F asca elli, Angelo
A icle
The e olu ion o policy ins umen s o Eu opean u al
de elopmen
I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics (REA)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Fi enze Uni e si y P ess
Sugges ed Ci a ion: F asca elli, Angelo (2024) : The e olu ion o policy ins umen s o Eu opean u al
de elopmen , I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics (REA), ISSN 2281-1559, Fi enze Uni e si y
P ess, Flo ence, Vol. 79, Iss. 3, pp. 57-68,
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I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics Vol. 79, n. 3: 57-68, 2024
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ISSN 0035-6190 (p in ) | ISSN 2281-1559 (online) | DOI: 10.36253/ ea-15584
REA ITALIAN REVIEW
OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS
ITALIAN REVIEW
OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS
Ci a ion: F asca elli, A. (2024). The e olu-
ion o policy ins umen s o Eu opean
u al de elopmen . I alian Re iew o
Ag icul u al Economics 79(3): 57-68.
DOI: 10.36253/ ea-15584
Recei ed: Sep embe 3, 2024
Re ised: Oc obe 19, 2024
Accep ed: No embe 22, 2024
© 2024 Au ho (s). This is an open
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Gues Edi o : Pie luigi Milone
ORCID
AF: 0000-0002-8910-7044
The Mul idisciplina y App oach o Ru al S udies - Resea ch a icle
The e olu ion o policy ins umen s o
Eu opean u al de elopmen
Angelo F asca elli
Depa men o Ag icul u al, Food and En i onmen al Sciences, Uni e si y o Pe ugia,
Pe ugia, I aly
E-mail: angelo. asca e[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac . This a icle discusses he e olu ions ha ha e aken place in ag icul u al and
u al policy ins umen s since hei i s implemen a ion in 1999. In pa icula , i will
be unde lined how he e olu ions ha e been in luenced by he concep o mul i unc-
ionali y and he eme gence o he new pa adigm o u al de elopmen . Ru al de elop-
men ep esen s an al e na i e o he ag o-indus ial and pos -p oduc i is pa adigms.
The consequence is he in oduc ion o a e i o ial and mul i-sec o al app oach o
u al de elopmen , s a ing om he cen ali y o ag icul u e as he main use o space,
bu ocusing on he in e ela ionships be ween ag icul u e, he o he socio-economic
ac i i ies and he e i o y’s na u al and en i onmen al esou ces wi h a iew o he
co-p oduc ion o all he ac o s (ma e ial and imma e ial) in ol ed. The second pilla
o he CAP on u al de elopmen , in oduced in 1999, has e ol ed om ocusing p i-
ma ily on economic objec i es du ing i s ini ial p og amming pe iods o inco po a ing
a g ea e emphasis on en i onmen al and social measu es. I now se es as a b idge,
linking ag icul u al policy wi h o he policy a eas. The second pilla emains a ele an
policy oday o wo key easons: he endu ing impo ance and in e es o Eu opean
ci izens in u al a eas, and i s abili y o adap o eme ging economic, en i onmen al,
and social challenges.
Keywo ds: u al de elopmen , CAP, mul i unc ionali y, cop oduc ion.
JEL codes: Q18.
HIGHLIGHTS
– A e i o ial and mul isec o al app oach o u al de elopmen .
– In e ela ionships be ween ag icul u e, o he socioeconomic ac i i ies,
and he na u al and en i onmen al esou ces o he e i o y.
– The cen ali y and in e es o Eu opean ci izens in u al a eas.
– The abili y o adap o new economic, en i onmen al, and social challenges.
1. INTRODUCTION
This a icle examines he e olu ion o he objec i es and ins umen s
o Eu opean u al de elopmen policy since i s ini ial implemen a ion in
58 Angelo F asca elli
1988. I speci ically explo es how his p og ession has
been shaped by he concep o mul i unc ionali y, he
eme gence o he new u al de elopmen pa adigm,
and ad ancemen s in u al s udies. Ru al de elopmen
o e s an al e na i e o he ag o-indus ial and pos -
p oduc i is pa adigms. This shi emb aces a e i o ial
and mul isec o al app oach o he de elopmen o u al
a eas, acknowledging ag icul u e as he p ima y land
use . Howe e , he ocus shi s o he in e connec ions
be ween ag icul u e, o he socioeconomic ac i i ies, and
he na u al and en i onmen al esou ces o he egion,
emphasising he co-p oduc ion o all ac o s, bo h an-
gible and in angible, wi hin he e i o y (Ploeg, 2006,
2015; Milone, Ven u a, 2012).
The aim o his pape is o analyse he key s ages o
his e olu ion, ocusing on how u al s udies and policy
ha e in e sec ed and di e ged. Speci ically, his pape
d aws on he wo k o Flaminia Ven u a, whose con i-
bu ions o he in e p e a ion o u al de elopmen he-
o y p o ide a ounda ional amewo k o unde s and-
ing he ongoing changes in he Common Ag icul u al
Policy (CAP). The in en ion is o ou line he e olu ion
o u al de elopmen policy; o connec heo e ical con-
cep s, such as mul i unc ionali y and u al i ali y, wi h
empi ical policy ins umen s; and o e alua e c i ically
how Eu opean policy has esponded o u al challenges
h ough a compa a i e analysis o i s phases. By linking
hese objec i es o Ven u a’s elabo a ions on u al econ-
omies and he “peasan ” model, his pape explo es how
u al policy adap s o he changing socio-economic and
en i onmen al landscape. This s udy adop s a quali a i e
app oach, elying on bo h his o ical policy analysis and
a li e a u e e iew o key heo e ical amewo ks ela ed
o Eu opean u al de elopmen .
