Impacts of COVID‐19 on Venezuelan migrants in the Andean corridor

Kieslinge , Julia
A icle — Published Ve sion
Impac s o COVID‐19 on Venezuelan mig an s in he
Andean co ido
In e na ional Mig a ion
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Kieslinge , Julia (2025) : Impac s o COVID‐19 on Venezuelan mig an s in he
Andean co ido , In e na ional Mig a ion, ISSN 1468-2435, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 63, Iss. 3,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/imig.70028
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In e na ional Mig a ion. 2025;63:e70028.
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/imig.70028
wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/imig
Recei ed: 9 Feb ua y 2024
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Re ised: 17 Janua y 2025
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Accep ed: 18 Ma ch 2025
DOI: 10.1111/imig.70028
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Impac s o COVID- 19 on Venezuelan mig an s in
he Andean co ido
Julia Kieslinge
Ins i u e o Geog aphy, F ied ich- Alexande
Uni e si y E langen- Nu embe g, E langen,
Ge many
Co espondence
Julia Kieslinge , Ins i u e o Geog aphy,
F ied ich- Alexande Uni e si y E langen-
Nu embe g, We e k euz 15, E langen
91058, Ge many.
Email: julia.kieslinge @ au.de
Abs ac
Since 2015, abou 7.9 million Venezuelans le hei
coun y due o poli ical u moil, socio- economic ins abili y,
and he ongoing humani a ian c isis. The Andean Co ido
is he mos equen ed land ou e in Sou h Ame ica. This
a icle explo es Venezuelan mig an s' expe iences wi h
he COVID- 19 pandemic on hei jou neys. Mig an s
unde ake spa ial mo emen s and phases o s aying,
he e concei ed o as (im)mobili ies. The s udy d aws on
c ises and li ewo ld pe spec i es, and uses pa icipa o y
quali a i e in e iews o add ess indi iduals' decision-
making unde changing li e condi ions. The indings show
ha he go e nmen s' measu es du ing he pandemic had
se e e impac s on he mig an s, leading o o ced (im)
mobiliza ion, changing mobili y pa e ns, and means o
anspo . The in o maliza ion o (im)mobili ies inc eased
he isk o in ec ion, endange ed li elihoods, and esul ed
in g ea e exposu e o insecu i y and iolence. The s udy
highligh s he need o inclusi e, nuanced app oaches o
c ises ha acknowledge he oices and expe iences o
ma ginalized popula ions like Venezuelan mig an s.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and
ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). In e na ional Mig a ion published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o In e na ional O ganiza ion o
Mig a ion.
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KIESLINGER
INTRODUCTION
Since 2015, many Venezuelans le he coun y due o poli ical u moil, socio- economic ins abili y, and he on-
going humani a ian c isis (F eie & Doña- Re eco, 2022; F ei ez e al., 2020; IOM, 2022a); e en hough eal num-
be s o Venezuelan emig an s a e di icul o measu e, in No embe 2024 o icial es ima es eached 7.9 million
(R4V, 2024). The a ailable igu es o mig an s in ecei ing coun ies indica e ha he majo i y (6.7 million) a e
loca ed in La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean, wi h Colombia (2,808,968; 9/2024), Pe u (1,662,889; 12/2023),
B azil1 (626,885; 9/2024), Ecuado (444,778; 3/2024) and Chile (532,715; 12/2022) being he main des ina-
ions (ibid.). Due o in o mal bo de c ossings and lack o esidence s a us, ac ual numbe s a e likely o be much
highe (ACAPS, 2021). As indica ed by he a o emen ioned numbe s bu also highligh ed in li e a u e, he Andean
Co ido is he mos used and dynamic land ou e in Sou h Ame ica, and Venezuelan mig a ion is conside ed one
o he la ges c oss- bo de mobili y p ocesses wo ldwide (OIM, 2019; Palma- Gu ié ez, 2023; R4V, 2023). On
hei ansna ional ajec o ies along he Andean co ido , Venezuelan mig an s expe ience spa ial mo emen s
and phases o s aying, he e concei ed o as (im)mobili ies.
