Nunes, Abiúd; Mo ei a, Ana
A icle
Toxic leade ship and u no e in en ions: The ole o
bu nou synd ome
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Nunes, Abiúd; Mo ei a, Ana (2024) : Toxic leade ship and u no e in en ions:
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Ci a ion: Nunes, Abiúd, and Ana
Palma-Mo ei a. 2024. Toxic
Leade ship and Tu no e In en ions:
The Role o Bu nou Synd ome.
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A icle
Toxic Leade ship and Tu no e In en ions: The Role o
Bu nou Synd ome
Abiúd Nunes 1and Ana Palma-Mo ei a 1,2,*
1Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Tecnologia, Uni e sidade Eu opeia, Quin a do Bom Nome, Es . da Co eia
53, 1500-210 Lisboa, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed]
2APPsyCI—Applied Psychology Resea ch Cen e Capabili ies & Inclusion, ISPA—Ins i u o Uni e si á io,
1149-041 Lisboa, Po ugal
*Co espondence: ana.mo ei a@uni e sidadeeu opeia.p
Abs ac : This s udy aimed o es he e ec o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions and whe he
bu nou synd ome media es his ela ionship. This s udy’s sample consis s o 309 pa icipan s who
wo k in o ganiza ions based in Po ugal and Angola. The esul s indica e ha oxic leade ship
posi i ely and signi ican ly a ec s bu nou synd ome and u no e in en ions. As o bu nou ,
only he disengagemen dimension posi i ely and signi ican ly a ec s u no e in en ions. Disen-
gagemen pa ially media es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions o
pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal and a o al media ion e ec o pa icipan s wo king in Angola.
O ganiza ions should be conce ned abou he leade ship s yle adop ed by hei leade s, because i
he e is a oxic leade , his will lead o bu nou synd ome in hei subo dina es and cause hem o
lea e he o ganiza ion, since u no e in en ions a e he bes p edic o o olun a y depa u e om
he o ganiza ion.
Keywo ds: oxic leade ship; bu nou synd ome; u no e in en ions; quan i a i e s udy
1. In oduc ion
Leade ship is undamen al o he unc ioning o o ganiza ions. Leade s a e esponsible
o s ee ing he o ganiza ion, de ining objec i es, managing esou ces, and de eloping he
eam. Thei ole is also impo an in de ining he cul u e and iden i y o o ganiza ions.
They also play an impo an ole as agen s o change (Fe ei a e al. 2001;An onakis and
House 2014).
The impo ance ha leade ship p ocesses assume in he o ganiza ional con ex is
e lec ed in he e olu ion o his opic o e ime and in he p o usion o published s udies
(Bono and Judge 2004). Al Khajeh (2018) e e s o leade ship as one o he c i ical ac o s
de e mining an o ganiza ion’s success. A he le el o indi iduals, se e al s udies ocus
on issues ela ed o job sa is ac ion and he heal h and well-being o wo ke s (Vance and
La son 2002). Nybe g e al. (2005) add ess he impac o di e en leade ship s yles on
o ganiza ional u no e , s ess le els among wo ke s, pa icula ly in bu nou synd ome,
and wo ke aliena ion. Howe e , i was no un il mo e ecen ly ha s udies di ec ly
add essed he impac o des uc i e leade ship in gene al and oxic leade ship in pa icula
on wo ke s gained g ound.
Recen ly, bu nou has also become one o he main hemes o social psychology, as i
ep esen s a se e e h ea o p o essionals’ physical and psychological heal h (Gomes e al.
2022). The li e a u e has es ablished ha bu nou is de imen al o employees’ heal h and
has nega i e e ec s a an o ganiza ional le el (Sin al e al. 2022). I has, he e o e, been
associa ed wi h high le els o u no e in en ions (Ducha me e al. 2008).
Fo Maslach and Lei e (2016), one o he an eceden s o bu nou synd ome is oxic
leade ship. When employees pe cei e ha hei leade has oxic beha io s, does no
suppo hem, and does no ecognize hei pe o mance, hese ac o s po en ia e he
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14120340 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 2 o 22
de elopmen o bu nou synd ome, causing hem o quickly each high le els o exhaus ion
(Maslach and Lei e 2016).
Empi ical s udies, pa icula ly in he heal h sec o , ha e add essed he p oblem o
employee e en ion, showing ha job secu i y and sa is ac ion acili a e he e en ion o
hese p o essionals (Aman-Ullah e al. 2023). Te and Meye (1993) de ined u no e
in en ion as “ he conscious and delibe a e in en ion o lea e he o ganiza ion” (p. 262).
Leade ship s yle has been iden i ied as one o he an eceden s o u no e in en ions
(Basak e al. 2013). Acco ding o Lab ague e al. (2020), employees wo king unde suppo -
i e leade s, such as ans o ma ional leade s, ha e lowe u no e in en ions han hose
wo king unde leade s who po ay oxic cha ac e is ics.
I s impac and p e alence lead us o p edic ha his is s ill a ield o s udy wi h g ea
po en ial o g ow h in esea ch and in e en ion in o ganiza ions.
This aises he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
Why does oxic leade ship lead o an inc ease in u no e in en ions?
Wha ole does bu nou play in he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e
in en ions? This s udy aims o es he e ec o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions and
whe he bu nou synd ome is he mechanism ha explains his ela ionship.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Toxic Leade ship
The i s s ep o be e unde s anding oxic leade ship is o know i s de ini ion. Milo-
se ic e al. (2020) de ine oxic leade ship as leade ship ocused on main aining con ol
h ough a emp s a oxic in luence. Al hough ela i ely unin en ional, acco ding o he
au ho s, oxic leade ship causes se e e damage h ough leade s’ e a ic beha io and in-
compe ence. Fo Ma os e al. (2018), oxic leade ship is mo i a ed by hei agendas, which
leade s y o implemen . These agendas a e implemen ed and main ained a he expense
o o ganiza ions and colleagues. Toxic leade s can be na cissis ic, abusi e, au ho i a ian,
and ocused on sel -p omo ion. They eso o bullying, in imida ion, public ep imand, o
une hical choices. O he p ac ices o his ype o leade ship include wi hholding in o ma-
ion, mic omanaging asks, and des oying in e pe sonal ela ionships be ween colleagues
o achie e hei goals, namely sel -p omo ion wi h hie a chical supe io s.
Schmid (2008) conside s oxic leade s o be na cissis ic and sel -p omo ing since hey
de elop abusi e, unp edic able beha io pa e ns, as well as au ho i a ian supe ision,
which a e he ac o s ha dis inguish his ype o leade ship om o he ypes o des uc i e
leade ship. Acco ding o Schmid (2008), oxic leade ship is made up o i e dimensions:
(a)
Abusi e supe ision— oxic leade s do no espec hei pee s and subo dina es.
