -
iso s and employees appea o be close o mee ing some elemen al, basic human needs, which people
a e usually eage o mee (i.e. need o au ho i y, belonging, secu i y, eeling special) (e-g- Lipman-Blumen,
2006), his does no eally happen; hey a e a he alsely belie ed o be sa is ied. Wha eally happens,
howe e , is ha hese supe iso s, as Machia ellians hey a e (Singh e al., 2016), exploi and use hese
needs ( hey also play o hese needs, Pelle ie , 2010), o sa is y hei own sel -in e es s (e.g. Ruiz-Palomino
& Bañón-Gomis, 2017), ega dless o whe he he employees’ sense o digni y and sel -wo h is in lic ed.
Thus, no only a e employees no eally sa is ying hese needs, bu o he highe o de , mo e compelling
ones (i.e. sel -es eem, sel -wo h, sel -ac ualiza ion, Maslow, 1943) a e a he clea ly dep essed.
O cou se, he psychological and o ganiza ional well-being o employees who expe ience supe iso s’
beha io is se iously ha med (Pelle ie , 2010). Acco ding o Pla o and A is o le, human digni y, which is
ela ed o pu suing he o m o li e ha p oduces he highes le el o sa is ac ion and happiness, is
compa ible wi h eaching he highes po en ial in li e. Human digni y, hus, om immemo ial imes, is
concei ed as an elemen e y linked o sa is ac ion wi h di e en a eas o li e, which is applied o he
wo kplace scope. He e wo basic elemen s come in o scene: gene al job sa is ac ion and pe sonal g ow h
sa is ac ion.
Table 1. Dimensions o digni y based on he six dimensions o decen wo k o he in e na ional Labou o ganisa ion
(iLo).
Dimensions o
digni y Wo k condi ions Dimensions explana ions
objec i e o de
o digni y
a ailabili y o wo k oppo uni ies o wo k i " e e s o he need o all pe sons (men and women) who wan
wo k o be able o ind wo k, since decen wo k is no possible
wi hou wo k i sel ." (anke e al., 2002, p. 2)
accep able scope o
wo k
Wo k in condi ions o
eedom
i "unde sco es he ac ha wo k should be eely chosen and no
o ced on indi iduals and ha ce ain o ms o wo k a e no
accep able in he 21s cen u y." (anke e al., 2002, p. 2)
Quali y o employmen P oduc i e wo k i "is essen ial o wo ke s o ha e accep able li elihoods o
hemsel es and hei amilies, as well as o ensu e sus ainable
de elopmen and compe i i eness o en e p ises and coun ies."
(anke e al., 2002, p. 2)
equi y in wo k i " ep esen s wo ke s’ need o ha e ai and equi able ea men and
oppo uni y in wo k. i encompasses absence o disc imina ion a
wo k and in access o wo k and abili y o balance wo k wi h
amily li e." (anke e al., 2002, p. 2)
secu i y a wo k i "is mind ul o he need o help sa egua d heal h, pensions and
li elihoods, and o p o ide adequa e inancial and o he
p o ec ion in he e en o heal h and o he con ingencies. i also
ecognizes wo ke s’ need o limi insecu i y associa ed wi h he
possible loss o wo k and li elihood." (anke e al., 2002, p. 2)
subjec i e
o de o
digni y
Digni y in he wo kplace i " equi es ha wo ke s be ea ed wi h espec a wo k, and be
able o oice conce ns and pa icipa e in decision-making abou
wo king condi ions. an essen ial ing edien is wo ke s’ eedom o
ep esen hei in e es s collec i ely." (anke e al., 2002, p. 2)
sou ce: adap ed om anke e al. (2002) and Bol on (2006, 2007).