The i s pa o his pape b ie ly analyses he u al
de elopmen pa adigm as an al e na i e o he ag oin-
dus ial and pos -p oduc i is models. The second pa
aces he e olu ion o policy ins umen s using a ch on-
ological me hod, s uc u ed a ound majo e o ms o he
CAP. Da a a e p ima ily sou ced om Eu opean Com-
mission epo s, he u al s udies li e a u e (e.g., Ploeg,
2006; Ven u a, Milone, 2012), and policy documen s such
as he Co k Decla a ion and Agenda 2000. In addi ion,
he esea ch employs a compa a i e analysis o he u al
de elopmen phases (1988-2023) o assess how heo e i-
cal p inciples, such as mul i unc ionali y and he u al
de elopmen pa adigm, ha e ma e ialised in p ac ice. In
he hi d pa , he abili y o Eu opean u al de elopmen
policy o espond o he challenges and p ospec s o u al
a eas, as iden i ied in he new u al s udies pa adigm,
is discussed (Ploeg e al., 2000; Ven u a, Milone, 2007;
Ploeg, Ven u a, 2014; Ploeg in his special issue).
2. RURAL DEVELOPMENT AS AN ALTERNATIVE
TO THE AGROINDUSTRIAL AND POST-
PRODUCTIVIST PARADIGMS
The p oduc i is pa adigm is de ined as an ag icul-
u al model cha ac e ised by he use o a high quan i y
o inpu s, p ima ily aimed a maximising he p oduc-
ion ob ainable pe uni o su ace a ea in ol ed in he
p oduc ion p ocess (Beacham e al., 2023). This was he
p edominan model in he 20 h cen u y, leading o he
indus ialisa ion and “commodi ica ion” o ag icul u al
p oduc ion as a ull applica ion o he Fo dis model o
he p ima y sec o (Goodman, Redcli , 1991; Wilson,
2001), allowing companies o achie e economies o scale
(Bowle , 1992).
The p oduc i is pa adigm was mainly1 concep-
ualised in he Uni ed Kingdom by schola s such as
Bowle (1992), Lowe e al. (1993), and Wa d and Lowe
(1994), who a gued o he cen al and undispu ed ole
o ag icul u e in u al socie y as he p edominan ac i -
i y capable o main aining employmen and s abilising
incomes. The achie emen o he abo e wo goals is pos-
sible h ough he use o an in ensi e ag icul u al model,
applied, acco ding o u al sociologis s (Wilson, 2001),
o mo e as a away as possible om he condi ions o
po e y and des i u ion expe ienced in he English
coun yside in he pos -Wo ld Wa II pe iod (Newby,
1985; Bishop, Phillips, 1993). Ag icul u al p oduc ion
wi hin he p oduc i is pa adigm hus unde goes a p o-
cess o indus ialisa ion (Ma sden e al., 1993) and spe-
cialisa ion (Ilbe y, Bowle , 1998), leading o inc eased
labou p oduc i i y due o he sp ead o mechanisa ion
(Ilbe y, Bowle , 1998) bu wi h a consequen educ-
ion in he wo k o ce (Whi by, Lowe, 1994). Howe e ,
by inc easing he consump ion o syn he ic ac o s o
p oduc ion ( e ilise s, pes icides, e c.), he p essu e on
na u al esou ces also in ensi ies, esul ing in g ea e
en i onmen al impac s han be o e Wo ld Wa II, when
ag icul u e was mos ly low in inpu (Po e , 1998). The e
is a lack o dynamism in u al a eas, which, in his con-
ex , a e conside ed a passi e backd op o ag icul u al
ac i i y (Lowe e al., 2019).
Pa allel o he p oduc i is pa adigm, an an i he ical
pa adigm known as pos -p oduc i ism has also mainly
de eloped in he Uni ed Kingdom (Wa d, 1993; Ma he
e al., 2006; Beacham e al., 2023). As epo ed by Be g-
s om (2002) and Ma he e al. (2006), pos -p oduc i -
ism is cha ac e ised bo h by he p esence o a se ies o
1 The ad ancemen o echnical p og ess, he sp ead o inno a ions,
and he inc ease o p oduc i i y in ag icul u e a e issues ha ha e also
been add essed p e iously (Hayami, Ru an, 1970; Bie i e al., 1972;
Nguyen, 1979).
59
The e olu ion o policy ins umen s o Eu opean u al de elopmen
ac i i ies in u al a eas, di e si ied om he me e p o-
duc ion o commodi ies, and by he g owing demand o
goods – by use s o hese a eas – ha a e no app ecia ed
by he ma ke , such as landscape and ameni ies. Mo eo-
e , acco ding o he same au ho s, pos -p oduc i ism is
dis inguished by a se ies o alues linked o u al a eas,
including his o ical, scenic, and ec ea ional alue, as
shown in Figu e 1.
Wilson (2001), while highligh ing he lack o a clea
de ini ion o which ac i i ies can ce ainly be conside ed
pos -p oduc i e, ne e heless summa ised he con i-
bu ions o B i ish u al sociologis s, who include pos -
p oduc i ism non-in ensi e ag icul u al ac i i y (P e y,
1995; Po e , 1998), p ac ices o he p o ec ion o com-
p omised habi a s (Mannion, 1995), and he pa ial
eplacemen o physical inpu s wi h echnical knowledge
(Win e , 1997; Wa d e al., 1998). Mo e impo an ly,
ag icul u e loses i s ole as he cen al ac i i y ca ied
ou in u al a eas i i is amed solely as a se o p ac-
ices aimed a he p oduc ion o oods u s (Lowe e al.,
1993; Wa d, 1993). Thus, u al a eas a e no longe he
exclusi e cen e o ac i i y o “pu e” a me s, al hough
hei ole as key ac o s in u al de elopmen emains
signi ican (Van de Ploeg e al., 2000). F om a poli ical
pe spec i e, as goals and p io i ies change, ins i u ions
ha e s a ed o discuss emune a ion o he p oduc ion
o en i onmen al public goods, paymen s o ecosys em
se ices (Ma he e al., 2006), and mul i unc ionali y
(Wilson, 2001).