(b) Au ho i a ian leade ship—leade s es ic employees’ capaci y o au onomy and ini ia i e.
(c)
Na cissism— he leade shows g ea sel -in e es .
(d)
Sel -p omo ion— he leade p omo es his o he in e es s by h ea ening i als o
highly skilled employees.
(e)
Unp edic abili y— he leade does no main ain a consis en pa e n o beha io .
The e a e many implica ions o oxic leade ship, wi h nega i e e ec s on employees
and he o ganiza ion (Behe y e al. 2018). I can be des uc i e o all o ganiza ion membe s
and cause agmen a ion (Öze e al. 2017). In B own’s (2019) iew, he consequences
go beyond economic esul s and employee pe o mance, a ec ing he men al heal h o
employees exposed o his ype o ea men . I would be necessa y o unde s and he
causes and consequences o oxic leade ship o de ise s a egies o educe i s nega i e
impac in he wo kplace and imp o e he men al heal h and well-being o employees,
add essing issues such as dep ession, anxie y, and emo ional exhaus ion.
Al hough his s udy will ocus on oxic leade ship, as he e is some con usion ega ding
he di e ences be ween oxic leade s, abusi e leade s, and des uc i e leade s, Table 1
shows he di e ences be ween hese ypes o leade s.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 3 o 22
Table 1. Leade ype de ini ions.
Leade S yle De ini ion
Toxic Leade
Toxic leade s ha e dys unc ional beha iou s and pe sonal cha ac e is ics ha can cause se e e
damage ha las s o e ime o he employees, g oups, o ganiza ions, communi ies, and e en
na ions hey lead (Lipman-Blumen 2005a).
Abusi e leade
Thei employees pe cei e abusi e leade s as engaging in hos ile e bal and non- e bal beha io ,
excluding physical con ac (Teppe 2000).
Des uc i e leade
Des uc i e leade s e lec on hei subo dina es an image o someone incapable o business and
managemen , wi h he possibili y o losing hei c edibili y wi h hem. They can also be seen as
childish and bipola (S a a and G andy 2010).
2.2. Tu no e In en ions
P ice (1977) de ines he u no e a e as he a io be ween he numbe o employees
lea ing he company in each pe iod and he numbe o employees wo king o he o gani-
za ion in he same pe iod. High u no e a es pose signi ican challenges o o ganiza ions
and ha e high inancial cos s (Mello 2011). Howe e , he u no e a e is no he same con-
s uc as an in en ion o lea e. While he o me desc ibes a concep ha is clea ly de ined
and easy o measu e, he la e e e s o a subjec i e concep wi h mul iple in e p e a ions
ha e lec an employee’s a i ude owa ds hei company (Ngo-Henha 2018). Tu no e
in en ions desc ibe, mo e conc e ely, he employee’s conscious and delibe a e desi e o
lea e he o ganiza ion (Te and Meye 1993;Mobley e al. 1979).
The ela ionship be ween he wo a iables is unclea . The e is a discussion in he
li e a u e abou he ela ionship be ween in en ions o lea e and ac ual u no e a es
(Cohen e al. 2016). Au ho s such as Cohen e al. (2016) a gue ha in en ions o lea e and
he u no e a e in an o ganiza ion may no be s ongly associa ed, as se e al easons
may p e en he employee om lea ing he o ganiza ion. These can be mac oeconomic
easons, such as a lack o oppo uni y o ge a new job, an economic c isis, o pe sonal
issues like heal h o amily. Fo his eason, Cohen e al. (2016) a gue ha he associa ion
be ween in en ions o lea e and lea ing he o ganiza ion ends o weaken o e ime. On he
o he hand, some au ho s a gue ha u no e in en ions a e one o he main p edic o s o
employees lea ing he o ganiza ion (Pa k 2015). The e a e se e al easons why employees
wan o lea e an o ganiza ion. These can be indi idual, ins i u ional, con ex ual, and job
sa is ac ion- ela ed (Sma 1990).
Tu no e in en ions ha e ad e se impac s on employee pe o mance and can u n
in o mo e coun e p oduc i e daily wo k beha io s, such as hinde ing inno a ion (Jiang
e al. 2023), de e io a ing desi able wo k esul s (Xiong and Wen 2020), silence (Lam and
Xu 2019), concealing knowledge (P adhan e al. 2020;Shah and Hashmi 2019), p oduc ion
de ia ion, he , and lowe wo k engagemen (Ho man and Se gio 2020).
Toxic Leade ship and Tu no e In en ions
Leade ship s yle has been iden i ied as one o he an eceden s o and can in luence an
employee’s u no e in en ions (Basak e al. 2013). I is epo ed ha u no e in en ions
a e in luenced by many ac o s, such as abusi e supe ision (Hussain e al. 2020), abusi e
leade ship (Lyu e al. 2019), oxic leade s (Lipman-Blumen 2005a,2005b), na cissis ic leade s
(Rosen hal and Pi insky 2006), and co po a e psychopa hs (Boddy 2017).
The link be ween a leade ’s beha io s and an employee’s in en ion o lea e he
o ganiza ion is e iden in many s udies (P adhan e al. 2020;Rahim and Cosby 2016;
Xu e al. 2015). The e o e, oxic leade ship can cause an inc ease in employees’ in en ions
o olun a ily lea e he o ganiza ion, as leade s wi h oxic beha io s can ha m employee
well-being and inc ease employee dissa is ac ion (Meh a and Maheshwa i 2013). Abusi e
leade ship has a nega i e impac on o ganiza ional commi men , job sa is ac ion and
o ganiza ional jus ice, which ul ima ely inc eases employees’ u no e in en ions (Webe g
and Fulle 2019).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 4 o 22
This ela ionship can be based on he social exchange heo y de eloped by Blau (1964),
in which employees es ablish mu ual and con ingen exchanges wi h he o ganiza ion,
which will de e mine he ela ionship’s beginning, main enance, and end. Thus, acco ding
o his heo y, oxic leade s can lead employees o lea e he o ganiza ion by iola ing he
undamen al p inciple o mu ual bene i be ween indi iduals h ough hei egocen ism,
sel -in e es , and con olling beha io (Cook e al. 2013). We he e o e o mula e he
ollowing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1: Toxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h u no e in en ions.
2.3. Bu nou Synd ome
Schwa z and Will (1953) in oduced he concep o bu nou in he ea ly 1950s, de-
sc ibing he case o a psychia ic nu se, and la e G aham G een, who desc ibed he case
o an a chi ec wi h he same symp oms (Ca lo o and Câma a 2008). Bu i was no un il
he 1970s, wi h he a icles published by F eudenbe ge (1974) and Maslach (1976), ha he
e m gained ele ance wi hin he scien i ic communi y.
