Abu Al oul, Mohammed; Kha a beh, Ib ahim N.; Bazhai , Ayman Hassan
A icle
The e ec o ICT usage on economic g ow h in he MENA
egion: Does he le el o educa ion ma e ?
Economies
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Abu Al oul, Mohammed; Kha a beh, Ib ahim N.; Bazhai , Ayman Hassan (2024) :
The e ec o ICT usage on economic g ow h in he MENA egion: Does he le el o educa ion
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ICT Usage on Economic G ow h in
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Educa ion Ma e ? Economies 12: 267.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
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economies
A icle
The E ec o ICT Usage on Economic G ow h in he MENA
Region: Does he Le el o Educa ion Ma e ?
Mohammed N. Abu Al oul 1,*, Ib ahim N. Kha a beh 2,* and Ayman Hassan Bazhai 3
1Depa men o Compu ing Technologies and Da a Analy ics, Ezyma Co po a ion P y L d.,
Sydney 2000, Aus alia
2Depa men o Banking and Financial Sciences, Business School, The Hashemi e Uni e si y,
Za qa 13133, Jo dan
3Facul y o Business Adminis a ion, Depa men o Economics and Finance, Tai Uni e si y,
Tai 21974, Saudi A abia; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (M.N.A.A.); [email p o ec ed] (I.N.K.)
Abs ac : This pape examines he e ec o in o ma ion and communica ion echnology (ICT) usage
on economic g ow h in he Middle Eas and No h A ica (MENA) egion, wi h a ocus on how
educa ion le els modula e his ela ionship. Co e ing da a om 2000 o 2020 and employing a
panel ARDL model o analysis, his esea ch inds ha , while ICT is p e alen ac oss MENA, i s
impac on economic g ow h is nega i e. Fu he mo e, i e eals ha educa ion plays a c ucial ole in
de e mining ICT’s e ec i eness on economic g ow h. Howe e , he posi i e impac o educa ion is
o e shadowed by he ad e se e ec s o b ain d ain, which nega es he po en ial bene i s ICT could
ha e on he economy. This s udy highligh s he impo ance o MENA policymake s o add ess he
b ain d ain issue o enhance he posi i e impac o ICT on economic g ow h, sugges ing he need o
s a egies ha le e age bo h ICT and educa ion o e ec i ely os e economic de elopmen .
Keywo ds: ICT; economic g ow h; educa ion le el; MENA egion
JEL Classi ica ion: I25; O15; O33
1. In oduc ion
O e he pas ew decades, he p oli e a ion o in o ma ion and communica ion ech-
nology (ICT) has played a ans o ma i e ole in enabling na ions and hei go e nmen s
o le e age in o ma ion as a sp ingboa d o economic p og ess. As epo ed by he In e -
na ional Telecommunica ion Union in 2021, 59.5% o he wo ld’s popula ion now engages
wi h he in e ne . This su ge in ICT accessibili y has spa ked a conside able olume o
esea ch in o i s con ibu ions owa ds economic enhancemen , especially highligh ing
i s bene i s o g ow h in he de eloping wo ld. While many s udies ha e con i med
ha ICT adop ion os e s g ow h, inc eases p oduc i i y, and c ea es job oppo uni ies,
he e emains a gap in he li e a u e speci ically explo ing how educa ion le els impac
he ela ionship be ween ICT use and economic g ow h (EG) (Sa angi and P adhan 2020;
Nabi e al. 2023).
Al hough p e ious in es iga ions ha e in es iga ed he impac s o ei he ICT o educa-
ion on EG sepa a ely (Abu Al oul e al. 2024;Gómez-Ba oso and Ma bán-Flo es 2020), he
combined e ec s o hei in e ac ion emain less explo ed. Some esea ch has ocused on
ICT’s ole in enhancing educa ional e iciency and i s subsequen e ec on EG (Fu 2013;Cox
and Ma shall 2007). Ne e heless, he e ec o educa ional a ainmen on he e ec i eness
o ICT in d i ing EG has no been ho oughly examined. This s udy explo es how educa-
ional a ainmen in luences he ela ionship be ween ICT use and EG, pa icula ly in he
Middle Eas and No h A ica (MENA) egion. Highligh ing he impo ance o ICT in s im-
ula ing economic ac i i ies, he Wo ld Bank no ed ha nume ous coun ies ha e achie ed
Economies 2024,12, 267. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12100267 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/economies
Economies 2024,12, 267 2 o 18
signi ican economic miles ones h ough e ec i e ICT deploymen . This ecogni ion has led
many go e nmen s ac oss bo h de eloped and de eloping coun ies o in es hea ily in
ICT in as uc u e and adop a ious ad anced echnologies, acknowledging hei c i ical
ole in economic de elopmen . Thus, he nexus be ween educa ion le els and ICT usage
p esen s a complex dynamic wi h po en ially a ied e ec s on economic ou comes.