The undamen al di e ence be ween he pos -p o-
duc i is pa adigm and he u al de elopmen pa adigm
lies in he ole assigned o he a me : he pos -p oduc-
i is pa adigm ep esen s a speci ic ideology de eloped
in esponse o he excesses o he Fo dis model applied
o he ag icul u al sec o , which ocuses p ima ily on
sus ainabili y and mul i unc ionali y (Wa d, 1993; Wil-
son, 2001). On he o he hand, he u al de elopmen
pa adigm adop s a b oade and mo e in eg a ed app oach
(Ma sden, 1999). The la e pa adigm aims o he bal-
anced de elopmen o u al a eas, including economic,
social, and en i onmen al aspec s, and p omo es he
ac i e pa icipa ion o local communi ies in hese e i o-
ies, c ea ing ne wo ks among he s akeholde s in ol ed
(Milone, Ven u a, 2012). Ru al de elopmen can hus be
unde s ood as a long- e m s a egy ha mus necessa ily
in e connec he a ious na u al, human, a i icial, and
social componen s o he capi al p esen and gene able in
u al a eas (A zeni e al., 2001; So e, 2006).
In ac , human and social componen s cha ac e -
ise he i ali y o u al a eas, which is conside ed o be
an en i onmen al public good in e e y espec (Coope
e al., 2009) ha mus be p ese ed and enhanced. To
ensu e i s p o ision, a me s who adop a “peasan ”
model, which is no based on economies o scale bu
a he on economies o scope (Milone, Ven u a e al.,
2015), play a key ole. The “ epeasan isa ion” o ag i-
cul u e is hus one o he main ajec o ies o he u al
de elopmen pa adigm, a end owa ds he e-eme -
gence o adi ional ag icul u al p ac ices and he al-
ues associa ed wi h small-scale a ming, in opposi ion
o indus ialised ag icul u e o ien ed owa ds he global
ma ke (Van de Ploeg, 2009).
This phenomenon is closely linked o a e hinking o
ag icul u e and u al de elopmen , in which a ms and
local communi ies seek o egain au onomy, sus ainabil-
i y, and esilience h ough s a egies ha educe depend-
ence on ex e nal inpu s, especially hose p o ided by
ag ibusiness and inancial ma ke s. In his “low-inpu ”
app oach, a ms become mul i unc ional uni s capable
o in e ac ing in new ways wi h socie y and he en i on-
men (Milone, Ven u a, 2012), ully in eg a ing he p o-
duc ion o commodi ies and non-commodi ies (Ven u a,
Milone, 2005). In he u al de elopmen pa adigm, he
esponse o ag icul u al challenges and c ises necessa -
ily ma e ialises h ough he de elopmen o app op i-
a e economic and ecological models (Ho lings, Ma s-
den, 2014). Consequen ly, ag icul u e ans o ms in o a
mo e in eg a ed p ocess oo ed in he e i o y, whe e
he di e si ica ion o ac i i ies and he enhancemen o
local esou ces become key elemen s in building a mo e
sus ainable and esilien ag icul u al model capable o
Figu e 1. Values and unc ions o u al a eas and landscapes.
Sou ce: Be gs om (2002).
60 Angelo F asca elli
esponding o global challenges while main aining a
s ong connec ion wi h local communi ies and he su -
ounding en i onmen (Wilson, 2007).
3. RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CAP: FROM
STRUCTURAL SUPPORT TO INCLUSIVE
AND SUSTAINABLE GROWTH
Ini ially, he CAP was es ablished wi h h ee main
objec i es2, bu i was la e adjus ed and e o med o
add ess he needs and challenges o he his o ical pe i-
od, wi h an e olu ion ha al e ed i s guidelines and
ope a ional ools (So e, 2006; F asca elli, 2020). Among
he mos signi ican adjus men s o he CAP a e he
inc easingly impo an ole a ibu ed o u al de elop-
men (Van de Ploeg e al., 2000). This componen , ini-
ially o e looked in he i s and second Manshol Plans,
p og essi ely mo ed away om solely suppo ing ag i-
cul u al p ices and income, adop ing a mo e in eg a ed
and mul i unc ional app oach (Fan ani, B asili, 2003).
In he 1960s, du ing i s ea ly s ages, he CAP was
essen ially based on p ice suppo ( he Eu opean Ag i-
cul u al Guidance and Gua an ee Fund [EAGGF] Gua -
an ee). Howe e , he speci ic needs o unde de eloped
ag icul u al egions led ag icul u al policy o inco -
po a e, in 1964, a modes s uc u al und ( he EAGGF
Guidance) aimed a imp o ing he compe i i eness o
a ms and ood indus ies in hese egions.
Du ing he 1970s, he i s a emp was made o
implemen an o ganised in e en ion in he s uc u al
ield, h ough he issuance o h ee di ec i es ela ed o
he mode nisa ion o a ms (Di ec i e (EEC) 72/159),
ea ly e i emen (Di ec i e (EEC) 72/160), and socio-eco-
nomic in o ma ion and p o essional quali ica ion (Di ec-
i e (EEC) 72/161). Howe e , hese di ec i es we e no
ully implemen ed by he Membe S a es, no we e hey
accompanied by signi ican inancial esou ces, which
unde mined hei e ec i eness.