Bu nou can a ec any wo ke , no only in e ms o heal h bu also in e ms o
sa e y, well-being, p oduc i i y, quali y o se ice, and cos –bene i o he o ganiza ion
(Poghosyan e al. 2009;Ca od-A al and Vázquez-Cab e a 2013).
Mo e speci ically, bu nou synd ome co esponds o a s a e o physical and men al
exhaus ion esul ing om p olonged exposu e o psychologically demanding si ua ions
(Maslach and Jackson 1981). This demand esul s om he gap be ween he pe cep ion o
wha indi iduals a e capable o and wha hey should be doing. I s e olu ion is p og essi e
and can lead he indi idual in o a nega i e spi al ha is di icul o escape (Maslach and
Lei e 1997). Acco ding o Maslach e al. (1996), his is no a p oblem o he indi idual bu
o he p o essional en i onmen in which hey wo k.
The causes o his synd ome a e si ua ional (Maslach e al. 2001). These au ho s
iden i ied h ee main causes: wo k cha ac e is ics, occupa ional cha ac e is ics, and o gani-
za ional cha ac e is ics:
Wo k cha ac e is ics e e o aspec s ela ed o job demands, such as ime p essu e,
con lic and ambigui y o oles, o he lack o esou ces o ca y ou asks. This ca ego y
also includes a lack o eedback, au onomy, and decision-making powe . Ano he aspec
widely epo ed in he li e a u e and shown o be e y impo an in he de elopmen o
bu nou is he lack o emo ional suppo om supe iso s and colleagues.
Occupa ional cha ac e is ics e e o ac o s di ec ly linked o he demands o each
p o ession, pa icula ly emo ional demands. This pu s some p o essional g oups a g ea e
isk o de eloping his synd ome han o he s.
The cha ac e is ics o he o ganiza ion can also be a he oo o bu nou . Fac o s such
as size, lack o esou ces o space, cul u e, and o ganiza ional iden i y can encou age he
de elopmen o bu nou synd ome.
Ano he , no less impo an aspec ci ed by Maslach e al. (2001) e e s o he psycho-
logical con ac , i.e., he belie ha wo ke s ha e abou wha he company is obliged o
p o ide based on pe cei ed p omises and wha he wo ke mus gi e in e u n (Rousseau
1995). Viola ing he psychological con ac inc eases he likelihood o bu nou because i
calls in o ques ion he no ion o ecip oci y, which is undamen al o main aining well-
being. In e ms o indi idual cha ac e is ics, Maslach e al. (2001) poin o demog aphic
cha ac e is ics such as age o gende , pe sonali y cha ac e is ics, locus o con ol, o le els
o sel -es eem.
In his s udy, we will use he ins umen de eloped by Deme ou i and Nach eine
(1998), who a ionalize bu nou as ha ing wo dimensions: exhaus ion and disengagemen .
2.3.1. Toxic Leade ship and Bu nou Synd ome
The ela ionship be ween leade ship s yles and bu nou synd ome is e y p esen in
he li e a u e, especially in s udies ha add ess supe ision- ela ed issues (Okpozo e al.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 5 o 22
2017;Oma e al. 2015). The esul s epo he impo ance o leade s and pe cei ed suppo
as a iables ha signi ican ly impac he de elopmen o bu nou synd ome. F om his
pe spec i e, Teppe (2000) emphasizes ha abusi e supe ision, one o he dimensions o
oxic leade ship, is s ongly co ela ed wi h bu nou . Simila ly, Schyns and Schilling (2013)
a gue ha employees who pe cei e oxic beha io in hei leade s ha e highe le els o
bu nou synd ome.
Fo Maslach and Lei e (2016), when an employee pe cei es ha hei leade does
no suppo hem o ecognize hei pe o mance, hese ac o s become c i ical, enhancing
he de elopmen o bu nou synd ome and allowing hem o each a s a e o exhaus ion
quickly. When a leade unde alues and igno es hei subo dina es’ well-being, hey may
be sabo aging any e o on he pa o he o ganiza ion o p e en bu nou in employees,
hus ende ing hese ini ia i es ine ec i e (Maslach and Lei e 2016). In he iew o
Schau eli and Ta is (2014), when wo k demands inc ease and he e is a lack o adequa e
suppo , hese wo ac o s can induce bu nou synd ome. Cases o oxic leade ship mus be
iden i ied ea ly so ha he e can be apid in e en ion o p e en he escala ion o p oblems
ha lead o bu nou synd ome (Schyns and Schilling 2013).
In his ein, nume ous mo e ecen s udies, such as he s udy ca ied ou by Uzun-
bacak e al. (2019), conside ha when employees eel ha hei leade is beha ing badly
( oxic leade ), hei le els o bu nou synd ome inc ease. Fo Ko ope s e al. (2020), oxic
leade ship inc eases s ess a wo k, which causes high le els o bu nou . I is o his
eason ha when employees pe cei e oxic beha io in hei leade s, hei le els o bu nou
synd ome inc ease, which leads us o o mula e he ollowing hypo heses:
Hypo hesis 2: Toxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h bu nou synd ome.
Hypo hesis 2a: Toxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h disengagemen .
Hypo hesis 2b: Toxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h exhaus ion.
2.3.2. Bu nou Synd ome and Tu no e In en ions
Bu nou synd ome has been associa ed wi h di e en and di e se o ms o job aban-
donmen , which include he u no e in en ions, e ec i e u no e and absen eeism (Lei e
and Maslach 2009), and is conside ed one o he main p edic o s o u no e in en ion
(Kelly e al. 2021;Ma shall and S ephenson 2020;Scanlan and S ill 2019).
The e o e, i is a phenomenon ha occu s when emo ional exhaus ion, depe sonal-
iza ion, and educed pe sonal ul ilmen a wo k lead employees o e lec on lea ing he
wo kplace. Usually, when wo ke s su e om bu nou , hei job sa is ac ion dec eases,
hey eel apped in an un enable si ua ion, and hei u no e in en ions inc ease (Ta is
2006). Howe e , acco ding o Maslach and Lei e (2016), bu nou a ec s employees’ heal h
and well-being and has consequences a an o ganiza ional le el, inc easing employee
u no e in en ions. W igh and C opanzano (1998) s a e ha he in insic link be ween he
wo is na u al because as emo ional exhaus ion se s in, u no e in en ions a ise o inc ease
as employees seek o elie e he psychological p essu e associa ed wi h bu nou .