Mo eo e , in e na ional bodies such as he Wo ld Bank ha e commi ed signi ican
esou ces o suppo educa ional ini ia i es, iewing hem as c ucial d i e s o a coun y’s
economic iumph. In Ap il 2012, he Wo ld Bank dedica ed an a e age annual budge o
$2.4 billion o educa ion in low- and middle-income na ions, expec ing signi ican e u ns
in p oduc i i y, inno a ion, and de elopmen le els. Globally, each addi ional yea o
schooling esul s in a 9% inc ease in hou ly ea nings (Klees e al. 2019). Howe e , challenges
eme ge when he economic amewo k ails o op imally u ilize ICT op imally, e lec ing
s un ed EG. Fac o s like inadequa e educa ion quali y can skew he labo ma ke and
impede g ow h, po en ially d i ing indi iduals owa ds b ain d ain as a iable op ion o
li elihood (E ns and Feis 2024;Kha a beh 2019;Dodani and LaPo e 2005). The b ain
d ain end has no ably inc eased in MENA coun ies o e ecen yea s, aising conce ns
abou i s u u e implica ions i unadd essed.
This pape ’s con ibu ions o he li e a u e a e wo old. Fi s , i in es iga es how
educa ional a ainmen in luences he impac o ICT on economic g ow h, add essing
a gap in exis ing esea ch, pa icula ly in he MENA egion. By including educa ion
as a mode a ing a iable, his s udy p o ides ano he pe spec i e o unde s anding he
ela ionship be ween ICT and educa ion. Second, i highligh s he issue o b ain d ain and
demons a es i s de imen al e ec s on he po en ial bene i s o ICT and educa ion. These
con ibu ions p o ide p ac ical ecommenda ions o policymake s, emphasizing he need
o s a egic in es men s in educa ion and ICT in as uc u e and add essing b ain d ain o
enhance economic g ow h.
The emainde o his pape is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2 e iews he li e a u e on
educa ion and ins i u ional quali y. Sec ion 3p esen s his s udy’s a iables and discusses
he da a and he model speci ica ion. Sec ion 4discusses he empi ical esul s. Sec ion 5
p o ides policy implica ions, ecommenda ions and conclusion.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
The heo e ical amewo k in his s udy builds on endogenous g ow h heo y (Rome
1990;Lucas 1988), which emphasizes he ole o human capi al, inno a ion, and knowl-
edge di usion in long- e m economic g ow h. In his con ex , ICT ac s as a ca alys o
p oduc i i y imp o emen s, while educa ion is c ucial in enabling he wo k o ce o u ilize
ICT echnologies ully. Fu he mo e, human capi al heo y (Becke 1964) ein o ces he
impo ance o educa ional quali y and access in de e mining how e ec i ely ICT d i es
economic g ow h. Gi en he high a es o skilled labo mig a ion (b ain d ain) in MENA,
mig a ion heo ies, such as Toda o’s (1976) model, o e addi ional insigh in o how he
loss o educa ed indi iduals can educe he po en ial economic gains om ICT in es men .
The li e a u e on he ela ionship be ween ICT and EG has e ol ed signi ican ly.
Ini ial skep icism, as obse ed in ea ly wo ks by Jo genson and S i oh (1995), which
epo ed a modes con ibu ion o ICT o p oduc i i y g ow h, has g adually gi en way
o a b oade consensus on i s subs an ial impac . Subsequen s udies by Sch eye (2000)
and Oul on (2002), and mo e comp ehensi e analyses by Fukao and Miyagawa (2007)
ha e documen ed he ans o ma i e ole o ICT in enhancing EG ac oss a ious coun ies.
These s udies s ess he c i ical ole o ICT in d i ing p oduc i i y and economic expansion,
pa icula ly om he mid-1990s onwa ds. This body o esea ch ma ks a signi ican shi in
unde s anding, om iewing ICT’s economic con ibu ion as minimal o ecognizing i s
pi o al ole in global economic de elopmen . Pa icula ly, he widesp ead adop ion o ICT
has signi ican ly enhanced he e icien alloca ion o esou ces, educed p oduc ion cos s,
and s imula ed g ea e demand and in es men ac oss a ious economic sec o s (Kha a beh
and Moosa 2022;Abu Al oul e al. 2022;Bah ini and Qa as 2019). Mo eo e , in e ne usage
Economies 2024,12, 267 3 o 18
and b oadband a ailabili y ha e accele a ed inno a ion by os e ing compe i ion, leading
o he c ea ion o new p oduc s, se ices, and business models. Addi ionally, mobile phones
ha e become a key d i e o economic g ow h by imp o ing access o inancial se ices and
enhancing in o ma ion low, which mi iga es he challenges o dis ance and ime, he eby
inc easing p oduc i i y and inclusi i y. The ollowing subsec ions p esen he li e a u e on
ICT, EG, and educa ion and EG, espec i ely.