In his ini ial phase, u al de elopmen policy was
concei ed as a esponse o he gene al needs o a m
es uc u ing (Van de Ploeg e al., 2000). O e he
yea s, u al de elopmen policy has made oom o sub-
s an ial changes in he models o in e ac ion be ween
socie y and business and has ac i ely adap ed because
o he nume ous ac o s, social mo emen s, and/o s a e
appa a uses in ol ed (Van de Ploeg e al., 2015).
Only a e 1985 he no ion o u al de elopmen
eme ged h ough sociopoli ical deba e conce ning u al
2 The h ee main objec i es we e ensu ing ood secu i y, suppo ing a me
income, and s abilising ag icul u al ma ke s. These objec i es immedia ely
b ough abou issues o o e p oduc ion and en i onmen al p essu es.
a eas and he need o e o m he CAP (Knickel, 1990).
This led o he dissemina ion o e lec ion pape s such
as he G een Pape on he “Pe spec i es o he CAP”
(1985)3 and he documen on “The Fu u e o Ru al A e-
as” (1988)4, in which he Eu opean Commission ou lined
he ounda ional p inciples o a policy based on a e i-
o ial logic (Table 1).
In he Single Eu opean Ac (1986), u al de elop-
men became one o he i e objec i es o cohesion
policy, laying he ounda ion o a wide ange o u al
de elopmen measu es suppo ed by h ee di e en
unds: he Eu opean Social Fund (ESF), he Eu opean
Regional De elopmen Fund (ERDF), and he EAGGF
Guidance Sec ion (Oos indie e al., 2010). Howe e , i
was only h ough he 1988 e o m o he S uc u al
Funds5 ha u al de elopmen in e en ions we e es ab-
lished o he i s ime (Fan ani, B asili, 2003). This
e o m in oduced key concep s, such as he shi om
a sec o al o an in eg a ed app oach, which had al eady
been men ioned in he Medi e anean In eg a ed P o-
g ammes (MIPs), making he Eu opean Union’s (EU’s)
3 Communica ion om he Commission o he Eu opean Communi ies,
da ed July 15, 1985, “Pe spec i es o he Common Ag icul u al Policy”
(COM(85) 333 inal).
4 Communica ion om he Commission o he Eu opean Communi ies,
da ed July 29, 1988, “The Fu u e o he Ru al Wo ld” (COM(88) 501
inal).
5 This e o m ou lined o he i s ime a coo dina ion o in e en ions
om he h ee s uc u al unds (Social, Regional, and EAGGF O ien a-
ion) o in eg a ed de elopmen ac ions, also in collabo a ion wi h he
Eu opean In es men Bank (EIB), laying he ounda ion o he imple-
men a ion o genuine in eg a ed in e en ions co e ing all economic
ac i i ies, se ices, and in as uc u es.
Table 1. The phases o u al de elopmen .
Yea Phase
1988 The Fu u e o Ru al A eas – Communica ion om
he Eu opean Commission (COM(88) 501 inal)
1989-1993 Objec i e 5b – De elopmen o Ru al A eas
1989-1993 Leade I
1992 Accompanying Measu es o he MacSha y Re o m
1993 C ea ion o he Cohesion Fund
1994-1999 Objec i e 5b – De elopmen o Ru al A eas
1994-1999 Leade II
1996 The Eu opean Ru al Cha e
2000-2006 Ru al De elopmen Regula ion (Reg. 1257/1999)
2000-2006 Leade +
2007-2013 Ru al De elopmen Regula ion, includes Leade (Reg.
EC 1698/2005)
2014-2020 Ru al De elopmen Regula ion 2014-2020 (Reg.
1305/2013)
Sou ce: Au ho s’ elabo a ion based on he consul ed li e a u e.
61
The e olu ion o policy ins umen s o Eu opean u al de elopmen
e o s o educe socioeconomic dispa i ies be ween
Eu opean egions mo e cohe en and e ec i e, aiming
o mul ile el go e nance wi h he in ol emen o mem-
be s a es and egions (So e, 2023). The 1988 e o m
o he S uc u al Funds was a pionee o u u e u al
de elopmen policy and spanned wo p og amming
pe iods: 1989-1993 and 1994-1999. I s implemen a ion
occu ed h ough h ee ins umen s: (1) Objec i e 5a,
called “Imp o emen o Ag icul u al S uc u es”, which
con inued he old logic o s uc u al imp o emen o
a ms; (2) Objec i e 5b, “De elopmen o Ru al A eas”,
aimed a suppo ing he economic and social de elop-
men o s uggling u al a eas h ough a ious in e -
en ions ( u al in as uc u e, economic di e si ica ion,
imp o emen o social se ices, and suppo o sus ain-
able ag icul u e); and (3) Communi y Ini ia i e Leade I
and Leade II6 (So e, 2023). These ins umen s we e pa
o he EU’s s uc u al policy and a e signi ican because
hey ep esen he ea ly s ages o he new u al de elop-
men policy ha eme ged a e 2000.
In 1992, wi h he MacSha y Re o m, ano he
ins umen wi hin ma ke policy was in oduced: he
so-called “accompanying measu es o he CAP”, which
ocused no only on income7 bu also, in pa , on u al
de elopmen (Po ella o, Velazquez, 2005; So e, 2023).