In a s udy by F ei as e al. (2023), whose popula ion we e inspec o s om he Po -
uguese Tax and Cus oms Au ho i y, he au ho s con i med he exis ence o a posi i e and
signi ican associa ion be ween bu nou synd ome and u no e in en ions. Gi en his
signi ican e idence ha u no e in en ions a e mo e likely o occu o wo ke s wi h a
high deg ee o bu nou , he ollowing hypo heses a e o mula ed:
Hypo hesis 3: Bu nou synd ome (disengagemen and exhaus ion) is posi i ely and signi ican ly
associa ed wi h u no e in en ions.
Hypo hesis 3a: Disengagemen is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h u no e in en ions.
Hypo hesis 3b: Bu nou is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h u no e in en ions.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 6 o 22
2.3.3. Toxic Leade ship, Bu nou Synd ome and Tu no e In en ions
Psychological dis ess and u no e in en ions can be among he mos di use eac-
ions shown by ollowe s who expe ience his nega i e and dys unc ional leade ship s yle
(Ba low and Du and 2005). Acco ding o Lango e e al. (2016), employees whose psycho-
logical well-being is nega i ely a ec ed in an o ganiza ion s a looking o oppo uni ies
elsewhe e. Since employees a e he asse s o o ganiza ions, in o de o e ain his asse ,
O ei e al. (2020) sugges ed ha o ganiza ions ocus on he well-being o hei employees o
con ol he u no e a e.
The e o e, i is necessa y o main ain a posi i e associa ion be ween leade s and
employees so ha he psychological well-being o employees emains in ac , which can
become a eason o dec easing hei u no e in en ion (Robe son and Coope 2011;
Ali 2008).
In a s udy by Dwi a e al. (2023), hese au ho s poin ou ha employees subjec ed o
oxic leade ship can de elop bu nou synd ome, inc easing hei likelihood o in ending
o lea e he o ganiza ion. When an employee pe cei es oxic beha io in hei leade ,
hei le els o bu nou synd ome inc ease (Uzunbacak e al. 2019), which could lead o
an inc ease in employees’ u no e in en ions (Kelly e al. 2021;Ma shall and S ephenson
2020;Scanlan and S ill 2019). I is he easoning ha bu nou synd ome is he mechanism
ha explains he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions ha leads
us o o mula e he ollowing hypo heses:
Hypo hesis 4: Bu nou synd ome has a media ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship
and u no e in en ions.
Hypo hesis 4a: Disengagemen has a media ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship
and u no e in en ions.
Hypo hesis 4b: Exhaus ion has a media ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and
u no e in en ions.
The esea ch model shown in Figu e 1summa izes he hypo heses o mula ed in
his s udy.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 23
Figu e 1. Resea ch Model.
3. Me hod
3.1. Da a Collec ion P ocedu e
A o al o 309 indi iduals wo king in o ganiza ions based in Angola and Po ugal
olun a ily pa icipa ed in his s udy.
The da a collec ion p ocess was a non-p obabilis ic, in en ional snowball (T ochim
2000). This is an explo a o y s udy, as he aim is o s udy he ela ionship be ween oxic
leade ship and u no e in en ions and whe he his ela ionship is media ed by bu nou .
I is also a c oss-sec ional s udy, as he da a was collec ed a a single poin in ime.
The ques ionnai e was pos ed online on he Google Fo ms pla o m and ci cula ed
ia LinkedIn and email o con ac s o he esea che s in his s udy. A he beginning o he
ques ionnai e was an in o med consen o m, which gua an eed he con iden iali y o he
pa icipan s’ answe s. This was ollowed by a ques ion abou ag eeing o ake pa in he
s udy. I he answe was “no”, pa icipan s we e di ec ed o he end o he ques ionnai e,
and i he answe was “yes”, hey mo ed on o he nex sec ion.
The ques ionnai e also included sociodemog aphic ques ions and h ee scales: oxic
leade ship, u no e in en ions, and bu nou .
3.2. Pa icipan s
The sample in his s udy comp ised 309 pa icipan s who olun a ily ook pa in he
s udy and anged in age om 22 o 66, wi h an a e age o 38.85 and a s anda d de ia ion
o 9.68. As o gende , 37.2% o he pa icipan s we e male and 62.8.9% emale (Table 2).
O hese, 9.7% had a le el o educa ion equal o o less han he 12 h g ade, 43.7% had a
bachelo ’s deg ee, and 46.6% had a mas e ’s deg ee o highe (Table 2). In e ms o
senio i y, 16.5% had been wi h he o ganiza ion o less han a yea , 23% o be ween 1
and 3 yea s, 15.9% o be ween 3 and 5 yea s, 15.5% o be ween 5 and 10 yea s, 11.7% o
be ween 10 and 15 yea s, and 17.5% o mo e han 15 yea s (Table 2). As o ma i al s a us,
37.2% we e single, 54% we e ma ied/ma i al pa ne ship, and 8.7% we e
di o ced/ma i al pa ne ship (Table 2). Rega ding employmen con ac s, 17.2% had an
open-ended con ac , 13.6% had a ixed- e m con ac , 61.5% had an open-ended con ac ,
and 7.8% had ano he ype o con ac (Table 2). As o he sec o in which hey wo k,
21.4% wo ked in he public sec o , 67% in he p i a e sec o , and 11.7% in he public-
p i a e sec o (Table 2). Rega ding he coun y whe e hey wo ked, 26.5% wo ked in
Angola and 73.5% wo ked in Po ugal (Table 1).
Table 2. Sample desc ip i e s a is ics.
F equency Pe cen age
Gende Female 194 62.8%
Male 115 37.2%
Figu e 1. Resea ch Model.
3. Me hod
3.1. Da a Collec ion P ocedu e
A o al o 309 indi iduals wo king in o ganiza ions based in Angola and Po ugal
olun a ily pa icipa ed in his s udy.
The da a collec ion p ocess was a non-p obabilis ic, in en ional snowball (T ochim
2000). This is an explo a o y s udy, as he aim is o s udy he ela ionship be ween oxic
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 7 o 22
leade ship and u no e in en ions and whe he his ela ionship is media ed by bu nou .
I is also a c oss-sec ional s udy, as he da a was collec ed a a single poin in ime.
The ques ionnai e was pos ed online on he Google Fo ms pla o m and ci cula ed
ia LinkedIn and email o con ac s o he esea che s in his s udy. A he beginning o he
ques ionnai e was an in o med consen o m, which gua an eed he con iden iali y o he
pa icipan s’ answe s. This was ollowed by a ques ion abou ag eeing o ake pa in he
s udy. I he answe was “no”, pa icipan s we e di ec ed o he end o he ques ionnai e,
and i he answe was “yes”, hey mo ed on o he nex sec ion.
The ques ionnai e also included sociodemog aphic ques ions and h ee scales: oxic
leade ship, u no e in en ions, and bu nou .