COGENT BUSINESS & MANAGEMENT 5
In he p esence o supe iso s who ca y ou undigni ying beha io s, employees a e highly likely o
eel inju ed o obbed o hei digni y. When hese ypes o eelings a e in e nalized, and hus ansla ed
o hei sense o lowe ed pe sonal alue in wo k, hey consequen ly migh lead o a loss o gene al
well-being, and hus lowe ed job sa is ac ion eelings. Based on Locke (1976), gene al job sa is ac ion can
be de ined ‘as a pleasu e o posi i e emo ional and subjec i e s a e esul ing om and app aisal o one’s
job o job expe iences’ (p.1300), and ha has o do wi h a i udes, eelings and belie s owa ds one’s job
(Bañón-Gomis & Ruiz-Palomino, 2015). Impo an ly, gene al job sa is ac ion is indica i e o he deg ee o
which anyone is sa is ied and happy wi h hei job (Hackman & Oldham, 1974). I is no su p ise hen ha
in he p esence o his undigni ying supe iso –one impo an elemen de e mining job sa is ac ion pe -
cep ions (Zhu, 2012; Bañón-Gomis & Ruiz-Palomino, 2015)-, employees who eel s ipped o hei digni y
a ely eel well. Fu he mo e, when he wo kplace is dehumanizing, employees eel dissa is ied wi h hei
wo k (Saye , 2007). Indeed, when employees a e he objec o beha io s ha ha m human needs, such
as espec , u h, iendship, secu i y, equal oppo uni y, o jus ice, hey a e less likely o eel hei li es
as happy, good, meaning ul, o happy (Wong, 2012). Ra he , hei sense o digni y in he wo kplace is
ha med, in ol ing di ec nega i e implica ions in e ms o a i udes and eelings owa ds one’s job.
Some ecen s udies ha e con i med he impo an ole ha human digni y plays in con ibu ing o
job sa is ac ion pe cep ions. S u m and Delle (2016) ound ha when employees eel a s ong sense o
digni y in wo k, hey a e mo e likely o be sa is ied wi h hei wo k. Acco dingly, we p opose he ollow-
ing hypo heses:
Hypo hesis 1. Supe iso ’s un-digni ying beha io ela es nega i ely o employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion.
I is gene ally ecognized ha human beings alue hemsel es o a g ea ex en . They alue hei own
human g ow h and de elopmen , need o a i m hei sense o wo h, and, impo an ly, need o de elop
hei po en ial as maximally as possible (Hodson, 2001). In o he wo ds, human beings ha e ‘ he en-
dency o become mo e and mo e wha hey a e, o become e e y hing ha hey a e capable o becom-
ing, such ha a musician mus make music, an a is mus pain , a poe mus w i e, i he is o be
ul ima ely happy…wha a man can be, he mus be’ (i.e. sel -ac ualiza ion, Maslow, 1943, p. 382). Howe e ,
when indi iduals ace supe iso s who ca y ou undigni ying beha io s such as e bal abuse, humilia-
ion, o dis espec ul ea men , human digni y would be se iously ha med (Hodson, 2001), and he pos-
sibili y o ealizing one’s human po en ial, e y connec ed wi h mee ing human g ow h needs (i.e.
sel -ac ualiza ion, Alde e , 1969), would also be unde mined. This is e y likely o occu because in he
p esence o his ype o (un-digni ying) supe iso , who would awake he wo s o human kind (Pelle ie ,
2010), he social and ma e ial condi ions o employees o lou ish, he highes aspi a ion o human
beings, would be o ally lacking (e.g. Ciulla, 2004). Thus, because supe iso s’ undigni ying beha io in
he wo kplace cons i u es a se ious h ea o p ese ing he human digni y o employees, hey a e highly
unlikely o ha e a sense o human g ow h and de elopmen o doing hei wo k (e.g. Bandu a, 1995).
In his con ex , jobs, a he han being a na u al expansion o human abili ies and in e es s, which allows
employees o ul ill hemsel es, would no le employees be independen , eel a sense o powe , be in
con ol o hei des inies, and ha e a pu pose in li e (Hodson, 2001). As such, employees a e likely o be
less sa is ied wi h hese (g ow h- ype) needs, and hus will e lec less sa is ac ion wi h hei pe sonal
g ow h when doing hei wo k. Fo mally, we p opose:
Hypo hesis 2. Supe iso ’s un-digni ying beha io ela es nega i ely o employee pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion.
2.2. Unde s anding Employee Gene al Job Sa is ac ion: he media ing ole o pe sonal g ow h
Sa is ac ion
When human needs a e sa is ied owing o wo k and he wo kplace, gene al job sa is ac ion is likely o
eme ge. Howe e , needs ha a e commonly sa is ied ex e nally, on which o he ex e nals (i.e. supe iso s
and he o ganiza ional clima e) play an impo an ole in hei sa is ac ion p ocess, a e sui able candi-
da es o call o he sa is ac ion o o he needs (i.e. simila na u e o highe ) o achie e well-being and
happiness in li e ha do no end e e . Howe e , unde he umb ella o ancien G eek unde s anding
(i.e. B ink, 1999), a aining happiness, a human good ha is an end good, no a means o achie e o he
6 R. MARTÍNEZ CAÑAS ETAL.
goods (o sa is y o he needs), equi es impo an pe sonal e o s by he ac o s who aspi e o i . This
sugges s ha mo e han p o iding apid sa is ac ion o physiological and secu i y needs, as undigni ying
supe iso s migh make employees belie e in some occasions (e.g. Lipman-Blumen, 2006), i is p incipal
o o e wo k wi h he necessa y possibili ies o employees o expand and de elop hei own abili ies
and ealize hei own po en ial in li e. Thus, o e ing hem a wo k ha , by aking an ac i e pa in i ,
allows hem o ul ill, de elop bo h physically and cogni i ely, and, impo an ly, g ow as human beings.