The g owing awa eness o he s a egic ole o u al
a eas in Eu opean in eg a ion led he EU Commission
o o ganise he Co k Con e ence in 1996, which laid
he ounda ion o he CAP e o m o he 2000-2006
pe iod, known as Agenda 2000. Following he pa h se
by MacSha y, Agenda 2000 ep esen ed a signi ican
e o m bo h o ag icul u al policy (wi h he c ea ion o
he wo pilla s o he CAP) and o he s uc u al policy
o he EU, ede ining objec i es, ools, and in e en ion
me hods. S uc u al and cohesion policies we e e o mu-
la ed o be e a ge he a ailable unds, ocusing in e -
en ions on a smalle numbe o objec i es han did he
1988 and 1993 e o ms8, wi h pa icula a en ion gi en
6 The LEADER (Liason En e Ac ions de Dé eloppemen de l’Économie
Ru ale) p og am is a me hodological app oach aimed a coalescing di -
e en p ojec s, ac o s, and esou ces a a local le el in o a Local Ac ion
Plan (LAP), managed by a local pa ne ship (Local Ac ion G oup
[LAG]), ope a ing in a delimi ed u al e i o y.
7 The measu es we e pa ly designed o compensa e o he suppo
o he CAP, in an a emp o b eak he link be ween p oduc ion le els
and subsidies, educe incen i es o o e p oduc ion, and mo e di ec ly
ewa d ag icul u e’s con ibu ion o public se ices (Oos indie e al.,
2010).
8 Objec i e 1: a ge ed egions lagging in de elopmen wi h a pe capi a
g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP) below 75% o he communi y a e age; his
objec i e aimed a p omo ing con e gence and educing socioeconomic
dispa i ies. Objec i e 2: g ouped indus ial and u al a eas in decline ha
equi ed economic and social es uc u ing; i included o me Objec i e
2 (declining indus ial zones) and o me Objec i e 5b (declining u al
zones) ou side Objec i e 1. Objec i e 3: ocused on aining, educa ion,
o economic and social cohesion. Ru al de elopmen
gained ela i e au onomy om o he cohesion policies9,
which we e implemen ed h ough sepa a e p og ammes
om hose o he o he s uc u al unds (S o i, 2016).
Agenda 2000 began o p omo e mul i unc ional ag i-
cul u e, which conside ed no only ood p oduc ion, bu
also he sus ainable managemen o na u al esou ces,
landscape conse a ion, and ec ea ional ac i i ies ela ed
o he land. This e o m inc eased a en ion o en i on-
men al, social, and economic challenges in u al a eas
and inc eased local asse s and esou ces (Van de Ploeg,
1999). Agenda 2000 ma ked a key u ning poin in he
u al de elopmen pa adigm and policy (Ven u a, 2001;
Van de Ploeg e al., 2000), in which a me s ede ined
he bounda ies o hei businesses. This new model led o
a ede ini ion o he social ac o s a ge ed by ag icul u al
policy: a mul i unc ional en ep eneu p oducing bo h
ma ke able goods and se ices, as well as nonma ke -
o ien ed p oduc s alued by sec o al policy (Van Huylen-
b oeck, Du and, 2003; So e, 2023). The impac o he new
pa adigm on Eu opean ag icul u e p omo ed he di e -
si ica ion o ag icul u al ac i i ies and he in eg a ion o
en i onmen al policies. In I aly, a me s pa icula ly ben-
e i ed om he new oppo uni ies o e ed by mul i unc-
ionali y, wi h an inc ease in u al ou ism, educa ional
a ms, di ec sales o ag icul u al p oduc s, and he p o i-
sion o se ices o public adminis a ions (Henke, 2004).
Wi h Agenda 2000, u al de elopmen policy e ol ed
om a simple ool aimed a add essing s uc u al p ob-
lems o a se o suppo measu es ha ocused on and
enhanced he mul iple oles ha ag icul u e plays in soci-
e y (Ma sden e al., 1993; Van de Ploeg, 1999).
A c ucial momen in he e olu ion o u al de el-
opmen policy was he es ablishmen o he Eu opean
Ag icul u al Fund o Ru al De elopmen (EAFRD) in
2005, which came in o e ec in 200710. This und consol-
ida ed he second pilla and p o ided a mo e s uc u ed
and cohe en amewo k o he implemen a ion o u al
de elopmen policies ac oss he EU, inco po a ing he
LEADER app oach11.
and employmen , unded by he Eu opean Social Fund (ESF); i co e ed
egions no included in Objec i es 1 and 2, aiming a mode nising ain-
ing sys ems and imp o ing access o employmen .
9 The only excep ion was Objec i e 1 a eas du ing he 2000-2006 pe iod.
10 Regula ion EC 1290/2005 o June 21, 2005, on he inancing o he
CAP, es ablished wo new ag icul u al unds, eplacing he EAGGF:
he Eu opean Ag icul u al Gua an ee Fund (EAGF), which inances he
i s pilla o he CAP, and he EAFRD, which inances he second pilla .
Today, hese wo ag icul u al unds emain in place, wi h mino modi-
ica ions in oduced by Regula ion EU No. 1306/2003 (p og amming
2014-2022) and Regula ion 2021/2116 ( he 2023-2027 p og amming).
11 A he same ime, he widely sha ed success o he LEADER Commu-
ni y Ini ia i e sugges ed ha he pionee ing expe ience should be inco -
po a ed in o he mains eam o u al de elopmen policy.