Suppo ed by economic and poli ical c ises, in Sou h Ame ica mobili y p ocesses ha e become mo e com-
plex and mul i- di ec ional, while in a egional c oss- bo de mobili y inc eased and o me ly p incipally mig an -
emi ing coun ies became ecei ing coun ies (He e a & Gómez, 2022). Toge he wi h changing mig a ion
pa e ns, mig a ion policies shi ed om p og essi e egula o y amewo ks o Sou h Ame ican ci izens owa ds
inc easingly es ic i e policies (ibid.). Since 2017, he unp eceden ed Venezuelan mig a ion ga e ise o empo-
a y ad hoc esponses and a e u n o he na ional managemen o mig a ion wi h he e- es ablishmen o isa
equi emen s o Venezuelan ci izens since 2019 (Acos a e al., 2019; OIM, 2019). Consequen ly, in o mal bo de
c ossings inc eased subs an ially. In Ma ch 2020, he bo de s we e closed in he cou se o COVID- 19 measu es,
which made legal bo de c ossings impossible. By he end o 2021 o he beginning o 2022, he bo de s be ween
Colombia, Ecuado , Pe u and Chile we e eopened again (El Come cio, 2021; El Tiempo, 2021; MRE Boli ia, 2022);
he bo de be ween Venezuela and Colombia was opened in Janua y 2023 (Deu sche Welle, 2022).
The impac o global c ises on (im)mobili ies o people in mig a ion sys ems and on he mig an s hemsel es has
gained inc eased academic and public a en ion in ecen yea s (e.g. Be gman- Rosamond e al., 2022; IOM, 2022a;
KNOMAD, 2020; Sakdapol ak e al., 2022). Mig an s' pe spec i es play an impo an ole he e, bu hey a e s ill
unde ep esen ed. While we ha e a i s imp ession o he nume ical size o Venezuela's mig a ing popula ion and
con ex ual ac o s wi h ega d o mig a ion policies in Sou h Ame ica, less is known abou how hei mig a ion
p ocesses and phases o s aying a e shaped in de ail, and how mig an s expe ience hei (im)mobili ies in he
con ex o c ises. In his s udy, I examine he (im)mobili y expe iences o Venezuelan mig an s along he Andean
co ido du ing he COVID- 19 pandemic. Concep ually, I d aw on he New Mobili ies Pa adigm (e.g. Shelle &
U y, 2006), li ewo ld pe spec i es (K aus, 2015) and amings o c ises on socie al and indi idual le els (e.g.
Be gman- Rosamond e al., 2022; B inks & Ibe , 2020; Filipp & Aymanns, 2010). Empi ical indings we e ga he ed
by means o a pa icipa o y s udy design o cap u e li ed expe iences o Venezuelan mig an s and cen e hei
pe spec i es in academic and public deba es. This s udy aims o con ibu e o a deepe unde s anding o he
implica ions o c ises on (im)mobile li ewo lds and he ele ance o spa ial (im)mobili ies o coping wi h hem.
FRAMING VENEZUELANS' (IM)MOBILITIES IN THE CONTEXT OF CRISES
When pu ing mobile and immobile pe sons as agen s o hei own li es cen e s age, i is necessa y o ocus
on he meaning ul li ing con ex s in which hey a e si ua ed when nego ia ing and enac ing (im)mobili ies
(Kieslinge , 2021). The e o e, a a supe o dina e le el, I d aw on he New Mobili ies Pa adigm (e.g. Shelle &
U y, 2006) o equally add ess spa ial mo emen s and phases o s aying, and on he dis inc ion o li e condi ions
and li ewo lds2 as concei ed by Bjö n K aus (2015), o conside bo h agency and con ex ual ac o s in c isis
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IMPACTS OF COVID- 19 ON VENEZUELAN MIGRANTS
se ings. Howe e , c ises a e complex, mul i ace ed phenomena ha de y simple de ini ion; hey a e o en
e e ed o as condi ions o expe iences and encompass a ious socie al le els (Be gman- Rosamond e al., 2022).
To in es iga e (im)mobile li ewo lds in c isis se ings, I d aw on concep ual conside a ions o c ises a socie al and
indi idual le els.