3.2. Pa icipan s
The sample in his s udy comp ised 309 pa icipan s who olun a ily ook pa in he
s udy and anged in age om 22 o 66, wi h an a e age o 38.85 and a s anda d de ia ion
o 9.68. As o gende , 37.2% o he pa icipan s we e male and 62.8.9% emale (Table 2).
O hese, 9.7% had a le el o educa ion equal o o less han he 12 h g ade, 43.7% had
a bachelo ’s deg ee, and 46.6% had a mas e ’s deg ee o highe (Table 2). In e ms o
senio i y, 16.5% had been wi h he o ganiza ion o less han a yea , 23% o be ween 1
and 3 yea s, 15.9% o be ween 3 and 5 yea s, 15.5% o be ween 5 and 10 yea s, 11.7% o
be ween 10 and 15 yea s, and 17.5% o mo e han 15 yea s (Table 2). As o ma i al s a us,
37.2% we e single, 54% we e ma ied/ma i al pa ne ship, and 8.7% we e di o ced/ma i al
pa ne ship (Table 2). Rega ding employmen con ac s, 17.2% had an open-ended con ac ,
13.6% had a ixed- e m con ac , 61.5% had an open-ended con ac , and 7.8% had ano he
ype o con ac (Table 2). As o he sec o in which hey wo k, 21.4% wo ked in he public
sec o , 67% in he p i a e sec o , and 11.7% in he public-p i a e sec o (Table 2). Rega ding
he coun y whe e hey wo ked, 26.5% wo ked in Angola and 73.5% wo ked in Po ugal
(Table 1).
Table 2. Sample desc ip i e s a is ics.
F equency Pe cen age
Gende Female 194 62.8%
Male 115 37.2%
Academic
quali ica ions
Equal o o less han 12 h g ade 30 9.7%
Bachelo ’s deg ee 135 43.7%
Mas e ’s deg ee o highe 144 46.6%
Tenu e in he
o ganiza ion
Up o 1 yea 51 16.5%
1 o 3 yea s 71 23%
3 o 5 yea s 49 15.9%
5 o 10 yea s 48 15.5%
10 o 15 yea s 36 11.7%
Mo e han 15 yea s 54 17.5%
Ma i al s a us
Single 115 37.2%
Ma ied/De ac o union 167 54%
Di o ced/Sepa a ed om de ac o union 27 8.7%
Wo k con ac
Unce ain e m 53 17.2%
Fixed e m 42 13.6%
Open-ended 190 61.5%
O he 24 7.8%
Sec o
Public 66 21.4%
P i a e 207 67%
Public/P i a e 36 11.7%
Coun y Angola 82 26.5%
Po ugal 227 73.5%
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 8 o 22
3.3. Da a Analysis P ocedu e
The da a we e impo ed in o SPSS S a is ics 29 so wa e (IBM Co p., A monk, NY,
USA). The i s s ep was o es he me ic quali ies o he ins umen s used in his s udy. To
es he alidi y o he ins umen s measu ing oxic leade ship, u no e in en ions, and
bu nou , con i ma o y ac o analyses we e ca ied ou using AMOS G aphics 29 so wa e
(IBM Co p., A monk, NY, USA). The p ocedu e was ca ied ou acco ding o a “model
gene a ion” logic (Jö eskog and Sö bom 1993). Based on he ecommenda ions o Hu and
Ben le (1999), six i indices we e conside ed whose alues, o indica e a good i , should
be as ollows:
χ2
/d
≤
5; TLI > 0.90; GFI > 0.90; CFI > 0.90; RMSEA
≤
0.08; Fo RMSR, he
lowe he alue, he be e he i . The composi e eliabili y and con e gen alue we e
calcula ed using he da a ob ained om he con i ma o y ac o analysis (by calcula ing
he AVE). The cons uc eliabili y alues should be g ea e han 0.70, and he AVE alue
should be equal o o g ea e han 0.50 (Fo nell and La cke 1981). Howe e , acco ding o
Hai e al. (2011), i he eliabili y is highe han 0.70, AVE alues equal o o highe han
0.40 a e accep able.
The in e nal consis ency o all he dimensions comp ising he ins umen s used in his
s udy was es ed by calcula ing C onbach’s alpha alue, which has a minimum accep able
alue in o ganiza ional s udies o 0.70 (B yman and C ame 2003).
Rega ding he i ems’ sensi i i y, he median, minimum, maximum, asymme y, and
ku osis we e calcula ed. The i ems should no ha e he median leaning agains one
o he ex emes; hey should ha e esponses a all poin s, and hei absolu e alues o
asymme y and ku osis should be below 2 and 7, espec i ely (Finney and DiS e ano 2013).
The no mali y o he dimensions ha make up he ins umen s was also es ed using he
Kolmogo o –Smi no es .
Desc ip i e s a is ics we e ca ied ou on he a iables unde s udy o see whe he
he answe s gi en by he pa icipan s in his s udy di e signi ican ly om he cen al
poin o he espec i e scale, using he one-sample S uden ’s - es . The e ec o he
sociodemog aphic a iables on he a iables unde s udy was es ed using S uden ’s -
es s o independen samples (when he independen a iable consis ed o wo g oups),
One-Way ANOVA (when he independen a iable consis ed o mo e han wo g oups),
and when he wo a iables we e quan i a i e, he associa ion be ween hem was es ed
using Pea son’s co ela ions. The hypo heses o mula ed in his s udy we e es ed using
Pa h Analysis. We chose his me hod because i was he mos sui able o ca ying ou
mul i-g oup analyses, gi en ha ou sample was aken in wo coun ies which, al hough
hei o icial language is Po uguese, ha e di e en cul u es (Angola and Po ugal). In
addi ion o he hypo hesis es s ca ied ou wi h all he pa icipan s, i was decided ha he
da a o he pa icipan s om he wo coun ies should be analyzed sepa a ely.
3.4. Ins umen s
We used he Toxic Leade ship Scale de eloped by Schmid (2008) and adap ed o
he Po uguese popula ion by Mónico e al. (2019) o measu e oxic leade ship. This
ins umen consis s o 30 i ems ancho ed on a 6-poin Like scale: 1 “S ongly Disag ee”;
2 “Disag ee”; 3 “Sligh ly Disag ee”; 4 “S ongly Ag ee”; 5 “Ag ee”; 6 “S ongly Ag ee”.