62 Angelo F asca elli
The designa ion o he EAFRD as he “Eu opean
Ag icul u al Fund o Ru al De elopmen ” is a pa adox,
bo h concep ually and scien i ically, because i includes
bo h he e ms “ag icul u al” and “ u al de elopmen ”,
e en hough i is clea ha “ u al de elopmen ” encom-
passes “ag icul u al de elopmen ”. The e a e wo expla-
na ions o his con adic ion. On he one hand, he
e olu ion o Eu opean policies ega ding ag icul u e
and u al de elopmen aims o in eg a e wo ela ed
objec i es: suppo ing ag icul u e as a key economic
sec o in u al a eas while simul aneously p omo ing
b oade u al de elopmen ha in ol es he en i on-
men , economic di e si ica ion, and he well-being o
u al communi ies. On he o he hand, his ep esen s
a poli ical and s a egic comp omise a he han a me e
con adic ion: e aining he e m “ag icul u al” wi h-
in he EAFRD’s name was a necessa y comp omise o
gain he consensus o Membe S a es, pa icula ly hose
wi h a s ong ag icul u al adi ion (De Filippis, 2005).
Ru al policy was placed di ec ly unde he umb ella o
he CAP, and u al de elopmen hus became one o
he main objec i es o he CAP (Oos indie e al., 2010).
Mo eo e , his has helped jus i y he CAP’s budge o e
he yea s and con inues o do so oday.
Since 2007, he second pilla has ocused on h ee
hema ic a eas (o axes)12, each co esponding o speci ic
u al policy objec i es, complemen ed by he LEADER
axis, which p omo es he design and implemen a ion o
u al policies om he g ass oo s h ough Local Ac ion
G oups (LAGs).
The 2007-2013 p og amming pe iod, oo ed in he
Fischle e o m o he CAP, can be seen as a “b idge
pe iod” be ween he pas and u u e u al de elopmen
policies. The goal was o eposi ion ag icul u al policies
om a s ill-sec o al amewo k based on public spend-
ing o ien ed owa ds inancing-s a us- ela ed a ib-
u es13 o a new s uc u e, whe e sec o al aspec s closely
align wi h e i o ial ones, s eng hening hei con en
and imp o ing hei o e all e ec i eness14 (So e, 2013).
Owing o i s g ea e e i o ial sen imen , aligned wi h
he objec i es o Lisbon and Go henbu g, his policy,
compa ed wi h he old CAP, allows o he e ec i e pu -
12 Axis 1: imp o ing he compe i i eness o ag icul u e and o es y;
Axis 2: suppo ing land managemen and enhancing he en i onmen ;
and Axis 3: imp o ing he quali y o li e and encou aging he di e si i-
ca ion o u al economies.
13 Possession o o mal equi emen s and en i lemen o acqui ed igh s
o pas beha iou , such as in he case o he decoupled single paymen
ac i a ed wi h he Fischle e o m.
14 The goal was o ansi ion o an in e en ion capable o selec i ely
incen i ising and suppo ing beha iou s, ha is, indi idual (business)
o collec i e (in e business, e i o ial) de elopmen p ojec s and p o-
g ammes.
sui o he ambi ious economic, social, and en i onmen-
al objec i es equi ed by he EU (Camaioni e al., 2013).
The 2007-2013 p og amming was bo n ou o he
need o p oac i ely espond o new social demands and
he need o sa egua d and enhance he quali y o u al
li e. Ag icul u al p ac ices could be adap ed o p o ide
posi i e a he han nega i e ex e nali ies. Based on his
p emise, se ice-o ien ed policy ools aimed a s eng h-
ening ag icul u al and u al de elopmen we e adop ed.
The dis inc i e quali ies o ood, he ecogni ion o ag i-
cul u e’s con ibu ion o public goods (such as na u e
and landscapes), cul u al he i age, and u al/ egional
iden i ies ha e become inc easingly impo an elemen s
o se ice-o ien ed u al policies (Oos indie e al., 2010).
The poli ical comp omises ha made he Fischle
e o m possible and he ela i ely limi ed esou ces
compa ed wi h hose commi ed o he i s pilla con-
s ained he inno a i e po en ial o u al de elop-
men policy (So e, 2013). Mo eo e , acco ding o some
au ho s, he limi ed e ec i eness o he spa ial alloca-
ion o EAFRD expendi u es owa ds u al a eas and he
endency o a ou mo e cen al and u banised egions
o he con inen unde mined he posi i e link be ween
u ali y and EAFRD spending (Shucksmi h e al., 2005;
C escenzi e al., 2011; Camaioni e al., 2013), neu alis-
ing one o he co ne s ones o cohesion policy (B uno i
e al., 2018).
In he 2014-2022 p og amming pe iod15, he ole o
he EAFRD was u he consolida ed, wi h enhanced
coo dina ion and in eg a ion wi h he Eu opean S uc-
u al and In es men Funds (ESI)16, placing g ea e
emphasis on en i onmen al sus ainabili y. New ools
we e in oduced o p omo e sus ainabili y and imp o e
en i onmen ally iendly p oduc ion me hods and
inno a ions. Addi ionally, he LEADER app oach was
s eng hened, ex ending i s scope o all u al a eas and
adop ing a mul i- und app oach (Man ino, 2013).
Access o EAFRD unds by Membe S a es and
Eu opean egions is achie ed h ough he p epa a ion
o a mul iyea Ru al De elopmen P og amme (RDP),
which con ibu es o he implemen a ion o he EU’s
s a egy o sus ainable and inclusi e g ow h. To his
end, each o he Eu opean s uc u al and in es men
unds suppo s 11 hema ic objec i es de i ed om he
Eu ope 2020 s a egy and a single p og amming docu-
15 The p og amming pe iod was ini ially planned o 2014-2020, hen
ex ended o 2022 (Reg. EU 2022/2220), due o delays in app o ing he
new CAP.
16 The main cha ac e is ic o hese inancial ins umen s conce ns he
me hods o p og amming and implemen a ion, which a e ca ied ou
om a mul ile el go e nance pe spec i e, ha is, managed locally by
he S a es and Regions based on a pa ne ship ag eemen signed wi h
he Eu opean Commission.