These a e good elemen s o li e, bu no easy; howe e , wi h hem, employees a e likely o e lec mo e
posi i e and pe manen a i udes owa ds hei jobs.
The amoun o pe sonal g ow h o e ed a wo k is usually conside ed an impo an aspec o be
assessed in jobs (Spec o , 1997; Hackman & Oldham, 1975) as a sepa a e ace o he job sa is ac ion o
employees (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). The ex en o which i is sa is ied is conside ed an impo an
dimension o well-being (S aume & Vi e sø, 2015) as also a good elemen o li e associa ed wi h
A is o le’s idea o eudaimonia (Ry & Singe , 1998), which, as di e en su eys on p o essionals show (i.e.
Bay .com su ey, 2015), is likely o de e mine he ex en o which employees e lec high le els o sa is-
ac ion (wi h hei jobs). Fo example, S aume and Vi e sø, (2015) ound in hei s udy ha people who
a e sa is ied wi h hei pe sonal g ow h also show high le els o sa is ac ion in gene al. In addi ion,
se e al o he s udies ha e shown he impo an ole ha sa is ac ion wi h g ow h and de elopmen
oppo uni ies plays in enhancing wo k a i udes (i.e. job sa is ac ion) (Landewee d & Boumans, 1994).
Acco dingly, we hypo hesize as ollows:
Hypo hesis 3. Pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion ela es posi i ely o employees’ gene al job sa is ac ion.
Wi h his la e hypo hesis in mind and he a ionales desc ibed ea lie , sugges ing dec eased pe sonal
g ow h sa is ac ion in he p esence o undigni ying supe iso s, leads o he p oposal ha pe sonal
g ow h sa is ac ion could media e he ela ionship be ween supe iso s’ undigni ying beha io and gen-
e al job sa is ac ion. The indings o S aume and Vi e sø, (2015) sugges ha pe sonal g ow h sa is ac-
ion migh in luence o he cons uc s (i.e. subjec i e heal h) h ough gene al sa is ac ion measu es (i.e.
li e sa is ac ion) ha appea o suppo i s media ing ole in he ea lie ela ionship. Howe e , his medi-
a ion is hough o be pa ial, as undigni ying supe iso s appea o educe employees’ gene al job sa -
is ac ion. Ha ing o deal wi h hese ypes o supe iso s migh di ec ly impai employees’ pe sonal and
occupa ional well-being (Pelle ie , 2010) and, hus, hei le els o job sa is ac ion. Thus, we p opose:
Hypo hesis 4. Pe sonal G ow h Sa is ac ion media es he nega i e ela ionship o Supe iso ’s Un-digni ying
beha io wi h Gene al Job Sa is ac ion.
3. Me hods
3.1. E hical alidi y
The e hical alidi y o his esea ch is desc ibed as ollows. Fi s , we p epa ed a de ailed epo o he
esea ch p ojec , including i s pu pose, me hodology, po en ial isks and bene i s, and o he ele an
de ails. This epo was hen submi ed o he E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Cas illa-La Mancha
in Spain (REG. 2023/PI00123). The commi ee ho oughly e iewed he p ojec and de e mined ha i
was e hically sound, p o iding a a o able esponse and allowing he esea ch o p oceed. Following he
app o ed e hical guidelines, in o med o al consen was ob ained om all pa icipan s.
The Decla a ion o Helsinki ou lines e hical p inciples o esea ch in ol ing human subjec s. Acco ding
o he decla a ion, in o med consen is a undamen al equi emen . While i p ima ily emphasizes w i en
consen , i acknowledges ha o al consen can be app op ia e in ce ain ci cums ances, p o ided ha
he condi ions o ull explana ion, olun a y pa icipa ion, documen a ion o he p ocess, and compliance
wi h legal and e hical s anda ds a e me o ensu e he p o ec ion o pa icipan s’ igh s and well-being.