The 30 i ems a e di ided in o i e dimensions: sel -p omo ion (i ems 19, 20, 21, 22, and
23); abusi e supe ision (i ems 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7); unp edic abili y (24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,
and 30); au ho i a ian leade ship (i ems 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13); na cissism (i ems 14, 15,
16, 17, and 18). A 5- ac o con i ma o y ac o analysis was ini ially ca ied ou , bu no
all he i indices p o ed o be adequa e (
χ2
/d = 2.67; GFI = 0.81; CFI = 0.94; TLI = 0.93;
RMSEA = 0.074; SRMR = 0.112), and he dimensions we e s ongly co ela ed wi h each
o he , wi h alues abo e 0.90. A new one- ac o con i ma o y ac o analysis was hen
ca ied ou . The i indices showed adequa e o e y close o adequa e alues (
χ2
/d = 2.18;
GFI = 0.86; CFI = 0.96; TLI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.062; SRMR = 0.095). A composi e eliabili y
alue o 0.98 and an AVE alue o 0.64 we e ob ained, indica ing ha his ins umen has
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 15 o 22
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 23
No e. *** p < 0.001.
4.4.4. Hypo hesis 4
We ollowed he s eps o es Hypo hesis 4, as i is a media ing effec , acco ding o
Ba on and Kenny (1986). As only he disengagemen dimension signi ican ly affec s
u no e in en ions in ela ion o bu nou , we only es ed he media ing effec o his
dimension on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions.
The esul s o he o al sample show ha disengagemen has a pa ial media ing
effec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions. The impac o
oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions dec eased in in ensi y bu emained signi ican
(Table 10, Figu e 7). The model explains 50% o he a iabili y in u no e in en ions
(Figu e 7).
Table 10. Media ing effec esul s (H4).
Independen Va iable Dependen Va iable Z p
To al Toxic Leade ship
Tu no e In en ions
3.18 ** 0.001
Disengagemen 12.91 *** <0.001
Angola Toxic Leade ship 0.88 0.380
Disengagemen 5.43 *** <0.001
Po ugal Toxic Leade ship 12.49 *** <0.001
Disengagemen 3.63 *** <0.001
No e. ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Figu e 7. Media ing effec ( o al sample). No e. ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Fo he pa icipan s wo king in Angola, he esul s indica e ha disengagemen has
a o al media ion effec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e
in en ions, as he impac o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions is no longe signi ican
(Table 9, Figu e 8). The model explains 31% o he a iabili y in u no e in en ions (Figu e
8).
Figu e 7. Media ing e ec ( o al sample). No e. ** p< 0.01; *** p< 0.001.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 23
No e. *** p < 0.001.
4.4.4. Hypo hesis 4
We ollowed he s eps o es Hypo hesis 4, as i is a media ing effec , acco ding o
Ba on and Kenny (1986). As only he disengagemen dimension signi ican ly affec s
u no e in en ions in ela ion o bu nou , we only es ed he media ing effec o his
dimension on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions.
The esul s o he o al sample show ha disengagemen has a pa ial media ing
effec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions. The impac o
oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions dec eased in in ensi y bu emained signi ican
(Table 10, Figu e 7). The model explains 50% o he a iabili y in u no e in en ions
(Figu e 7).
Table 10. Media ing effec esul s (H4).
Independen Va iable Dependen Va iable Z p
To al Toxic Leade ship
Tu no e In en ions
3.18 ** 0.001
Disengagemen 12.91 *** <0.001
Angola Toxic Leade ship 0.88 0.380
Disengagemen 5.43 *** <0.001
Po ugal Toxic Leade ship 12.49 *** <0.001
Disengagemen 3.63 *** <0.001
No e. ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Figu e 7. Media ing effec ( o al sample). No e. ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Fo he pa icipan s wo king in Angola, he esul s indica e ha disengagemen has
a o al media ion effec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e
in en ions, as he impac o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions is no longe signi ican
(Table 9, Figu e 8). The model explains 31% o he a iabili y in u no e in en ions (Figu e
8).
Figu e 8. Media ing e ec (Angola). No e. * p< 0.05; *** p< 0.001.
Fo pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal, he esul s show ha disengagemen pa ially
media es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions (Table 9,
Figu e 9
). The impac o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions dec eased in in ensi y
bu emained signi ican (Table 9, Figu e 9). The model explains 58% o he a iabili y in
u no e in en ions (Figu e 9).
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 23
Figu e 8. Media ing effec (Angola). No e. * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.
Fo pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal, he esul s show ha disengagemen pa ially
media es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions (Table 9,
Figu e 9). The impac o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions dec eased in in ensi y bu
emained signi ican (Table 9, Figu e 9). The model explains 58% o he a iabili y in
u no e in en ions (Figu e 9).
Figu e 9. Media ing effec (Po ugal). No e. *** p < 0.001.
The esul s pa ially suppo Hypo hesis 4, since only Hypo hesis 4a was suppo ed.
5. Discussion
This s udy aimed o examine he effec o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions and
o see i bu nou (disengagemen and exhaus ion) media ed his ela ionship. As we had
pa icipan s wo king in Angola and Po ugal, we analyzed he da a om he o al sample
and om he pa icipan s wo king in Angola and Po ugal sepa a ely.
Fi s ly, as expec ed, Hypo hesis 1 was con i med, s a ing ha oxic leade ship
posi i ely and signi ican ly affec s u no e in en ions. I should be no ed ha he effec
o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions is s onge o pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal.
The s onge ela ionship o pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal may be ela ed o cul u al
ac o s, as Po ugal is a coun y wi h a high hie a chical dis ance (Ho s ede 1991). These
esul s align wi h he li e a u e, as acco ding o Webe g and Fulle (2019), employees ha e
highe u no e in en ions when a leade has a oxic leade ship s yle.
Secondly, as expec ed, Hypo hesis 2 was con i med, which s a ed ha oxic
leade ship had a posi i e and signi ican effec on bu nou synd ome. The esul s showed
ha oxic leade ship posi i ely and signi ican ly affec s disengagemen and bu nou . The
effec o oxic leade ship on disengagemen is s onge o pa icipan s wo king in Angola.
The effec o oxic leade ship on exhaus ion is s onge o pa icipan s wo king in
Po ugal. These esul s align wi h Maslach and Lei e ’s (2016) indings ha pe cep ion and
lack o ecogni ion and suppo om leade ship a e c i ical ac o s in de eloping bu nou
synd ome. Schyns and Schilling (2013) also a gue ha oxic leade s nega i ely affec
employees’ well-being, which esul s in high le els o bu nou . Howe e , o he
pa icipan s in gene al and o he pa icipan s om he wo coun ies (Angola and
Po ugal), he effec o oxic leade ship on disengagemen is highe han he effec on
exhaus ion. These esul s a e in line wi h he li e a u e. In he s udy by Budak and E dal
(2022), he co ela ion be ween oxic leade ship and disengagemen was also s onge han
he co ela ion be ween oxic leade ship and bu nou .
Thi dly, Hypo hesis 3, which s a ed ha bu nou synd ome has a posi i e and
signi ican effec on u no e in en ions, was pa ially p o en, as only disengagemen has
a posi i e and signi ican effec on u no e in en ions, wi h he effec being s onge o
pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal. These esul s a e also in line wi h he li e a u e.