2.1. ICT on Economic G ow h
The in es iga ion o he ela ionship be ween ICT and economic p oduc i i y has
signi ican ly e ol ed o e he yea s. Ea ly esea ch conduc ed by Jo genson and S i oh
in he mid-1990s sugges ed ha he ole o in o ma ics in enhancing p oduc i i y g ow h
was ela i ely modes . Thei analysis, which spanned 1959 o 1973 ac oss a ious na ions,
indica ed ha in o ma ics con ibu ed a me e 6% o an annual p oduc i i y inc ease o
2.94%. Howe e , his pe spec i e shi ed d ama ically in la e yea s, wi h u he in es i-
ga ions e ealing a mo e subs an ial e ec o ICT on economic de elopmen . By he end
o he 20 h cen u y, s udies by Jo genson and S i oh (2000), along wi h Oline e al. (2008),
highligh ed ha he in luence o ICT on he U.S. economy expanded signi ican ly pos 1995.
This pe iod, ma ked by a echnological boom, saw ICT con ibu ing o app oxima ely 13%
o he o al economic g ow h and 27% o labo p oduc i i y enhancemen be ween 1973
and 1995.
Ea ly s udies such as Sch eye (2000) iden i ied a posi i e co ela ion be ween ICT and
p oduc i i y g ow h ac oss all G7 coun ies du ing he la e hal o he 1990s. Simila ly,
Oul on’s (2002) indings co obo a ed his pa e n wi hin he Uni ed Kingdom, sugges ing
a widesp ead e ec o ICT ad ancemen s on economic indica o s in de eloped na ions.
Pia kowski’s (2003) s udy on Poland u he emphasized he signi icance o ICT in es -
men s, a ibu ing 8.9% o GDP g ow h and 12.7% o labo p oduc i i y imp o emen s
be ween 1995 and 2000 o echnological ad ancemen s. The impac o ICT was no limi ed
o Wes e n economies; Van A k and Pia kowski (2004) obse ed ha ICT adop ion acili-
a ed he es uc u ing o manu ac u ing sec o s in Cen al and Eas e n Eu ope, aligning
hese economies close o he s anda ds o he o me EU-15. No ably, he adop ion and
in eg a ion o ICT in hese egions we e ound o exe a mo e subs an ial impac on p o-
duc i i y g ow h han obse ed wi hin he EU-15. A comp ehensi e analysis by he OECD
in 2007 and 2008 u he alida ed he escala ing in luence o ICT-p oducing sec o s on
labo p oduc i i y ac oss he globe since he mid-1990s.
In Asia, Fukao and Miyagawa’s (2007) s udy highligh ed Japan’s labo p oduc i i y
and o al ac o p oduc i i y (TFP), e ealing ha , pos 1995, Japan ma ched he TFP
g ow h a es o he ou majo economies in he Eu opean Union—Ge many, F ance, he
Uni ed Kingdom, and I aly. Concu en ly, Hausmann e al. (2008) a gued ha coun ies
specializing in ICT expo s end o wi ness highe p oduc i i y and economic g ow h
a es. Simila ly, Kou oumpis (2009) iden i ied a signi ican link be ween ICT and economic
g ow h in 22 OECD coun ies om 2002 o 2007, emphasizing he necessi y o adequa e
echnological in as uc u e o his ela ionship o hold. Hawash and Lang (2010), in hei
analysis o 33 de eloping coun ies be ween 2002 and 2006, concluded ha ICT adop ion,
coupled wi h highe educa ion le els, signi ican ly boos s p oduc i i y g ow h.
Bohlin e al. (2010) expanded his analysis o 192 coun ies om 1990 o 2007, p o iding
subs an ial e idence o ICT’s posi i e impac on p oduc i i y g ow h. Khuong Vu (2011)
u he alida ed hese indings in a decade-long s udy om 1996 o 2005 ac oss 102
coun ies, highligh ing ICT’s pi o al ole in os e ing economic g ow h. Ne e heless,
Niebel (2018) examined he economic g ow h o 59 coun ies om 1995 o 2010 and ound no
clea e idence ha de eloping and eme ging economies bene i mo e om ICT in es men s
han de eloped ones, poin ing ou he impo ance o conside ing poli ical and socie al
con ex s in e alua ing ICT’s economic impac . This body o li e a u e highligh s a b oad
consensus on he posi i e co ela ion be ween ICT in es men s and economic g ow h,
wi h a ia ions ac oss di e en egions and economic s a uses (Vu e al. 2020). While
Economies 2024,12, 267 4 o 18
ICT in es men s can d i e g ow h, he ex en o hei impac is in luenced by ac o s
such as expo specializa ion, echnological in as uc u e, educa ion le els, and socio-
poli ical en i onmen s.