63
The e olu ion o policy ins umen s o Eu opean u al de elopmen
men : he Pa ne ship Ag eemen (PA). The se o egu-
la ions o he 2014-2020 CAP in oduced se e al ypes
o changes, which can be summa ised in o i e majo
ca ego ies17. A he same ime, a se ies o measu es we e
in oduced o a emp o inc ease syne gy be ween he
i s and second pilla s o he CAP, such as he so-called
“ lexibili y” be ween pilla s. The goal o he second pil-
la measu es is o s ee de elopmen by ac ing on p o-
duc i e s uc u es and bo h angible and in angible
in as uc u e while simul aneously aiming o c ea e a
cohe en and sus ainable amewo k ha can sa egua d
he u u e o u al a eas. This is based pa icula ly on
he capaci y o p o ide a ange o public se ices ha go
beyond he simple p oduc ion o ood and on he capac-
i y o u al economies o c ea e new sou ces o income
and employmen while p o ec ing he cul u e, en i on-
men , and he i age o u al a eas.
A u he e olu ion occu ed wi h he 2023-2027 p o-
g amming, which ou lined h ee undamen al objec i es:
(1) p omo ing a sma and esilien ag icul u al sec o ; (2)
suppo ing ca e o he en i onmen and clima e ac ion;
and (3) s imula ing g ow h and employmen in u al a e-
as. These h ee gene al objec i es a e b oken down in o
nine speci ic objec i es: compe i i eness, a me income,
ai dis ibu ion o alue along he supply chain, clima e
change, biodi e si y, p o ec ion o na u al esou ces, gen-
e a ional enewal, bioeconomy, u al a ea i ali y, heal h,
and nu i ion. Addi ionally, a c oss-cu ing objec i e
includes he ans e o inno a ions, ad iso y se ices,
aining, and digi isa ion, aiming o c ea e an Ag icul u -
al Knowledge and Inno a ion Sys em (AKIS).
Ecological ansi ion and inno a ion a e wo new
ea u es o he 2023-2027 u al de elopmen policy,
aligned wi h he ans o ma ion o consume socie y
and he inc eased a ailabili y o digi al echnologies. In
addi ion o his new go e nance o he CAP, Regula ion
(EU) 2021/2115 allows Membe S a es o ou line a u al
de elopmen amewo k wi h g ea lexibili y h ough
he new deli e y model (De Cas o e al., 2021).
In he e olu ion o u al de elopmen , he e has
been an impo an con ibu ion om he con e ences
17 The i e ca ego ies o desi able changes o u al de elopmen a e
(Man ino, 2013):
1. C ea ion o a common p og amming s uc u e ha includes bo h
cohesion policies and u al de elopmen , wi h he aim o s eng hening
in eg a ion and coo dina ion be ween hem.
2. A new s a egic app oach also wi hin u al de elopmen policies.
3. Emphasis on coope a i e and pa ne ship app oaches in a ious ields
o in e en ion, no only o local de elopmen (LEADER), bu also o
supply chains, business ne wo ks, and en i onmen al in e en ions.
4. New emphasis on inno a ion and i s ans e o ag icul u al sys ems.
5. A mo e selec i e app oach in de ining he bene icia ies o in e en-
ions, bo h o u al a eas and indi idual bene icia ies (small businesses,
medium-sized a ms, s a -ups, e c.).
held o e he yea s, which ha e de eloped a ious syn-
e gis ic objec i es, as ou lined in Table 2. The i s con-
e ence o icially dedica ed o u al de elopmen , which
de ined he p inciples o he ollowing yea s, was held
in Co k in 1996. This was he momen when he essen-
ial ole o u al a eas in he u u e o he EU was ec-
ognised, highligh ing he need o mo e in eg a ed and
mul isec o al u al policy app oaches in ol ing a wide
ange o u al ac o s (Oos indie e al., 2010). The pa h
se by he con e ence, al hough slow and complex, was
immedia ely ollowed by he c ea ion o he wo pilla s
o he CAP (Man ino, 1996; Sa aceno, 1999).
The Salzbu g Con e ence in 2003 emphasised he
impo ance o e i o ial cohesion and he bo om-up
app oach and he sepa a ion o he Gua an ee and Guid-
ance sec ions o he EAGGF in o wo di e en unds, he
EAGF and he EAFRD, espec i ely, o suppo he wo
pilla s o he CAP. This new a angemen changed he
EAFRD’s s a us as a s uc u al und, which mean ha
in eg a ion wi h he o he s uc u al unds (ESF and
ERDF) was no longe gua an eed.
Nex , he Limassol Con e ence in 2012 ein o ced
he idea o an in eg a ed and mul i unc ional u al
de elopmen policy, emphasising he need o adap poli-
cies o e i o ial speci ici ies and o p omo e inno a ion,
and highligh ed he impo ance o he esilience o u al
communi ies in he ace o global challenges such as cli-
ma e change and ma ke ola ili y.
The second Co k Con e ence, held in 2016, sub-
s an ially con i med and ex ended he guidelines d awn
om he i s con e ence, ea i ming he impo ance
o ag icul u al mul i unc ionali y and sus ainabili y
(So e, 2023). The inal decla a ion emphasised he need
o a mo e ocused and lexible app oach o u al de el-
opmen policies capable o esponding o he speci ic
needs o u al a eas and p omo ing inclusi e and sus-
ainable g ow h.
4. IS RURAL DEVELOPMENT
POLICY STILL RELEVANT?