Acco ding o Maslach and Lei e (2016) and Ma shall and S ephenson (2020), bu nou no
Figu e 9. Media ing e ec (Po ugal). No e. *** p< 0.001.
The esul s pa ially suppo Hypo hesis 4, since only Hypo hesis 4a was suppo ed.
5. Discussion
This s udy aimed o examine he e ec o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions and
o see i bu nou (disengagemen and exhaus ion) media ed his ela ionship. As we had
pa icipan s wo king in Angola and Po ugal, we analyzed he da a om he o al sample
and om he pa icipan s wo king in Angola and Po ugal sepa a ely.
Fi s ly, as expec ed, Hypo hesis 1 was con i med, s a ing ha oxic leade ship pos-
i i ely and signi ican ly a ec s u no e in en ions. I should be no ed ha he e ec o
oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions is s onge o pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal.
The s onge ela ionship o pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal may be ela ed o cul u al
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 16 o 22
ac o s, as Po ugal is a coun y wi h a high hie a chical dis ance (Ho s ede 1991). These
esul s align wi h he li e a u e, as acco ding o Webe g and Fulle (2019), employees ha e
highe u no e in en ions when a leade has a oxic leade ship s yle.
Secondly, as expec ed, Hypo hesis 2 was con i med, which s a ed ha oxic leade ship
had a posi i e and signi ican e ec on bu nou synd ome. The esul s showed ha oxic
leade ship posi i ely and signi ican ly a ec s disengagemen and bu nou . The e ec o
oxic leade ship on disengagemen is s onge o pa icipan s wo king in Angola. The
e ec o oxic leade ship on exhaus ion is s onge o pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal.
These esul s align wi h Maslach and Lei e ’s (2016) indings ha pe cep ion and lack o
ecogni ion and suppo om leade ship a e c i ical ac o s in de eloping bu nou syn-
d ome. Schyns and Schilling (2013) also a gue ha oxic leade s nega i ely a ec employees’
well-being, which esul s in high le els o bu nou . Howe e , o he pa icipan s in gene al
and o he pa icipan s om he wo coun ies (Angola and Po ugal), he e ec o oxic
leade ship on disengagemen is highe han he e ec on exhaus ion. These esul s a e in
line wi h he li e a u e. In he s udy by Budak and E dal (2022), he co ela ion be ween
oxic leade ship and disengagemen was also s onge han he co ela ion be ween oxic
leade ship and bu nou .
Thi dly, Hypo hesis 3, which s a ed ha bu nou synd ome has a posi i e and sig-
ni ican e ec on u no e in en ions, was pa ially p o en, as only disengagemen has
a posi i e and signi ican e ec on u no e in en ions, wi h he e ec being s onge o
pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal. These esul s a e also in line wi h he li e a u e. Acco d-
ing o Maslach and Lei e (2016) and Ma shall and S ephenson (2020), bu nou no only
a ec s he heal h and well-being o employees bu also inc eases in en ions o lea e he
o ganiza ion. Ta is (2006) also a gues ha bu nou synd ome inc eases u no e in en-
ions. In he s udy by F ei as e al. (2023), al hough signi ican , he ela ionship be ween
exhaus ion and u no e in en ions p o ed o be much weake han he ela ionship be-
ween disengagemen and u no e in en ions. These esul s indica e ha in o ganiza ional
s udies, disengagemen may be a mo e c i ical ac o han bu nou ega ding employees’
u no e in en ions.
Finally, Hypo hesis 4, which s a ed ha bu nou synd ome media es he ela ion-
ship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions, was pa ially con i med. Only
disengagemen has a media ing e ec on he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and
u no e in en ions. The media ion e ec is o al o pa icipan s wo king in Angola, bu o
pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal, he media ion e ec is pa ial. These esul s ell us ha
his e ec is mo e c i ical o pa icipan s wo king in Angola han o pa icipan s wo king
in Po ugal. Since oxic leade ship boos s disengagemen , his, in u n, will boos u no e
in en ions o lea e, lea ing oxic leade ship wi h no signi ican e ec on u no e in en ions.
Dwi a e al. (2023) poin ou ha employees subjec o oxic leade ship can de elop bu nou
synd ome, inc easing hei likelihood o in ending o lea e he o ganiza ion. In he opposi e
di ec ion, Ali (2008) belie es ha i is necessa y o main ain a posi i e associa ion be ween
leade s and employees so ha he psychological well-being o employees emains in ac ,
which can become a eason o educing hei u no e in en ion.
Rega ding he desc ip i e s a is ics o he a iables unde s udy, all o hem, excep
o exhaus ion (a dimension o bu nou ), a e signi ican ly below he cen al poin o he
scale. This indica es ha he pa icipan s in his s udy do no pe cei e oxic leade ship
a i udes in hei leade s, ha e low le els o de achmen , and ha e low in en ions o lea e.
As o exhaus ion, he answe s gi en by he pa icipan s a e p ac ically a he mid-poin o
he scale.
As o he e ec o sociodemog aphic a iables on he a iables unde s udy, ega ding
he coun y whe e he pa icipan wo ks (Po ugal o Angola), he e we e s a is ically
signi ican di e ences in disengagemen and exhaus ion. Pa icipan s wo king in Angola
had lowe le els o exhaus ion and disengagemen han pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal.
Rega ding gende , emale pa icipan s pe cei ed hei leade as mo e oxic, which indica es
ha leade s adop a mo e oxic leade ship s yle owa ds emale employees. As o he o he
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 17 o 22
sociodemog aphic a iables, he e we e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Howe e , i
should be no ed ha he pa icipan s wi h a uni e si y deg ee pe cei e hei leade as mo e
oxic, ha e highe u no e in en ions, and eel highe le els o disengagemen . Conce ning
senio i y in he o ganiza ion, pa icipan s be ween 10 and 15 yea s o senio i y pe cei e hei
leade as mo e oxic. Howe e , pa icipan s wi h be ween one and h ee yea s o senio i y in
he o ganiza ion ha e highe u no e in en ions and le els o disengagemen and bu nou .
Ma ied pa icipan s also pe cei e hei leade as mo e oxic, bu single pa icipan s ha e
mo e in en ions o lea e and highe le els o disengagemen and bu nou .
5.1. Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
The main limi a ion o his s udy is he da a collec ion p ocess, which was non-
p obabilis ic, in en ional, and snowball- ype. This will p e en us om gene alizing he
da a o he popula ion.
Ano he limi a ion conce ns he sample. One o he aims o his s udy was o ha e a
sample made up o pa icipan s wo king in Angola and Po ugal, and only 26.5% o he
pa icipan s wo k in Angola. I is hough ha i he esea che s in his s udy had li ed
in Angola, ob aining a mo e signi ican numbe o pa icipan s would ha e been possible.