Fu he mo e, ICT has eme ged as a pi o al o ce p opelling he g ow h o a ious eco-
nomic sec o s, especially in he con ex o global libe aliza ion e o s. Kais (2014) examined
he speci ic e ec s o ICT on Tunisia’s economic expansion, e ealing a p onounced and
di ec ela ionship wi h he na ion’s GDP. Samimi e al. (2015) conduc ed a comp ehensi e
analysis o unde s and he impac o ICT on economic g ow h ac oss a b oad se o coun-
ies, including bo h de eloped and de eloping economies, o e he pe iod om 2001 o
2012. Thei esea ch highligh s a signi ican posi i e co ela ion be ween ICT deploymen
and economic g ow h, sugges ing ha in es men s in echnology a e bene icial o enhanc-
ing g ow h globally. Howe e , hei indings also poin o a ia ions in he impac o ICT,
wi h de eloping coun ies expe iencing di e en le els o economic bene i compa ed o
hei de eloped coun e pa s, indica ing a complex ela ionship be ween ICT and economic
g ow h. In a ela ed s udy ocusing on Bangladesh, Naym and Hossain (2016) explo ed he
nexus be ween ICT in es men s and economic g ow h o he pe iod be ween 1997 and
2013. While hey iden i ied a posi i e link be ween he use o ICT and economic g ow h, he
co ela ion was no s a is ically signi ican . The esea che s a ibu ed his o he ela i ely
modes sha e o ICT in he na ion’s GDP and he cons ained du a ion o he s udy, which
limi ed he scope o a mo e de ailed analysis. Bak y e al. (2023) sugges ha he adop ion
and usage o ICT could ha e a ying impac s on economic g ow h depending on di e en
ac o s. Speci ically, while ICT can boos g ow h in he long e m, i s impac s migh no be
signi ican in he sho e m.
The s udy by Appiah-O oo and Song (2021) p o ides an insigh ul compa a i e analy-
sis o he impac o ICT on economic g ow h in ich and poo coun ies. The indings e eal
a signi ican posi i e co ela ion be ween ICT and economic g ow h ac oss bo h g oups,
bu wi h a ying deg ees o impac . In ich coun ies, ICT con ibu es mo e subs an ially o
economic g ow h, acili a ed by ad anced in as uc u e, highe in es men in echnology,
and a mo e skilled wo k o ce. Con e sely, in poo e coun ies, while ICT s ill posi i ely
in luences g ow h, he e ec s a e less p onounced due o challenges such as inadequa e
in as uc u e, lowe le els o in es men , and a gap in digi al skills. The s udy unde sco es
he impo ance o enhancing ICT accessibili y and in as uc u e in poo e coun ies o
ha ness i s g ow h po en ial ully (Moosa and Kha a beh 2023). Awad and Albai y (2022)
e eal ha ICT signi ican ly con ibu es o economic g ow h in Sub-Saha an A ica, p ima -
ily h ough imp o ed access o in o ma ion, enhanced e iciency in business ope a ions,
and he acili a ion o inno a ion. Howe e , he impac is media ed by se e al ac o s,
including he le el o ICT in as uc u e, he egula o y en i onmen , and he a ailabili y
o complemen a y esou ces such as educa ion and ene gy. The au ho s ind ha , while
ICT can d i e subs an ial economic g ow h, ealizing his po en ial equi es add essing
exis ing in as uc u al and ins i u ional ba ie s. The s udy by Kowal e al. (2022) examines
he c i ical ole o digi al inno a ions, pa icula ly ICT, in os e ing sus ainable de elop-
men du ing c ises, such as he COVID-19 pandemic. The au ho s highligh how digi al
echnologies, including emo e wo k pla o ms and digi al paymen s, enable economic
esilience by allowing businesses o con inue ope a ing despi e dis up ions. Addi ionally,
digi al educa ion pla o ms ensu e con inui y in human capi al de elopmen , mi iga ing
he impac o educa ional dis up ions. The s udy also emphasizes he con ibu ion o
ICT o en i onmen al sus ainabili y h ough imp o ed esou ce managemen , educed
emissions, and he p omo ion o sma ci y ini ia i es. Fu he mo e, digi al ools like
elemedicine and eal- ime da a sys ems enhance c isis managemen by suppo ing be e
decision making and esou ce alloca ion. O e all, he esea ch unde sco es he dual ole o
digi al inno a ions in add essing immedia e c isis challenges and con ibu ing o long- e m
sus ainable de elopmen .
The le el o ins i u ional quali y also mode a es he ela ionship be ween ICT and EG.