In he Venezuelan mig a ion con ex , c oss- bo de (im)mobili ies and hei poli ical dimensions dese e special
a en ion. I is c ucial o acknowledge he c i iques o he dominance o go e nmen pe spec i es in mig a ion
esea ch (e.g. De Haas, 2021), and he endency o adop s a e ca ego ies on mig a ion issues (see me hodological
na ionalism, Wimme & Glick Schille , 2002). Fo ins ance, he UNHCR ca ego iza ion o o ced displacemen s
only conside s people leeing disas e s wi hin coun ies, and no hose who c oss bo de s (Blanc, 2021). In line
wi h he New Mobili ies Pa adigm (e.g. Shelle & U y, 2006), his in es iga ion add esses he di e si y o peo-
ple's mo emen s wi hou p ede ined spa ial and empo al ca ego ies and i akes in o accoun he phenomenon
o s aying; being mobile and s aying a places a e conside ed mu ually in e ela ed and bo h en ail asc ibed so-
cial meanings. In (im)mobili y s udies, i is a challenge o concep ualize how indi iduals and g oups exe agency
wi hin b oade s uc u al cons ain s (see also aspi a ion- capabili y amewo k De Haas, 2014; Schewel, 2019; De
Haas, 2021). Today, i is commonly ecognized ha he e is a olun a y – o ced con inuum in (im)mobiliza ion p o-
cesses, o ins ance, in he con ex o con lic s and disas e s (Blanc, 2021). In his s udy, I use a concep ual lens in
which ma e ial and imma e ial ci cums ances (li e condi ions) de e mine he oppo uni ies and cons ain s o (im)
mobili ies, and hei subjec i e e alua ions (li ewo lds) a e he basis o decision- making (Kieslinge , 2021, p. 94).
F om indi iduals' pe spec i es, decision- making on (im)mobili ies can be concei ed as a p ocess o nego ia ions,
which is based on ela ional meanings o place(s), (li e) ime(s) and social in e ac ion(s) (ibid., p. 93–94; Kieslinge
e al., 2020). People compa e expe ienced and imagined places wi h one ano he in de e mining whe he o s ay
o whe e o go o. Decision- making addi ionally inco po a es mul iple ime ames, including his o ical con ex and
li e cou se pe spec i es, while he p esen si ua ion is assessed in ela ion o pas expe iences and u u e op ions.
Finally, indi iduals' decisions a e in luenced by he ci cums ances o o he s and in ol e nego ia ions be ween
pe sonal and collec i e in e es s (ibid.).
To g asp c ises on an o e all socie al le el, I e e o con ibu ions om c ises managemen and o ganiza ion
s udies as compiled by B inks and Ibe (2020). Acco dingly, cons i u i e o a c isis is he sha ed expe ience o
h ea , unce ain y and u gency a ound a p oblem (ibid., p. 277). Th ea s o highly alued socie al asse s a ec
di e en a eas, o ins ance, heal h, economic in e es s and poli ical o de . Unde condi ions o unce ain y, inac-
i i y o non- decision would exace ba e he se ious si ua ion (ibid.) and ou ines a e no longe a ailable, esul ing
in highly imp o isa ional o expe imen al ac ion (Mils ein, 2014). A he same ime, c ises un old pe o ma i e
quali ies as diagnoses and esponses con ibu e o he enac men o c ises (B inks & Ibe , 2020). Fu he , hey
can be used s a egically by poli icians, policymake s and o he s o mobilize suppo and ad ance hei agendas
(Be gman- Rosamond e al., 2022). In he Con ex o COVID- 19, Nicholas De Geno a (2022, p. 139) shows how
he s a e's e o s o go e n he public heal h eme gency wen along wi h bo de p oduc ion and en o cemen ,
esul ing in empo a ily decele a ed c oss- bo de mobili ies and he immobiliza ion o mig an s. The e is empi ical
e idence in di e en egional con ex s ha he global COVID- 19 c isis a ec ed bo de egimes and (im)mobili-
ies o ins ance, on Eu ope's on ie s (Tazzioli & S ie l, 2021) and a he US–Mexico bo de (Blue e al., 2021).
Casaglia (2021) a gues ha he COVID- 19 pandemic exace ba ed spa ial and social inequali ies ac oss di e se
popula ions, highligh ing he ole o bo de ing p ocesses3 in c ea ing hese dispa i ies. Cai ns and Clemen e (2023)
ecen ly discussed an immobili y u n in connec ion wi h COVID- 19. C ises a e excep ional and s ess ul expe i-
ences, so i is necessa y o conside hem as a pa icula con ex o ac ion and a possibili y o in e en ion (B inks
& Ibe , 2020). Acco ding o Ko nbe ge e al. (2018), c ises a e associa ed wi h he idea o an open u u e, which
can be c ea ed h ough agency.
