Boa eng, Ko i A.; Boa eng-Co ie, Rosema y; Hay o d, P ospe Kwamena
A icle
Theo e ical econcep ualisa ion o he dynamics o us
wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions
Cogen Business & Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Boa eng, Ko i A.; Boa eng-Co ie, Rosema y; Hay o d, P ospe Kwamena (2024) :
Theo e ical econcep ualisa ion o he dynamics o us wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions, Cogen
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Theo e ical econcep ualisa ion o he dynamics
o us wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions
Kofi A. Boa eng, Rosema y Boa eng-Coffie & P ospe Kwamena Hay o d
To ci e his a icle: Kofi A. Boa eng, Rosema y Boa eng-Coffie & P ospe Kwamena
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and be ween o ganisa ions, Cogen Business & Managemen , 11:1, 2376051, DOI:
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Cogen Business & ManageMen
2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2376051
Theo e ical econcep ualisa ion o he dynamics o us wi hin and
be ween o ganisa ions
Ko i a. Boa enga, Rosema y Boa eng-co ieb and P ospe Kwamena Hay o dc
aDepa men o supply Chain and in o ma ion sys ems, Knus school o Business, Knus , Kumasi, ghana; bDepa men o
Human Resou ce and o ganisa ional De elopmen , Knus school o Business, Knus , Kumasi, ghana; cDepa men o
Compu e in o ma ion sciences and Ma hema ics, uni e si y o san Ca los, Cebu Ci y, Philipines
ABSTRACT
oday’s business and comme cial unde aking ha e aken on a dimension ha de ies
he adi ional ules o conduc ing business. us , is in luen ial in changing he pa e n
o wo k in business s a egizing wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions. issues o complexi y
and unce ain y a e inc easingly becoming he no m bo h wi hin and be ween
o ganisa ional in e ac ions. in his ega d us is c ucially needed o s eng hen he
bond o ela ionships be ween a i m’s employees and a company’s s a egic pa ne s
o ealise he maximum possible co-ope a ion in a mu ually ul illing manne . he
p esen essay places us in wide o ganiza ional pe spec i e wi h a conside a ion o
i s dynamics in bo h wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions. he challenge lies on how
o ganisa ions o mula e policies and pu in s uc u al mechanisms o sus ain he
ela ionships ha go a long way o engende us bo h wi hin and be ween an
o ganisa ion’s ading pa ne s. he in ane and ex ane cons i u e one such
echnological in en ion ha is spea heading in ao ganisa ional and in e o ganisa ional
ne wo ks. he analysis is p ima ily si ua ed wi hin his con ex o b ing ou he di e gen
ma e s ha come o he o e when us is ac i a ed wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions.
his pape looks a us om a ious heo e ical s andpoin s and discusses he many
implica ions o i s p esence, inadequacy o absence in bo h in ao ganisa ional and
in e o ganisa ional ne wo ks. he pape concludes wi h sugges ions o examining us
in u u e esea ch in he subjec a ea.
Backg ound
“… us which unde gi ds ou e e yday li es is a pu e social cons uc ion which answe s o ou need o secu-
i y by seeming o be a ac when i is always a p ojec ed assump ion” (lewis & weige , 1981).
“Bu i is impossible o go h ough li e wi hou us ; ha is o be imp isoned in he wo s cell o all, onesel ” –
g aham g eene in The Minis y o Fea
us wi hin (in a) and be ween (in e ) o ganisa ions con inues o be a signi ican aspec o con empo a y
o ganiza ional sociology, no leas , because i es ablishes he basis o appo ( an oo his, 2022) and
assumes he li eblood o he many mani es a ions o i s unc ions (F ei & Mo iss, 2020). us wi hin o ga-
niza ions could be meaning ul o encou aging inno a ion while us be ween o ganisa ions could be he
eason o mu ual collabo a ion. Bo h in a and in e o ganiza ional us ein o ce he applica ion o sha ed
symbolic ep esen a ion o meaning o ope a ional o ien a ion and philosophy o mu ual co-exis ence.