Fo ins ance, Abu Al oul e al. (2024) in es iga e he ICT’s e ec on EG ac oss he MENA
Economies 2024,12, 267 5 o 18
egion, conside ing he ole o ins i u ional ac o s. The s udy inds ha ICT signi ican ly
p omo es economic g ow h in MENA coun ies by enhancing p oduc i i y, acili a ing
inno a ion, and imp o ing connec i i y. Howe e , he magni ude o ICT’s impac a ies
depending on he quali y o each coun y’s ins i u ions. S ong ins i u ional amewo ks,
cha ac e ized by e icien go e nance, egula o y quali y, and he p o ec ion o p ope y
igh s, end o ampli y he posi i e e ec s o ICT on economic g ow h. In con as , coun ies
wi h weake ins i u ional en i onmen s may expe ience diminished bene i s om ICT due
o ba ie s such as egula o y ine iciencies and lack o in es o con idence. The esea ch un-
de sco es he impo ance o ins i u ional e o m alongside in es men s in ICT in as uc u e
and human capi al de elopmen o maximize he socioeconomic bene i s o digi aliza ion
in he MENA egion. By os e ing a suppo i e ins i u ional en i onmen , policymake s
can c ea e condi ions ha encou age ICT adop ion, s imula e en ep eneu ship, and a ac
in es men , he eby d i ing sus ainable economic g ow h. This s udy con ibu es aluable
insigh s in o he in e play be ween ICT, ins i u ional quali y, and economic de elopmen in
he MENA con ex . I emphasizes he need o in eg a ed policy app oaches ha add ess
bo h echnological ad ancemen s and ins i u ional challenges o unlock he ull po en ial
o ICT as a ca alys o economic ans o ma ion. In he same con ex , Kha a beh and Abu-
Al oul (2024) and Adeleye e al. (2023) a gue ha policymake s should p io i ize imp o ing
ins i u ional quali y alongside in es men s in ICT o ensu e ha economic g ow h bene i s
a e ansla ed in o enhanced well-being, especially o lowe income g oup coun ies.
To sum up, he exis ing li e a u e emphasizes he key ole o ICT in d i ing EG.
Building on hese insigh s, his s udy aims o ill exis ing gaps by se ing clea objec i es
and esea ch ques ions o be e unde s and he in e ac ion be ween ICT, educa ion, and
economic g ow h in he MENA con ex . The p ima y objec i e o his s udy is o assess
he impac o ICT usage on economic g ow h in he MENA egion. Acco dingly, he s udy
poses he ollowing esea ch ques ion.
RQ1: How does ICT usage in luence economic g ow h in he MENA egion?
2.2. Educa ion on Economic G ow h
The nexus be ween educa ion and EG has been cen al o he economic de elopmen
li e a u e. To begin wi h, he seminal wo ks by Rome (1986) and Lucas (1988) highligh
he essen ial ole o educa ional de elopmen in economic p og ess. Subsequen empi ical
esea ch has ein o ced ha educa ion signi ican ly con ibu es o EG. Ba o (1991) demon-
s a ed ha enhancemen s in seconda y school en olmen s di ec ly co ela e wi h inc eases
in he annual income g ow h a e, unde lining educa ion’s pi o al ole in na ional economic
de elopmen . Benhabib and Spiegel (1994) in es iga ed he impac o he labo o ce’s
educa ional a ainmen on EG, inding ha human capi al is a key d i e o EG. Thei
analysis also e ealed ha he in luence o educa ion on inno a ion capabili ies exhibi s
a s onge signi icance in weal hie na ions compa ed o hei less a luen coun e pa s,
sugges ing ha he le el o a coun y’s de elopmen in luences he educa ion–g ow h
nexus. K uege and Lindahl (2001) show ha educa ion signi ican ly os e s g ow h in
na ions whe e educa ional le els a e ini ially low, highligh ing he ans o ma i e po en ial
o educa ional in es men s in de eloping con ex s. Simila ly, Ba o (2001) employed an
endogenous g ow h model o analyze da a om 100 coun ies be ween 1960 and 1995,
concluding ha cogni i e skills, a he han me ely he amoun o educa ion, play a mo e
decisi e ole in p opelling EG.
Con as ing hese indings, P i che (1996,2001) u ilized c oss-sec ional da a o a gue
ha he nexus be ween human capi al and EG does no hold o MENA coun ies. He
a ibu ed his inding o go e nance issues p e alen in he egion, which hinde human
capi al accumula ion and in es men s in educa ion. Mo eo e , P i che poin ed ou ha
he educa ion sys em in hese coun ies o en lacks in de eloping cogni i e skills, u he
complica ing he ela ionship be ween educa ion and economic de elopmen . Al inok
(2007) examined he dynamics be ween educa ion and EG ac oss 105 coun ies om 1960
o 2000, using in e na ional s uden achie emen su eys o c a new pe o mance indica-
Economies 2024,12, 267 6 o 18
o s, highligh ing educa ion’s bene icial impac on EG. Simila ly, C eel and Poilon (2008)
u ilized he augmen ed Solow model and ound ha human capi al and public in es men
signi ican ly con ibu e o EG, enhancing labo p oduc i i y and spu ing echnological
ad ancemen s. Simila ly, P adhan (2009) explo ed his ela ionship in he Indian con ex
om 1951 o 2001, iden i ying a uni-di ec ional causal link om educa ion o EG based
on co ela ion e o modelling echniques. In con as , Ba o and Lee (2013) posi ioned
educa ion a he co e o economic de elopmen , using andom and ixed e ec s models o
highligh he c i ical ole o human capi al le els in d i ing EG. Quenum (2011) empha-
sized he impo ance o educa ion le els in a ious economic sec o s. A nuanced analysis
was employed o di e en ia e he impac o di e en educa ion le els on g ow h. His
indings indica ed a coun e in ui i e nega i e e ec o pos -p ima y educa ion on EG in
he Sou h Asian Associa ion o Regional Coope a ion (SAARC) coun ies, emphasizing
he pa amoun impo ance o educa ion quali y o e he me e quan i y o human capi al
be ween 1960 and 2013.