O e i s mo e han 60-yea his o y, he CAP has
adap ed o he e ol ing socioeconomic condi ions o
ag icul u e a he EU and in e na ional le els, socie al
changes, and ad ances in scien i ic s udies. In some
cases, he CAP has eac ed la e, subo dina e o ex e -
nal p essu es18; in o he cases, howe e , i has an ici-
pa ed and accele a ed changes. Ru al de elopmen
policy, which only began in 1988 wi h limi ed inancial
18 The mos emblema ic case was he 1992 e o m, which was d i en by
global ade con lic s and he U uguay Round nego ia ions.
64 Angelo F asca elli
esou ces compa ed wi h ma ke and income suppo
policies, has g own in impo ance, now accoun ing o
50% o CAP suppo (including na ional co- inancing),
es ablishing i sel as an essen ial componen o Eu ope’s
u u e and he main ool o he en i e CAP (Eu opean
Commission, 2021).
Wi hin he CAP, he second pilla o u al de elop-
men emains ele an o wo key easons: he cen ali y
and in e es o Eu opean ci izens in u al a eas and hei
abili y o adap o new economic, en i onmen al, and
social challenges (De Cas o e al., 2021). The ole and
decisions o u al de elopmen policy ha e con i med
o iginal poli ical miles ones, such as he 1988 commu-
nica ion ‘The Fu u e o he Ru al Wo ld’ and he 1996
Co k Con e ence, bu he policy has no s agna ed. Each
new p og amming pe iod, including he 2023-2027 pe i-
od, has managed o inno a e in ega d o s a egies and
hemes (So e, 2023).
The EU’s u al a eas a e a undamen al pa o he
Eu opean way o li e, as highligh ed in he Co k Decla-
a ion (1996): “Eu opean ci izens a e inc easingly paying
a en ion o he quali y o li e in gene al, and issues o
quali y, heal h, sa e y, pe sonal de elopmen , and leisu e
in pa icula , and […] u al a eas a e uniquely posi-
ioned o mee hese in e es s and p o ide he ounda-
ion o an au hen ic, high-quali y mode n de elopmen
model”. E en oday, many Eu opeans a e conce ned
abou he e osion o u al in as uc u e and se ices
(heal h ca e, social se ices, and educa ion), he educ-
ion in job oppo uni ies, declining u al incomes, and
limi ed anspo and connec i i y. Ru al a eas play an
ac i e ole in he EU’s g een and digi al ansi ion. The
Eu opean Commission is commi ed o a long- e m
ision o he EU’s u al a eas un il 2040, ocusing on
ou a eas o in e en ion (Eu opean Commission, 2021):
– s onge u al a eas: ac i e communi y pa icipa-
ion, access o se ices, and social inno a ion;
– mo e connec ed u al a eas: digi al connec i i y,
anspo links, and new mobili y;
– mo e p ospe ous u al a eas: di e si ica ion o eco-
nomic ac i i ies and sus ainable ood p oduc ion;
– mo e esilien u al a eas: esilience o clima e
change, en i onmen al esilience, and social esil-
ience.
In summa y, u al de elopmen policy emains
cen al in he long e m. Howe e , has i been and will
i con inue o be capable o adap ing o new challenges
and isions? I s capaci y o adap a ion has al eady been
demons a ed in he pas , as u al de elopmen policy
has e ol ed alongside u al s udies.
F om he bi h o he CAP un il he la e 1990s,
u al de elopmen ac i i ies ocused hea ily on c ea ing
Table 2. Con e ences on u al de elopmen .
Yea Con e ence Ta ge s
1996 Co k
- Raise public awa eness o he impo ance o a new s a o u al de elopmen policy
- Make u al a eas mo e a ac i e as places o li e and wo k
- Suppo p og amme (consis ing o 10 poin s) coope a ion as pa ne s in he ealisa ion o each o he objec i es
con ained in he decla a ion
- Play an ac i e ole in p omo ing sus ainable u al de elopmen
2003 Salzbu g
- Main ain a “li ing coun yside”
- P ese e he di e si y o Eu ope’s u al e i o y and s eng hen he na u al landscape
- Ru al de elopmen policy applied o all u al a eas o he EU
- Ru al de elopmen policy mus conce n u al socie y as a whole and no jus hose wo king in ag icul u e
- In u al de elopmen policy, pa ne ship be ween public and p i a e o ganisa ions and ci il socie y as a whole mus be
de eloped as pa o he p epa a ion and implemen a ion o p og ammes, based on he p inciple o subsidia i y
2012 Limassol - S eng hen he idea o an in eg a ed and mul i unc ional u al de elopmen policy
- Adap policies o e i o ial speci ici ies and p omo e inno a ion
2016 Co k 2.0
- Inc ease public awa eness o he po en ial o u al a eas and esou ces in mee ing a wide ange o economic, social,
and en i onmen al challenges and oppo uni ies o he bene i o all Eu opean ci izens
- In es in he iden i y o u al communi ies and he po en ial o u al g ow h and make u al a eas a ac i e places
- Fu he de elop ag icul u al and u al policy owa ds a simple, lexible, and esul -o ien ed app oach ha is based on
pa ne ship and e lec s he EU’s objec i es as well as local needs and aspi a ions
- Sys ema ically e iew o he mac o and sec o al policies om a u al pe spec i e, conside ing he ac ual and po en ial
implica ions and impac s on jobs, he g ow h and de elopmen p ospec s in u al a eas, social wel a e, and he
en i onmen al quali y o hese a eas and communi ies
- Suppo he con e ence p og amme (consis ing o 10 poin s) and in eg a e i s pe spec i e and o ien a ions in o u u e
policy-making
Sou ce: Au ho s’ elabo a ion om he consul ed li e a u e.