The e o e, he p ocess o ob aining o al consen in his esea ch in ol ed se e al key s eps o ensu e
ha pa icipan s we e ully in o med and olun a ily ag eed o pa icipa e. Fi s , we p o ided de ailed
and unde s andable in o ma ion abou he s udy, including i s pu pose, p ocedu es, how eply o su -
eys, isks, and bene i s, du ing a mee ing in e e y company. Second, all pa icipan s we e gi en he
COGENT BUSINESS & MANAGEMENT 7
oppo uni y o ask ques ions and discuss any conce ns hey migh ha e. Thi d, all pa icipan s e bally
ag eed o pa icipa e in he s udy, ee om any coe cion o undue in luence. The en i e p ocess was
documen ed by aking de ailed no es abou he consen discussion.
O al consen is e hical o se e al easons. I espec s he pa icipan ’s igh o make an in o med
decision abou hei in ol emen in he esea ch. I conside s cul u al sensi i i y, as signing documen s
may be iewed wi h suspicion and o al consen can be mo e cul u ally app op ia e in some se ice i ms’
con ex s. This ype o consen is mo e accessible o pa icipan s wi h issues o disabili ies ha make
eading and signing documen s di icul . Addi ionally, i can help p o ec pa icipan s’ anonymi y and
educe he isk o s igma o ha m.
3.2. Sample and p ocedu e
The su ey was p e es ed a se e al mee ings wi h academics, employees, and human esou ce manage s
wo king in he same indus ies su eyed in ou s udy. Once changes o he wo ding o some i ems we e
made, and no u he e isions we e pe cei ed o be necessa y, he su ey was handed ou di ec ly o
a ious blue-, whi e-, and pink-colla employees o di e en businesses ope a ing in he manu ac u ing
and se ices indus ies (public, social, e ail, and inancial se ices).
Bo h indus ies we e selec ed because o hei di e en wo king condi ions (le el o compensa ion;
wo king en i onmen ) and job cha ac e is ics (e.g. job au onomy and skill a ie y), which a e sugges ed
o ha e a dis inc impac on he inal dependen a iable in ou s udy, ha is, he le el o gene al sa -
is ac ion wi h he job (Kahya, 2007; K uege & Schkade, 2008).
A e ob aining consen om he gene al manage o each company, 480 ques ionnai es we e dis ib-
u ed di ec ly o employees. An accep able esponse a e o 31.5% o he ield o s udy was ob ained,
which means ha 151 useable su eys we e ecei ed in he end. As we designed he s udy in a
c oss-sec ional manne and used sel - epo ing measu es, common me hod bias (CMB), e alua ion app e-
hension, and social desi abili y biases could ha e a ec ed ou esea ch (Conway & Lance, 2010). Howe e ,
he ques ionnai e design ollowed Podsako e al. (2003) and Conway and Lance (2010) sugges ions o
mi iga e hese issues. Fo example, p io o esponding o he ques ionnai e, hones y and ankness we e
s ongly app ecia ed and indi idual and co po a e anonymi y we e s ongly gua an eed. To speci ically mi -
iga e CMB (Podsako e al., 2003), he ques ionnai e was designed as ollows: a) o make p edic o s and
c i e ion a iables appea un ela ed and pa o di e en gene al opic a eas; b) o include a ious con ex-
ual a iables in he ques ionnai e o se e as dis ac e s; and c) o show simple, speci ic, and concise i ems.
To es o non- esponse bias, we assumed ha la e esponden s we e mo e simila o non- esponden s
han ea ly ones (A ms ong & O e on, 1977). Acco dingly, he i s and las qua iles o he submissions
ecei ed we e compa ed using independen sample - es s o he s udy a iables. Because no signi ican
di e ences we e e ealed, non- esponse bias did no appea o be a majo p oblem in his s udy. While
he a e age age o ou esponden s was 34 yea s, which makes he sample ela i ely young, he age o
esponden s anged om 21 o 63 yea s. Mos o hese esponden s wo ked in low and middle job posi-
ions (37% and 60%, espec i ely) and in companies ope a ing in se ices- ela ed a eas (68%), ei he in
he p i a e o he public indus y.
3.2.1. Measu es
To measu e ou la en cons uc s, we needed o choose be ween e lec i e and o ma i e indica o s
(Hensele e al., 2009). Re lec i e measu emen s a e highly co ela ed indica o s, likely caused by he
a ge ed la en cons uc , whe eas o ma i e measu es ea u e indica o s ha de e mine he cons uc
wi hou necessa ily being highly co ela ed. In ou su ey, all measu es we e e lec i e (see Table 3 o
he ull lis o he i ems o each e lec i e cons uc ).