Ba o’s (2013) s udy highligh s he c i ical ole o educa ion in d i ing economic
g ow h. Using an empi ical amewo k, he esea ch shows ha highe le els o educa-
ion, especially seconda y and e ia y, signi ican ly boos economic g ow h by enhancing
human capi al, labo p oduc i i y, and inno a ion. The quali y o educa ion, measu ed
by indica o s like es sco es, is also c ucial o g ow h, wi h be e educa ional ou comes
leading o s onge economic pe o mance. While p ima y educa ion is impo an o
basic skills, ad anced educa ion d i es subs an ial de elopmen . Ba o emphasizes he
need o policies ha imp o e educa ion access and quali y, such as in es men s in eache
aining and in as uc u e. The s udy also no es ha coun ies wi h suppo i e economic
and ins i u ional en i onmen s see he g ea es bene i s om educa ional in es men s,
highligh ing he impo ance o a holis ic app oach o de elopmen .
A closely ela ed issue is he phenomenon o b ain d ain, cha ac e ized by he em-
ig a ion o highly skilled and educa ed indi iduals om hei home coun ies o mo e
de eloped na ions, which p esen s a complex in e play o causes and e ec s ha signi -
ican ly impac s he ela ionship be ween ICT and EG (Iqbal e al. 2020). B ain d ain in
de eloping coun ies a ises om se e al in e ela ed ac o s. Fi s , economic dispa i ies,
as indi iduals o en mig a e in sea ch o be e job oppo uni ies, highe wages, and an
imp o ed quali y o li e (Beine e al. 2011). The con as be ween limi ed p ospec s in hei
home coun ies and he weal h o oppo uni ies in de eloped na ions ac s as a s ong incen-
i e o mig a ion. In addi ion, Panagio akopoulos (2020) a gues ha poli ical ins abili y
plays a signi ican ole in his phenomenon. Rep essi e poli ical egimes, co up ion, and
lack o pe sonal eedoms push skilled p o essionals o seek sa e and mo e s able en i on-
men s ab oad, whe e hei chances o ca ee ad ancemen a e g ea e . Poo educa ional
in as uc u e is ano he key con ibu o , as indi iduals om de eloping na ions o en
pu sue highe educa ion ab oad due o a lack o quali y educa ional oppo uni ies a home
(Usman e al. 2022). The consequences o b ain d ain on economic g ow h, pa icula ly
in ela ion o ICT, a e complex. One majo issue is he loss o human capi al, whe e he
emig a ion o skilled wo ke s leads o a sho age o quali ied pe sonnel in c i ical sec o s
like ICT. This can hinde inno a ion, educe p oduc i i y, and limi he abili y o de eloping
coun ies o ully le e age echnological ad ancemen s. As no ed by Liu e al. (2016), b ain
d ain can educe o al ac o p oduc i i y (TFP) g ow h in he home coun y, he eby hin-
de ing economic de elopmen . Howe e , he e a e some posi i e e ec s, no ably h ough
emi ances. Skilled emig an s o en send money back home, p o iding inancial suppo o
amilies and con ibu ing o local economies (Kha a beh and Moosa 2023). These unds can
also help boos in es men s in ICT in as uc u e (Hun e 2015). Howe e , he impac o
b ain d ain is no uni o m ac oss egions; while some a eas may bene i om emi ances,
o he s ace se e e skill sho ages ha s i le economic g ow h and echnological p og ess.
In a c oss-coun y con ex , Wang and Liu (2016) assessed he educa ion–g ow h nexus
h ough a panel da a model spanning 55 coun ies om 1960 o 2009. Thei analysis e-
ealed a obus posi i e link be ween human capi al and EG, i espec i e o a coun y’s
Economies 2024,12, 267 7 o 18
de elopmen s a us. Howe e , hey no ed ha , while p ima y and seconda y educa ion
le els did no signi ican ly a ec EG, e ia y educa ion exhibi ed a p o ound posi i e
in luence. Hani and A shed (2016) also concluded ha highe educa ion exe s a mo e
subs an ial impac on EG han lowe educa ion le els, aligning wi h he b oade consensus
ha he quali y and le el o educa ion a e c i ical de e minan s o a na ion’s economic
ajec o y. Finally, Habibi and Zaba das ’s (2020) s udy ho oughly examines how digi al-
iza ion and educa ion collec i ely in luence economic g ow h in bo h Middle Eas e n and
OECD coun ies. The s udy inds ha digi aliza ion signi ican ly con ibu es o economic
g ow h by enhancing p oduc i i y, os e ing inno a ion, and c ea ing new economic oppo -
uni ies. This impac is mo e p onounced in OECD coun ies due o hei ad anced digi al
in as uc u e and highe le els o digi al li e acy. In con as , while bene i ing om digi al-
iza ion, Middle Eas e n coun ies ace challenges such as digi al di ides and less ma u e
digi al ecosys ems, which can limi he ull ealiza ion o digi aliza ion’s economic bene i s.