Wi h ega d o indi iduals' decision- making and ac ion in c ises, I d aw on selec ed insigh s om de elopmen
s udies and li e e en s esea ch in de elopmen al psychology. Acco ding o Rosamond e al. (2022, p. 467), c i-
ses can be expe ienced as ‘ aming o li e due o (…) [social] inequali ies and unequal powe ela ions a bo h he
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KIESLINGER
sys em and li ewo ld le els’. Nega i e ou comes o social inequali ies, such as inc eased ulne abili ies o ce ain
popula ions, mus be aken in o accoun in c isis se ings. Acco ding o Chambe s (1989, p. 1), ulne abili ies esul
om he in e play be ween he ‘exposu e o con ingencies and s ess, and he di icul ies in coping wi h hem’.
They depend no only on he socio- economic posi ion acco ding o indi iduals' cha ac e is ics (Downing, 2002,
p. 375), bu also on he unc ioning o socie y as such (Wisne e al., 2004, p. 12). He e, he ela ion be ween
s uc u es and agency concep ually emains a challenge (E zold & Sakdapol ak, 2016, p. 236). Zapa a and P ie o
Rosas (2020) highligh he disp opo iona e impac o he COVID- 19 c isis on mig an s and e ugees in Sou h
Ame ica due o hei ma ginalized posi ion in labou ma ke s and limi ed access o essen ial se ices. Fu he mo e,
du ing he pandemic social inequali ies among mig an s we e epo ed o ins ance, wi h ega d o gende dispa -
i ies (IOM, 2022b) o p eca ious housing condi ions, exempli ied by he si ua ion in Tijuana's shel e s in Mexico
(Bojo quez- Chapela e al., 2022). In his s udy, I adop ed a subjec - cen ed app oach o c ises o do jus ice o
he conce ns o he pa icipan s. C i ical li e e en s p o oke s ong emo ions and all well beyond people's daily
ou ines, expec a ions and expe iences (Filipp & Aymanns, 2010, pp. 12–18). They imply a u ning poin in pe -
sonal de elopmen wi h an unce ain ou come and con ain dange s and possibili ies o change. Fu he mo e,
hey a ec he i be ween people and hei social, spa ial and ma e ial en i onmen and pu hem in a s a e o
imbalance. Each e en is gi en i s speci ic meaning wi h a iew o he pe son's li ewo ld, aking ulne abili ies and
esou ces in o accoun . Coping wi h c i ical li e e en s encompasses all a emp s o o e come he lack o i in
he pe son–en i onmen s uc u e. Ei he he en i onmen mus be b ough close o he indi idual's op ions o
ac ion and compe encies, o he pe son mus adap o he changed en i onmen by modi ying his o he hinking
and ac ions (ibid.). F om his pe spec i e, changing li ing places o s aying a places could be, beside many o he s,
one op ion o ha a emp . Impo an con ibu ions wi h ega d o he Venezuelan mig a ion a e p o ided by
Ál a ez Velasco (2022) who de ails mig an s' expe iences o hos ili y and s a egies o solida i y along he Andean
Co ido , and by Palma- Gu ié ez (2023) who p esen s Venezuelans' au onomy and s uggles in imes o Vi al
Bo de s.
Finally, he ollowing p emises guided my analysis: mobili ies and immobili ies a e conside ed oge he wi h
a ocus on (im)mobili y decision- making; c ises can be seen as con ex o ac ion whe e (im)mobili ies ake place,
and hey ha e pe o ma i e quali ies ha mus be aken in o accoun ; mig an s as agen s o hei own li es ake
decisions based on hei expe iences and e alua ions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
To cap u e Venezuelan mig an s' expe iences o (im)mobili ies du ing he COVID- 19 pandemic, I conduc ed
a pa icipa o y case s udy in Huaquillas, Ecuado . Acco ding o local in o man s, his bo de own wi -
nessed a signi ican con luence o Venezuelans due o he bo de closu e wi h Pe u. Mo eo e , I expec ed
ha he mig an s in Huaquillas had passed h ough Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuado , and ha some had
pe haps e u ned om sou he n coun ies, so ha hey we e able o alk abou hei (im)mobili y expe i-
ences in e ospec . Toge he wi h local ield assis an s, he eina e e e ed o as co- esea che s, we
conduc ed quali a i e and pa icipa o y in e iews du ing a 3 week s ay in Sep embe 2021, which included
he ools o mobili y mapping (Weidinge e al., 2019) and (im)mobili y biog aphies (Kieslinge e al., 2020).