F om he iewpoin o hypo hesis, a he b eakdown o us , ei he wi hin o be ween o ganisa ions, sus-
picion becomes s i e, sensible communica ion su e s and consequen ly p oduc i i y could ake a hi . all
hese can i edeemably unde cu he ope a ional e ec i eness and p oduc i e e iciency o he o ganiza-
ion. he c ucial na u e o us in in a-o ganisa ional and in e o ganiza ional endea ou s can ha dly e e
© 2024 he au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK Limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis g oup
CONTACT Ko i a Boa eng [email p o ec ed]/ iboa[email p o ec ed]om Depa men o supply Chain and in o ma ion sys ems,
Knus school o Business, Knus , Kumasi, ghana
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2376051
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 13 Feb ua y
2022
Re ised 4 Ma ch 2024
accep ed 1 July 2024
KEYWORDS
us ; digi al us ;
in e o ganisa ional us ;
amilia i y; o ganisa ion;
us dimensions;
in ao ganisa ional us
REVIEWING EDITOR
Hui en (Helen) cai,
Middlesex Uni e si y
Business School, Uni ed
Kingdom
SUBJECTS
Philosophy o Mind;
Social Psychology; wo k
& O ganiza ional
Psychology
2 K. a. BOa eng e al.
be aken o g an ed. Sel - unc ional g oups o eams need us o ensu e he a ainmen o inno a i e
app oaches o wo k in b inging abou meaning ul pe o mance (akkaya & apos u, 2023).
he s andalone e a ha cha ac e ised ini ial compu ing sys ems usually demanded ha da a is inpu
in o a compu e in a mechanical o ma ia punch ca ds, magne ic apes and o he o ms o s o age
de ices. he 1990s wi nessed he pe iod o clien se e ne wo king which mean ha compu e s we e
elec onically linked wi h one ano he in some kind o a communica ion ne wo k o bo h in e and
in ao ganisa ional endea ou s. nowadays, imp o emen s in in o ma ion communica ions echnology
(ic ) ha e culmina ed in he expansion o compu e ne wo ks ( asidas, 2000) pa ing he means o
pene a i e in ao ganisa ional and in e o ganisa ional ne wo k connec i i y (Foun ain, 2001).
ic -gene a ed complexi y has en e ed in o he ways people and o ganisa ions in e ac in he cou se o
conduc ing hei business and o ganising hei p o essional wo k on daily basis (Foun ain, 2001) on bo h
in e nal and ex e nal ne wo k o ganisa ional bounda ies. Hence, he cen ali y o us in social discou se
in bo h in ao ganisa ional and in e o ganisa ional se ings is e lec ed in he ecip oci y o i s ai h ul-
ness (Simmel, 1900).
he ad en o he in e ne and he many possibili ies o wide a ea ne wo k in e connec i i y i o e s
ha e made i p omising o i ms o link o one ano he wi hin he con ex o mu ual sha ing o in o -
ma ion and knowledge. hese ne wo ks span ac oss he immedia e e i o ies o o ganisa ions and a e
inspi ed by s a egic and economic ac o s. he consequence has been he coming in o being o new
o ganisa ional o ms (D ucke , 1998). he pu pose is o demons a e easonable esponse o he c ucial
need and challenge o aligning wi h he cu en ends o he e e -changing business milieu occasioned
by incessan cus ome needs and echnological e olu ion and inno a ion. cu en de elopmen s in he
business en i onmen a e wi nessing eme ging, ib an , inno a i e o ganisa ional s uc u es, changing
he con igu a ion o o ganisa ions bo h in e nally and ex e nally. among hem a e he i ual, ad hoc-
acy, ma ix, ne wo k and elewo king o ganisa ional managemen s uc u e wi h eams and in o ma ion
echnology in as uc u es dis ibu ed ac oss wide geog aphic ne wo ks. ad anced echnologies a e
being explo ed and exploi ed o acili a e online in o ma ion exchange, collabo a ion, coo dina ion, coop-
e a ion, and communica ion be ween in e o ganisa ional and in ao ganisa ional membe s, g oups and
pa ne s in a sha ed sense o mission and pu pose o ealise he o e all s a ed objec i es o he espec-
i e o ganisa ions. and one o he mos c ucial ing edien s ha acili a es hese exchanges is us .
he p eoccupa ion o he p esen s udy conside s and examines us om di e se epis emological
s andpoin s, pa icula ly us wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions, wi h discussions o hei epe cussions
abou i s absence, p esence o inadequacy in business p ac ice. he legi imacy and signi icance o his
a emp is suppo ed by he e y poin o his concep ual lacuna in he us li e a u e.
Me hodological di ec ion
he me hodological p ocesses connec ed wi h his pu ely heo e ical endea ou akes on he o m o he
li e a u e e iew me hod which in ol es an elabo a e c i ique o he dominan and mains eam li e a u e
o he subjec a hand. going h ough his p ocess necessi a ed a comp ehensi e sea ch on google
Schola and o he leading jou nal a icles and allied schola ly ou le s on he subjec . a e wa ds, a pe iod
o si ing p ocess ha coincided wi h key concep ual blocks cons i u ing he esea ch i le was unde -
aken. On his occasion, he sea ch o he ele an and ela ed li e a u e included such ph ases as ‘in e
o ganiza ional us ’, ‘ us in o ganisa ions’, ‘in ao gnisa ional us ’ as well as ‘ us be ween o ganisa-
ions’. D awing on he esul an body o li e a u e e u ned by he sea ches, hema ic syn hesizing was
ca ied ou o o mula e he headings and subheadings o he essay. in he end, his p ocess acili a es
he analysing, so ing di e se li e a u e so as o classi y he needed cha ac e is ics o he ele an and
ela ed ma e ials (lin, 2009).