3.2.1.1. Supe iso undigni ying beha io .A selec ion o 10 i ems adop ed om Leade ’s In eg i y C aig
and Gus a son (1998) o iginal 31-i em scale was used. These i ems consis ed o a se o 10 dis espec ul
and ha m ul beha io s e y o ien ed o ha m he sense o employees’ human digni y and encompassed
mos o he eigh oxic leade ship dimensions concep ualized in p e ious li e a u e (i.e. a acks o
sel -es eem, lacks o in eg i y, h ea s o secu i y, igno ing employees’ conce ns, abusi e beha io s,
14 R. MARTÍNEZ CAÑAS ETAL.
h ough pe sonal g ow h sa is ac ion. Ano he c ucial a iable o conside is employees’ mo al i uous-
ness, which posi i ely con ibu es o hei sense o human digni y ega dless o he con ex . Acco ding
o Hodson (2001), employees play an ac i e ole in ea ning digni y. Fu u e esea ch could explo e he
impac o employees’ mo al i uousness on hei pe sonal g ow h and gene al job sa is ac ion, o e ing
no el insigh s.
Acknowledgemen
Resea che s he eby app ecia e commen s om se e al con e ences whe e a d a o his pape was p esen ed. They
also app ecia e isi s and exchanges de eloped among au ho s in Lisbon School o Economics & Managemen (ISEG)
a Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Social Sciences Facul y o Cuenca (Uni e si y o Cas illa-La Mancha), Poli echnic Uni e si y
o Valencia and London Sou h Bank Uni e si y.
Au ho con ibu ion
The au ho s con i m con ibu ion o he pape as ollows: s udy concep ion and design: Ph.D. Rica do Ma ínez-Cañas,
Ph.D. Alexis Bañón-Gomís, Ph.D. John Opu e and Ph.D. G aca Sil a. Da a collec ion: Ph.D. Rica do Ma ínez-Cañas,
Ph.D. Alexis Bañón-Gomís, Da a analysis and in e p e a ion: Ph.D. Rica do Ma ínez-Cañas, Ph.D. Alexis Bañón-Gomís,
Ph.D. John Opu e and Ph.D. G aca Sil a: Da a manusc ip and p epa a ion: Ph.D. Rica do Ma ínez-Cañas, Ph.D. Alexis
Bañón-Gomís, Ph.D. John Opu e and Ph.D. G aca Sil a. All au ho s e iewed he esul s and app o ed he inal e -
sion o manusc ip .
E hical app o al
All p ocedu es pe o med in his s udy we e in acco dance wi h he e hical s anda ds o he ins i u ional esea ch
commi ee and wi h he 1964 Helsinki decla a ion and i s la e amendmen s o compa able e hical s anda ds.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
In o med consen
In o med o al consen was ob ained om all indi idual pa icipan s included in his s udy.
Job sa is ac ion su ey
Below we will ask you se e al ques ions ela ed o you wo k, designed o ob ain you pe cep ions and eac ions o
i . Please answe as hones ly and ankly as possible. The e a e no good o bad esponses. Responses a e comple ely
anonymous and con iden ial and will no be p o ided o you supe io s ei he indi idually o collec i ely.
Age:
Sec o :
Please a e om 0 o 5 you social bene i s ( om 0 o 5).