Educa ion eme ges as a c ucial ac o ha ampli ies he posi i e e ec s o digi aliza ion on
economic g ow h. Highe educa ional a ainmen and be e -quali y educa ion sys ems
equip indi iduals wi h he necessa y skills o le e age digi al echnologies e ec i ely.
The li e a u e abo e aims o de elop his s udy’s second main objec i e, which is o
examine he mode a ing e ec o educa ion on he ela ionship be ween ICT and economic
g ow h in he MENA egion. S udies show ha educa ion enhances he a ou able impac
o ICT on economic g ow h. Highe educa ional a ainmen , especially in STEM ields,
equips indi iduals o be e u ilize digi al echnologies, boos ing economic bene i s. Addi-
ionally, seconda y and e ia y educa ion le els play a key ole in os e ing inno a ion and
inc easing human capi al, s eng hening he o e all e ec o ICT on g ow h. Coun ies wi h
s onge educa ion sys ems a e be e posi ioned o capi alize on digi aliza ion’s po en ial.
Hence, his cu en s udy conside s he ollowing ques ion.
RQ2: Does he le el o educa ion mode a e he ela ionship be ween ICT usage and eco-
nomic g ow h?
3. Da a and Me hodology
3.1. Da a
This s udy u ilizes a comp ehensi e panel da ase om 2000 o 2020, encompassing
annual da a om 15 coun ies in he MENA egion, whe e comple e da a on he ele an
a iables we e a ailable. The coun ies included in his analysis a e “Alge ia, Bah ain,
Egyp , I an, Is ael, Jo dan, Kuwai , Lebanon, Mo occo, Oman, Qa a , Saudi A abia, Tunisia,
Tu key, and he Uni ed A ab Emi a es”. The p ima y a iable o in e es in his in es iga ion
is eal GDP g ow h (RGDPG), se ing as he indica o o EG, he dependen a iable o
his s udy.
The a iable o ICT usage wi hin hese coun ies is cap u ed h ough i e dis inc
p oxies: pe sonal compu e s pe 100 inhabi an s (compu e s), mobile cellula subsc ip ions
pe 100 indi iduals (mobile), pe cen age o indi iduals using he in e ne (In e ne use s),
pe cen age o households wi h in e ne access (In e ne access), and elephone lines pe
100 people ( elephone). These a iables o e a mul i ace ed iew o ICT engagemen , whe e
compu e s and elephones e lec he in as uc u al condi ions o ICT; mobile highligh s he
p oli e a ion o con empo a y elecommunica ions echnologies; and In e ne use s, along
wi h In e ne access, illus a e he populace’s connec i i y o he in e ne . I is an icipa ed
ha hese measu es o ICT usage will exhibi a posi i e co ela ion wi h EG.
To examine he mode a ing e ec s o educa ion on he ela ionship be ween ICT and
EG, wo educa ional p oxies a e u ilized: he seconda y school en ollmen a e (seconda y)
as an indica o o b oad educa ional co e age and a basic measu e o a coun y’s human
capi al quali y, and he e ia y school en ollmen pe cen age ( e ia y), e lec ing he highe
likelihood o in e ne use and access among indi iduals wi h e ia y educa ion compa ed o
hose wi h lowe le els o educa ion. This s udy esona es wi h he sen imen exp essed by
Jean-Louis Sa bib, Senio Vice P esiden o he Wo ld Bank’s Human De elopmen Ne wo k:
“Seconda y educa ion is he highway be ween p ima y schooling, e ia y educa ion, and
Economies 2024,12, 267 8 o 18
he labou ma ke . I s abili y o connec he di e en des ina ions and o ake young people
whe e hey wan o go in li e is c ucial”.
Addi ionally, his analysis inco po a es con ol a iables such as g oss ixed capi al o -
ma ion as a pe cen age o GDP (in es men ), which is expec ed o enhance labo e iciency
h ough echnological employmen and inc eased access o ICT ools. This in es men is
also p ojec ed o s imula e local employmen and labo p oduc i i y. Fu he mo e, his
s udy con ols o ade openness (openness), ep esen ing he sum o expo s and impo s
as a pe cen age o GDP, acili a ing echnological exchange among na ions. The impac o
he A ab Sp ing on he egion’s EG is also conside ed, wi h a dummy a iable (DSPRING)
assigned a alue o 1 om 2011 onwa ds and 0 o p io yea s, o accoun o i s po en-
ial e ec s. De ailed de ini ions and sou ces o all a iables a e p o ided in Table A2 in
Appendix A.
3.2. Es ima ion Me hod
We es ima e a s anda d g ow h model exp essed by he ollowing equa ion:
RGDPGi, =β1lnICTi, +β2lnEDUi, +β3(lnICTi, xlnEDUi, )
+β4lnINVESTMENTi, +β5lnOPENNESSi, +ARABSi, +ui, (1)
whe e
i=
1
. . .