We combined bo h ools in one in e iew si ua ion o g asp li ewo ld pe spec i es on (im)mobili ies and
o educe powe imbalances du ing da a collec ion. Toge he wi h he pa icipan s, we elabo a ed mobil-
i y maps o isualize hei ajec o ies including ou es and places o s ay. The p ocess o isualiza ion
s imula ed na a ions abou expe iences on hei jou neys. The ool o (im)mobili y biog aphies was used o
elici pa icipan s' na a ions on (im)mobili y decisions and expe iences o being mobile and s aying pu . To
ob ain pe spec i es om a wide ange o people, we conduc ed nonp obabili y sampling (Be na d, 2006).

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IMPACTS OF COVID- 19 ON VENEZUELAN MIGRANTS
We selec ed a ious poin s o access o pa icipan s and d ew on cold acquisi ion a di e en places, using
ga ekeepe s and snowball sampling (Kieslinge e al., 2020). As mos o he Venezuelan mig an s we e li ing
in he open, we accessed ou in e iewees in public places and a ew o hem close o shel e s o humani-
a ian aid o ganiza ions. Fu he , we unde ook ec ui men a di e en imes o he day and week. In his
s udy se ing, special emphasis was gi en o e hical c i e ia (c. . Cla k- Kazak, 2017; MacKenzie e al., 2007),
such as olun a y pa icipa ion and in o med consen , con iden iali y, p i acy and da a p o ec ion, as well
as a oiding exposu e and ha m. Fo he in e iews, we en ed a ho el oom and p o ided masks, alcohol
o disin ec ion, as well as inancial compensa ion. Be o e s a ing he con e sa ion, he opics and ools
we e explained ca e ully; we encou aged ou pa icipan s o le us know a any ime i hey el uncom o -
able wi h he in e iew si ua ion o i hey wan ed o qui he in e iew. Fu he , we p o ided ou con ac
de ails i hey wan ed o dele e he in o ma ion a a la e da e. The pe sonal da a o ou in e iew pa ne s
we e limi ed o he i s name, age, gende , le el o educa ion o p o ession and he pe sons hey a elled
wi h. In o al, we unde ook 13 in e iews wi h 18 pa icipan s; Table 1 p esen s he composi ion o he
sample acco ding o age and gende . Mos o he in e iewees ‘ a elled’ wi h amily membe s (n = 15) and
mino s (n = 12).
Pa icipa o y ools allow o simul aneous da a collec ion and analysis (Kieslinge e al., 2020, pa ag aph 33).
We used maps o isualize (im)mobili ies, os e ing collabo a i e analysis and in e p e a ion wi h pa icipan s.
In e iews and discussions we e documen ed h ough audio eco dings and pho os. The audios we e ansc ibed
li e ally (D esing & Pehl, 2013, pp. 20–25), each ex was o ganized acco ding o he wo ools applied, and ex
passages wi h pa icipan s' na a i es we e induc i ely coded (Be na d, 2006). Images we e edi ed g aphically,
and speci ic elemen s we e ca alogued (e.g. places o s ay, du a ion o s ay, mo i a ions). Employing hema ic and
isual analysis (Kohle Riessman, 2005, 2008), we looked i s a he con en o na a i es only and a e wa ds a
na a i es and images o he maps oge he . We examined common hemes in pa icipan s' na a i es and isual
ep esen a ions, and explo ed he a ionale behind map con en and omissions. All ma e ials we e s o ed ca e ully
and analysed anonymously. Finally, we combined ou empi ical wo k wi h desk esea ch on he ela ed opics o
con ex ualize ou pa icipan s' a i ma ions by including seconda y da a and li e a u e p o ided by academia bu
also by NGOs, go e nmen ins i u ions and newspape s.
RESULTS
In he ollowing, I i s p esen he spa ial mobili ies and immobili ies o he pa icipan s by conside ing hei
ou es, modes o anspo , bo de c ossings as well as places o s aying pu . Subsequen ly, he impac s o he
COVID- 19 pandemic on Venezuelan mig an s' (im)mobili ies a e de ailed. As pa icipan s highligh ed on he one
hand go e nmen measu es aken o comba he pandemic and on he o he hand hei pe sonal e alua ion o
ci cums ances, in he ollowing, I e e o hese dis inc issues in wo sepa a e sec ions.
TABLE 1 Age cha ac e is ics o he in e iewees (n = 18).