• Pension Plan:
• S udy g an :
• Meal icke s:
• Company Ca :
• P oduc s/se ices:
The ollowing s a emen s a e e e ed o you immedia e supe io /boss. You should conside you immedia e
supe io as he pe son who, in you opinion, has he mos con ol o e his daily wo k ac i i ies. Please a e om 1
o 5 o wha ex en he ollowing s a emen s desc ibe you immedia e supe io (comple ely ag ee [5] o [1] comple e
disag ee). He o She:
COGENT BUSINESS & MANAGEMENT 15
would blame me o his/he own mis ake 1 2 3 4 5
would ea me be e i i belonged o a di e en e hnic g oup 1 2 3 4 5
would isk me o ge back a someone else 1 2 3 4 5
would use my pe o mance app aisal o c i icize me as a pe son 1 2 3 4 5
would lie o me 1 2 3 4 5
makes un o my mis akes ins ead o coaching me as o how o do my job be e 1 2 3 4 5
would delibe a ely dis o wha i say 1 2 3 4 5
delibe a ely makes employees ang y a each o he 1 2 3 4 5
is a hypoc i e 1 2 3 4 5
enjoys u ning down my eques s 1 2 3 4 5
Wi h ega d you Pe sonal G ow h Sa is ac ion, please a e om 1 o 5 you deg ee o sa is ac ion ( o ally dissa is ied
[1]) and o ally sa is ied [5]):
he amoun o pe sonal g ow h and de elopmen i ge in doing my job 12345
he eeling o wo hwhile accomplishmen i ge om doing my job 12345
he amoun o independen hough and ac ion i can exe cise in my job 12345
he amoun o challenge in my job 12345
Wi h ega d o you Gene al Job Sa is ac ion, please a e om 1 o 5 he ollowing s a emen s (comple ely dissa is-
ied [1]) and comple ely sa is ied [5]):
gene ally speaking, i am e y sa is ied wi h his job 1 2 3 4 5
i seldom hink o qui ing his job 1 2 3 4 5
i’m gene ally sa is ied wi h he kind o wo k i do in his job 1 2 3 4 5
Funding
This wo k was unded and suppo ed by he Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion wi h he P ojec
PID2020-117398GB-I00: MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033.
Abou he au ho s
Rica do Ma ínez Cañas, Ph.D., is an Associa e P o esso in he A ea o Business O ganiza ion a he Uni e si y o
Cas illa-La Mancha (Spain). He has been a isi ing Schola in Lisbon School o Economics & Managemen (Po ugal),
Manches e Ins i u e o Inno a ion Resea ch (UK), Ca holic School o Eichs ä Ingols ad (Ge many) and. His esea ch
in e es s span a ious a eas, including social capi al, business e hics, leade ship, human esou ces, en ep eneu ship,
and alue co-c ea ion. His esea ch has appea ed in Jou nal o Business E hics, Jou nal o Managemen Jou nal,
In e na ional Jou nal o Human Resou ce Managemen , Eu opean Managemen Re iew amongs o he s.
Alexis Jacobo Bañón Gomís, Ph.D., is a pa - ime esea che and academic. He holds a posi ion a Poly echnic
Uni e si y o Valencia (Spain) and has made signi ican con ibu ions o he ield o business e hics, o ganiza ional
beha io , us and o ganiza ional commi men . D . Bañón-Gomis is pa icula ly known o his wo k on e hical dimen-
sions wi hin business ac i i ies. His esea ch has been published in Business E hics: A Eu opean Re iew, Uni e sia
Business Re iew, Eu opean Managemen Jou nal, Eu opean Managemen Re iew among o he s.
G aça Sil a, Ph.D., is an Assis an P o esso in he Lisbon School o Economics & Managemen (ISEG) a Uni e sidade
de Lisboa (Po ugal). She ea ned he PhD in Indus ial Enginee ing, majo ing in quali y managemen , om Faculdade
de Ciencias e Tecnologia (FCT-UNL). He esea ch p ima ily ocusses on Quali y Managemen , Inno a ion Managemen ,
Human Resou ces and Sus ainabili y. He esea ch has appea ed in In e na ional Jou nal o Ope a ions & P oduc ion
Managemen , Business S a egy and he En i onmen , Indus ial Ma ke ing Managemen , Jou nal o Business Resea ch
and Jou nal o In e na ional Ma ke ing, amongs o he s.
John Opu e, Ph.D. is a Senio Lec u e in Human Resou ces Managemen a London Sou h Bank Uni e si y. He joined
LSBU in 2009 and cu en ly holds he posi ion o Associa e P o esso o In e na ional HRM. Addi ionally, he se es as
he Cou se Di ec o o he MSc In e na ional HRM p og am wi hin he School o Business. D . Opu e b ings o e 20
yea s o indus y expe ience in gene al and human esou ces managemen , ha ing held key HR posi ions in mul i-
na ional companies such as Alcan Aluminium Company o Canada and Cincinna i Bell in Ohio S a e, USA. His
esea ch has been published in Pe sonnel Re iew, he In e na ional Jou nal o Human Resou ce Managemen ,
Employee Rela ions, and Co po a e Communica ions among o he s.
ORCID
Rica do Ma ínez Cañas h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4629-5513
16 R. MARTÍNEZ CAÑAS ETAL.
Alexis Jacobo Bañón Gomís h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-5240-0028
G aça Sil a h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5396-395X
John Opu e h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-6719-6701
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
Da a and ma e ials suppo ing he esul s o analyses p esen ed in his pape a e a ailable upon easonable eques
o he co esponding au ho .
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