, 16 and
=
2000,
. . .
, 2020. The a iable
RGDPGi,
ep esen s he annual
g ow h o GDP,
ICTi,
ep esen s he se o ICT a iables, and
EDUi,
is he se o educa ion
a iables, while
INVESTMENTi,
and
OPENNESSi,
a e he con ol a iables. The impac
o he A ab Sp ing is aken in o accoun in he model by he dummy a iable ARABS;
ln
is
he na u al loga i hm and ui, ep esen s he e o e m.
Desc ip i e s a is ics and a co ela ion ma ix o hese a iables a e de ailed in
Table A2 in Appendix A. To add ess po en ial issues o mul icollinea i y and o conse e he
model’s deg ees o eedom—pa icula ly c i ical gi en he ini e na u e o he obse a ions
a ailable—ICT a iables a e in oduced in o he eg ession sequen ially. This app oach is
wo old: i s ly, i acknowledges he signi ican co ela ions among he ICT a iables hem-
sel es; secondly, i aims o op imize he model’s deg ees o eedom by judiciously selec ing
a iables o inclusion, he eby mi iga ing he isk o mul icollinea i y and enhancing he
obus ness o ou indings.
4. Empi ical Resul s and Discussion
In his s udy, we employ he Im, Pesa an, and Shin (IPS) uni oo es , and i s modi ied
e sion in oduced by Im e al. (2003), sui ed o he analysis o unbalanced panel da a,
which cha ac e izes he da ase used in his esea ch due o ce ain gaps in ICT a iable
obse a ions. P io o employing he Au o eg essi e Dis ibu ed Lag (ARDL) app oach o
es ima ion, we ini ially conduc ed a panel uni oo es o asce ain he s a iona i y s a us
o he a iables in ol ed. This p elimina y s ep is c ucial o es ablishing he ounda ion
o subsequen panel coin eg a ion es ing, which p obes in o he po en ial long- e m
equilib ium ela ionships among he s udy a iables.
The esul s o he panel uni oo es , exhibi ed in Table A3 in Appendix A, e eal ha
he da a se ies exhibi mixed o de s o s a iona i y, al e na ing be ween I(0) and I(1). This
mixed s a iona i y s a e ul ils a c i ical p econdi ion o p oceeding wi h he coin eg a ion
es aimed a de ec ing any long- e m equilib ium dynamics among he a iables. The
ou comes o he panel coin eg a ion es s lead o he ejec ion o he null hypo hesis o
non-coin eg a ion, he eby suppo ing he a gumen o subs an ial long- e m equilib ium
ela ionships be ween he dependen a iable, EG, and he a ious explana o y a iables
unde conside a ion. Es ima ing hese long- un ela ionships employs he panel ARDL
me hodology, as p oposed by Pesa an e al. (1999), and in ol es he analysis o i e dis inc
long- un equa ion a ian s. These a ian s e eal he e ec s on eal GDP g ow h a es based
on di e en dimensions o ICT usage—namely, In e ne usage, In e ne access, mobile,
elephone, and compu e s, in addi ion o a ious con ol a iables. The ARDL me hod was
chosen due o i s abili y o cap u e bo h sho - e m dynamics and long- e m ela ionships
Economies 2024,12, 267 15 o 18
Table A3. Panel uni oo es .
IPS W-S a is ic
Le el 1s Di e ence
GDPG −7.278 *** −18.666 ***
lnUSAGE −11.365 *** −9.790 ***
lnACCESS −7.394 *** −2.867 ***
lnMOB −15.523 *** −5.515 ***
lnFIX −1.067 −6.318 ***
lnEDU1 0.350 −9.531 ***
lnEDU2 0.268 −8.135 ***
lnGFCF −4.825 *** −12.634 ***
lnTRADE −2.985 *** −10.715 ***
Null hypo hesis: uni oo . No e 1: GDPG is an annual pe cen age g ow h a e o GDP; lnUSAGE is he na u al
loga i hm o indi iduals using he in e ne as a pe cen age o he popula ion; lnACCESS is he p opo ion o
households wi h in e ne access a home as a pe cen age o he popula ion; lnMOB is he na u al loga i hm o
mobile cellula subsc ip ions pe 100 people; lnFIX he na u al loga i hm o ixed elephone subsc ip ions pe
100 people; lnGFCF is he na u al loga i hm o g oss ixed capi al o ma ion as a pe cen age o GDP; lnEDU1 is he
na u al loga i hm o he school en olmen , seconda y as a pe cen age o g oss; lnEDU2 is he na u al loga i hm o
he e ia y school en olmen as a pe cen age o g oss; lnTRADE is he na u al loga i hm o ade openness as a
pe cen age o GDP. No e 2: Au oma ic lag leng h selec ion based on AIC. The es alues a e signi ican a * p< 0.1,
** p< 0.05, *** p< 0.01.
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