Age ca ego ies Women (n = 7) Men (n = 11)
<18 yea s n = 2 n = 1
18–30 yea s n = 3 n = 9
>30 yea s n = 2 n = 1
Range 16–33 yea s 14–47 yea s
A e age 26 yea s 25 yea s
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KIESLINGER
Spa ial (im)mobili ies on he Andean ou e and he impac s o go e nmen esponses o
COVID- 19
Wi h ega d o he mig a ion ou es (see Figu e 1), 15 o he esponden s we e on he jou ney o he i s ime;
h ee o hem o he second ime. A he ime o he in e iews, 12 o he pa icipan s we e on he ou e heading
sou h; mo i a ions being job o e s by iends and acquain ances, a ou able comme cial condi ions a he bo de
a eas, o clima e conside a ions. Six o he pa icipan s we e on he ou e heading no h; he sou he nmos place
o e u n men ioned was San iago de Chile. Reasons o e u n we e: no ha ing succeeded en y in coun ies on
he jou ney o a he in ended des ina ion, su e ing mis ea men o abuse, expe iences o iolence, xenophobic
a i udes agains Venezuelan mig an s, and un a ou able clima e condi ions. The answe s ega ding ou es
showed mani old p ocesses o onwa d and backwa d mobili ies. The modes o anspo o he pa icipan s in
bo h di ec ions we e public anspo (bus), ucks, hi chhiking, and walking by oo .
All esponden s used he Andean Co ido pa ially o comple ely o hei ou es. The Paci ic ou e in Colombia
was used in e y ew cases (n = 2) when mig an s had c ossed he bo de wi h Venezuela in he No h ia Gua e o
– Pa aguachón, and due o he con lic o a med g oups in pa s o he La Guaji a Depa men o Colombia, hey
we e o ced o ake a longe ou e ia he paci ic coas . The Amazon ou e was only men ioned when c ossing he
bo de be ween Colombia and Ecuado ia La Ho miga – San Miguél – Nue a Loja (n = 1). All he pa icipan s in ou
s udy (n = 18) epo ed ha hey had c ossed bo de s ia in o mal ails, so- called ochas. These we e mainly lo-
ca ed in he close su oundings o he o icial bo de c ossings: Táchi a – Cúcu a, El Ampa o de Apu e – La Unión,
Gua e o – Pa aguachón (VE/CO); Ipiales – Tulcán, La Ho miga/San Miguél – Nue a Loja (CO/EC); Huaquillas –
Tumbes (EC/PE); San a Rosa – Chacallu a (PE/CL); Desaguade o – Desaguade o (PE/BO); Pisiga – Colchane (BO/
CL). In mos cases, he pa icipan s c ossed i e s o bo de b idges. Depending on he season (wa e le els) and
ochas, hey c ossed some i e s on oo o by a s wi h he help o opes, by swimming o by boa . Cañons we e
c ossed on ee unks o ancien suspension b idges – in some cases, hey ook de ou s and pa hs high in he
moun ains. Those who had mo ed o Pe u and u he sou h also ook dese acks.
Loca ions whe e he esponden s emained o a leas 1 mon h, I de ined as places o s aying because
da a analysis showed ha sho e s ays we e usually unde aken a andomly chosen places, o ins ance
a nigh all. Reasons o hese sho s ays we e p edominan ly ‘spending he nigh ’, ‘ es ing’, ‘ ea men o
FIGURE 1 Mig a ion ou es and places o s aying along he Andean Co ido . Da a basis: 13 in e iews wi h
18 Venezuelan mig an s, mul iple esponses possible (09/2021); Design: Kieslinge ; Ca og aphy: Adle .
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IMPACTS OF COVID- 19 ON VENEZUELAN MIGRANTS
inju ies o illnesses’, ‘ ecei ing humani a ian help om o ganiza ions’, ‘ isi o help o iends o acquain ance’,
and in single cases ‘o ganizing he jou ney’, ‘bi h o a daugh e ’, ‘ge ing o know he place’. Fo s ays longe
han 1 mon h, decisions o s aying we e based on ce ain mo i a ions and/o oppo uni ies. In nea ly all cases,
‘wo k’ in he o mal and/o in o mal sec o was he p incipal mo i a ion o s aying. O he easons we e e-
cei ing ‘humani a ian help om o ganiza ions’, and he o ganiza ion o ‘ amily euni ica ion’. While he o gani-
za ion o e e yday needs, jou neys and help du ing eme gencies, especially in he a ea o heal h ca e, played a
majo ole in making sho s ays, economic ac o s o secu e li elihoods and amily ies we e he main easons
o longe s ays.