This should be conside ed in u u e esea ch.
Ano he limi a ion is he ype o ques ionnai e used in his s udy. Closed-ended ques-
ionnai es we e used, which may ha e biased he esul s due o issues o social desi abili y.
As an indica ion o u u e esea ch, i would be in e es ing o eplica e his s udy bu
add esilience as a mode a ing a iable in he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and
bu nou synd ome. The s udy could also be eplica ed using he coun y a iable (Angola
and Po ugal) as a mode a o .
5.2. Theo e ical Implica ions
This s udy aimed o de e mine he e ec o oxic leade ship on u no e in en ions
and whe he bu nou synd ome media ed his ela ionship. Toxic leade ship causes se e e
damage h ough leade s’ e a ic beha io and incompe ence (Milose ic e al. 2020). Among
he mos p oblema ic consequences o oxic leade ship a e in en ions o lea e (F ei as e al.
2023), since one se ious p oblem o ganiza ions ace is high employee u no e (Reiche
2008). This s udy has con i med ha Blau’s (1964) heo y o social exchange is s ill ele an .
Employees espond acco ding o how hey a e ea ed by hei leade s, and hey inc ease
hei u no e in en ions when hey pe cei e oxic beha io in hei leade s.
Ano he consequence o oxic leade ship is i s associa ion wi h high le els o bu nou
synd ome. Acco ding o Maslach and Lei e (2016), when employees pe cei e a lack o
ecogni ion and suppo om leade ship, hei bu nou le els inc ease, which boos s hei
u no e in en ions. This s udy’s esul s con i m hese au ho s’ s a emen s.
Howe e , his s udy has he ad an age o ha ing pa icipan s wo king in Angola and
Po ugal. Rega ding leade ship, he pa icipan s wo king in Angola pe cei ed hei leade
as mo e oxic. Simila ly, he pa icipan s wo king in Angola also ha e he mos in en ions
o lea ing he o ganiza ion. As o bu nou synd ome, he pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal
showed he highes le els. Al hough hese a e wo Po uguese-speaking coun ies, in e ms
o cul u e, we a e dealing wi h wo coun ies wi h en i ely di e en cul u es. In addi ion,
Angola wen h ough a long ci il wa (27 yea s), which may ha e in luenced i s cul u e.
Today, Angola p omo es peace, and he e is a b oad p og am o eedom, bu co up ion
le els a e s ill e y high (Rubini 2017).
In addi ion o con i ming he media ing e ec o disengagemen synd ome on he
ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions, his s udy e eals wo
e y di e en wo king eali ies be ween Angola and Po ugal. Al hough he Angolan
pa icipan s pe cei e hei leade as mo e oxic han he employees wo king in Po ugal, i
is he employees wo king in Po ugal who ha e highe le els o bu nou , which leads us o
conclude ha he e a e cul u al and social di e ences, as well as he esilience o a people
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 18 o 22
who ha e been h ough a p olonged ci il wa , which ha e in e e ed wi h he esul s. I
would be in e es ing o o he au ho s o in es iga e his.
5.3. P ac ical Implica ions
This s udy con i med ha bu nou synd ome has a media ing e ec on he ela ionship
be ween oxic leade ship and in en ions o lea e. In line wi h Lango e e al. (2016),
employees whose psychological well-being is nega i ely a ec ed in an o ganiza ion whose
leade adop s a oxic leade ship s yle s a looking o oppo uni ies elsewhe e.
In his s udy, pa icipan s wo king in Angola pe cei e hei leade as mo e oxic and
ha e mo e in en ions o lea e han pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal. As o bu nou le els,
he employees wo king in Po ugal showed he highes le els.
This ac leads us o ecommend o Angolan leade s ha hey adop a di e en s yle
o leade ship, in which he ela ionship wi h hose hey lead is mo e posi i e. This could
educe hei in en ions o lea e he o ganiza ion a a ime when, acco ding o Reiche (2008),
o ganiza ions a e s uggling o e ain hei alen s. As o o ganiza ions based in Po ugal,
i is ecommended ha hey adop p ac ices ha enhance employee well-being, which will
lead o a educ ion in bu nou le els (Maslach and Lei e 2016).
6. Conclusions
The s ong poin o his s udy was ha i p o ed he exis ence o a media ing e ec
o disengagemen in he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions.
Acco ding o Dwi a e al. (2023), when a leade adop s a oxic leade ship s yle, hose hey
lead can expe ience high bu nou le els, inc easing hei u no e in en ions. In his sense,
i can be concluded ha leade s should adop a leade ship s yle ha p omo es a posi i e
ela ionship wi h hei subo dina es o enhance hei well-being, dec easing hei in en ions
o lea e he o ganiza ion whe e hey wo k (Ali 2008). As o he e ec o bu nou synd ome
on u no e in en ions, only disengagemen has a posi i e and signi ican e ec on u no e
in en ions. As o he media ion e ec , disengagemen has a o al media ion e ec on he
ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions o pa icipan s wo king in
Angola and a pa ial media ion e ec o pa icipan s wo king in Po ugal.
I can be concluded ha when a leade adop s a oxic leade ship s yle, bu nou
symp oms inc ease (Schyns and Schilling 2013), boos ing u no e in en ions (Maslach and
Lei e 2016;Ma shall and S ephenson 2020).
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, A.N. and A.P.-M.; me hodology, A.N. and A.P.-M.; so -
wa e, A.P.-M.; alida ion, A.N. and A.P.-M.; o mal analysis, A.P.-M.; in es iga ion, A.N. and A.P.-M.;
esou ces, A.N. and A.P.-M.; da a cu a ion, A.P.-M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, A.N. and
A.P.-M.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.N. and A.P.-M.; isualiza ion, A.N. and A.P.-M.; supe ision,
A.N. and A.P.-M.; p ojec adminis a ion, A.N. and A.P.-M.; unding acquisi ion, A.N. and A.P.-M.
All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : E hical e iew and app o al we e wai ed o his s udy
because all pa icipan s, be o e answe ing he ques ionnai e, had o ead he in o med consen and
ag ee o i . I was he only way hey could answe he ques ionnai e. Pa icipan s we e in o med
abou he pu pose o he s udy and ha he esul s we e con iden ial, as indi idual esul s would
ne e be known bu would only be analyzed in he se o all pa icipan s.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he co -
esponding au ho s. The da a a e no publicly a ailable since, in hei in o med consen , pa icipan s
we e in o med ha he da a we e con iden ial and ha indi idual esponses would ne e be known,
as da a analysis would be o all pa icipan s combined.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 340 19 o 22
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