Apa om indi idual mo i a ions whe he o lea e o s ay, go e nmen ac ions on he COVID- 19 pandemic
in pa icula had an impac on he mobili ies and immobili ies o Venezuelan mig an s. Wi h ega d o he impac s
on hei (im)mobili ies, he pa icipan s epo ed es ic i e go e nmen measu es in all coun ies, such as bo de
closu es, es ic ion o anspo a ion, oad closu es and checkpoin s, cu ews as well as he inc ease o con ol
by police and mili a y (see Table 2). Ma ia,4 a 33- yea - old woman who is on he jou ney wi h he husband and i e
child en, one o whom is disabled, explained:
The cu ews (…) a ec ed us (…) because I wo ked on he s ee ; I was a ade (…). We eached
a poin whe e we had no hing o ea . In Venezuela, he economy is al eady e y bad, and wi h
he pandemic, i go much wo se. Tha 's wha made us decide o lea e he coun y (…). The
bo de closu es o ced people o c oss bo de s ia ‘ ochas’ (…). This is some hing ha he mos
cunning people do, (…) o make money on he side. I 's a business. The bo de s ha e always been
TABLE 2 Impac s o COVID- 19 measu es on (im)mobili ies.
Bo de closu es • Suspension o en y/exi p ocedu es by au ho i ies;
suspension o he ac i i ies o humani a ian aid o ganiza ions
on si e
• Concen a ions o people in bo de a eas ( illages)
• Inc ease o in o mal bo de c ossings
• Con ol o he bo de egion by mili a y and police
• Es ablishmen o new in o mal ou es ( ochas) con olled by
c iminal g oups
Res ic ion o anspo a ion (public, p i a e,
comme cial)
• Ini ially comple e suspension, hen g adual opening by sec o
• Longe dis ances o walk, mo e equen ips on ucks, use
o in o mal anspo a ion
• Disad an age o people wi h child en, women a elling
alone, elde ly and sick people
Road closu es and checkpoin s • Con ol o ehicles and pe sons by police and mili a y
• Re usal o ansi , o ced e u n o o he places
• Sea ch o al e na i e ou es, epea ed ou es
• Longe dis ances, longe in olun a y s ays in places
Cu ews • Regula ion o hou s o s ay in public spaces and opening
hou s; en o cemen wi h he help o he police and he
mili a y
• Di icul ies in secu ing su i al, especially o in o mal s ee
endo s
• Di icul ies o o ganize a shel e du ing hou s o cu ew and
o e nigh
• Reduced supply o suppo (popula ion, ins i u ions/
o ganiza ions)
• Longe s ay and a el imes a e cu ews
Sou ce: 13 in e iews wi h 18 Venezuelan mig an s (09/2021).
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KIESLINGER
closed due o he pandemic. I ied o c oss he b idge [o icial bo de c ossing] in Colombia, bu
hey [ he policemen] hemsel es old me o go h ough he e, by he ‘ ochas’. The pandemic
has a ec ed bo de c ossings because he e a e deals o paymen s o le you pass h ough he
‘ ochas’ a he bo de s.
Ana, ano he 33- yea - old woman who is on he jou ney wi h h ee child en indica ed:
I s ayed in Cúcu a, in Colombia, o a yea and a hal because I was going o Medellin, bu hey sen
me back om Be lin because o he pandemic (…). The police sen me back, almos a he op o
Be lin [ illage a mo e han 3,000 m.a.s.l.]. They we e sending all he Venezuelans back, ‘ ha we
couldn' go o wa d, ha we should go back again’ and I was wai ing o see i he people would pass,
bu I had o go back down walking again (…). I said ‘No, I'm no going o Venezuela because i 's eally
ha d go om he e, I'm s aying in Cúcu a’ (…). I had o sleep by he i e in Cúcu a, on he sho e, o
almos wo mon hs wi h my h ee child en. I made a li le hu like his. Wha I ha e been h ough
is hea y (…). The i s ew days I had o beg, when I a i ed a he li le hu I ound e e y hing in
disa ay, well hey le me wi h no hing. They s ole e e y hing, my child en's clo hes and my clo hes
and e e y hing, and he e I a i ed jus he same, wi hou clo hes wi hou any hing (…).
In sum, he measu es epo ed can be designa ed as (im)mobili y go e nance, which impac ed no only he ac-
ions o s a e agencies, pa icula ly a bo de s, bu also hose o o he ac o s. Humani a ian aid o ganiza ions, o
ins ance, s uggled o each mig an s because hey had o suspend hei ope a ions a he bo de s, while c iminal
ne wo ks exploi ed he si ua ion by con inually es ablishing new in o mal ou es. These changing ci cums ances
a ec ed mig an s' (im)mobili ies and esul ed in inc eased unce ain ies (e.g. o secu e li elihoods), isks (e.g. o
ake mo e dange ous ou es) and ulne abili ies (especially o women, elde lies, sick people, child en).
I is impo an o men ion he e ha locali y also had a big in luence on he impac s o go e nmen esponses
on Venezuelan mig an s' (im)mobili ies. The s a emen s o he esponden s show ha people we e a ec ed di -
e en ly i hey had been a hei place o o igin, a bo de c ossings, o a o he places o s aying. Fu he , a e
he ini ial phase, he na ional s a egies o Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuado , Pe u, and Chile a ied (see also Hale
e al., 2021, pp. 530–532) as well as he measu es a egional o local le els, which we e aken acco ding o he
numbe s o inciden s in adminis a i e sub- egions.
As we unde ook ou case s udy in Huaquillas, we could g asp mo e de ailed pe spec i es on he go e nmen
esponses in Ecuado as depic ed in Figu e 2. This illus a ion doesn' ep esen an exac imeline o ac ions bu a
scheme o in e en ions on a empo al scale, s a ing om Ma ch 2020 when he mos es ic i e measu es we e
es ablished un il he ime o da a collec ion in Sep embe 2021. The example o Ecuado shows ha he impac o
go e nmen esponses on he (im)mobili ies o he pa icipan s o his s udy depended on he numbe and deg ee
o measu es ha had changed o e ime. Consequen ly, empo ali y and iming played a majo ole on how he e-
sponden s we e a ec ed by he measu es: o ins ance, whe he hey unde ook hei jou ney a he beginning o
go e nmen measu es in Ma ch 2020 o la e on a e he ini ia ion o he accina ions in Ap il 2021, and whe he
go e nmen ac ions came in o o ce when hey s a ed, p oceeded, o inalized hei mobili ies – whe he hey
we e on he mo e o s aying a places.
In sum, he pa icipan s epo ed o ced mobiliza ion and immobiliza ion on hei jou neys. Pe sons who had
been s aying indica ed he ini ia ion o new mobili y p ocesses due o he necessi y o inding new income op ions
and he delays in planned depa u es. The pa icipan s who we e on he mo e p edominan ly epo ed p ocesses
o immobiliza ion whe e hey had o s ay o p olonged pe iods a unplanned o undesi ed places, o example,
ansi loca ions, places in he bo de a eas, a places hey we e depo ed o. Fu he , hey had o change ou es
and sub- ou es o a oid con ols, o ind anspo a ion se ices o ways o bo de c ossing; some o hem had
o e u n o o me places on hei ou es and o e ace ce ain sec ions. Nea ly, all o he esponden s had o
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IMPACTS OF COVID- 19 ON VENEZUELAN MIGRANTS
pa icipan s in his s udy, who sha ed hei expe iences and li e s o ies wi h us. Open Access unding enabled and
o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The au ho has no compe ing in e es s o decla e.
PEER REVIEW
The pee e iew his o y o his a icle is a ailable a h ps:// www. webo scien ce. com/ api/ ga ew ay/ wos/ pee -
e iew/ 10. 1111/ imig. 70028 .
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he co esponding au ho . The da a
a e no publicly a ailable due o p i acy o e hical es ic ions.
ORCID
Julia Kieslinge h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6584-6902
Endno es
1 The inc easing a e o e ugees and mig an s om Venezuela a i ing in B azil was i s epo ed in he hi d qua e o
2022 (R4V, 2023, pp.16–17). P io o Ma ch 2023, he coun y was placed i h behind Chile; since Augus 2023 B azil
has been in hi d place (R4V, 2024).
2 Bjö n K aus (2015, p. 4) de ines li e condi ions as “a pe son's ma e ial and imma e ial ci cums ances o li e” and li ewo lds
as “a pe son's subjec i e cons uc ion o eali y, which he o she o ms unde condi ions o his o he ci cums ances”.
3 Acco ding o Nicholas De Geno a (2022, p.139) bo de s a e no ixed and objec i e eali ies, bu he esul o delibe a e
and pu pose ul ac i i ies which include ac ics and echnologies o ( e- )p oduce and ein o ce bo de s.
4 All names ha e been changed o p o ec anonymi y.
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