T us explained
us is no a mode n concep . in ac , e en s ha ook place in he se en een h cen u y Hudson Bay
company ell olumes ha no much has changed since ha ime in e ms o us . Rich (1948) e eals
ha us was seen hen in such issues as “p udence, ai h ulness, hones y, diligence, good beha iou ,
cOgen BUSineSS & ManageMen 3
in eg i y, epu a ion, jus ice, abili y, cou age, conduc , ideli y, and local knowledge”. con empo a y li e -
a u e suppo s his measu ed obse a ion as us is illumina ed in such no ions as epu a ion, in eg i y,
hones y and compe ence; all o a la ge o lesse ex en cap u ed in he ollowing seminal wo k (K ame
& yle , 1996; Maye e al., 1995; Mcallis e , 1995). in a ela ed de elopmen , Shapi o (1987) demons a es
he poin ha us has been implied as a concep ual ep esen a ion o ai h, secu i y, con idence, an ic-
ipa ion, eliance, emo ional p ope y among o he s.
indeed, us has ecei ed conside able a en ion in such disciplines as expe imen al psychology
(Ro e , 1971, 1980), philosophy, sociology (ga inkel, 1963; go man, 1971), economics (williamson, 1993;
Zucke , 1986) and poli ical science (Ha ding, 1991). acco dingly, many desc ip ions ha e been a ibu ed
o he concep o us . Some a e as con using as hey a e con adic o y (Ba be , 1983; ca ne ale &
wechsle , 1992a). Many au ho s ha e, in an a emp no o all in o his same ca ego y, decided o s ay
neu al by a oiding a de ini ion o he wo d ‘ us ’. indeed, i is qui e di icul o a i e a a common
de ini ion o us due o i s mul idimensional no ion (Hosme , 1995; Sako, 1998).
gene ally speaking, us has been impu ed a ied de ini ions in di e en ways by di e en schola s,
a si ua ion be e known as homonymy. Homonymy deno es one desc ip ion ha includes se e al con-
s uc s (Smi h, 1990). he p oblema ic na u e o homonymy in explaining us pa allels he s o y o he
six blind men and an elephan (lewicki & Bunke , 1995). each blind man pe cei ed he elephan in a
di e en ligh ; o ins ance, he ail may be aken o a ope, he side as a huge wall, he leg as a gian
ee, e c., depending on he angle o ouch and eel. in he p ocess, hey each lose sigh o he bigge
pic u e o he na u e o he animal. looking a us his way opens he Pando a’s Box o i s concep u-
aliza ion, gi ing ise o he some imes, con using no ion o he wo d. ipso ac o, us a ions a e i e
among schola s as o a common de ini ion o us . Some obse e us as a “con using po pou i” (S. P.
Shapi o, 1987), “concep ual con usion” (lewis & weige , 1985), “concep ual mo ass” (Ba be , 1983;
ca ne ale & wechsle , 1992b), ye s ill o he s e en go o he ex en o asse ing us as an “elusi e”
concep (gambe a, 1988).
in a ela ed de elopmen , a UK mili a y posi ion on us is sys em “whose in eg i y canno be assu ed
by ex e nal obse a ion o i s beha iou while in ope a ion” (ande son, 2001), while economis s imply
legal conno a ions in us (alchian & Demse z, 1972). Psychologis s employ a sepa a e app oach and
iew us in b oad e ms ha deno e a comp ehensi e belie o an indi idual; ha is, he deg ee o
which a pledge by ano he pe son could be secu ely elied upon (J. B. Ro e , 1971). Sociologis s how-
e e sugges us has a s ong in luence, as i is g ounded in social con ex ha possesses he capabili y
o manu ac u e social capi al (Foun ain, 2001) and egula e economic ac i i ies in a buye -selle ela ion-
ship (g ano e e , 1985). us can also assume a di e en dimension ha simul aneously inco po a es a
non-human componen exp essed by giddens (1990) as “con idence in he eliabili y o a pe son, o
sys em, ega ding a se o ou comes o e en s”. his suppo s he iew ha in some cases he echnol-
ogy i sel is pe cei ed and ega ded as an objec o us (Shanka e al., 2002).
in spi e o all hese epis emological di e ences on he explana ion o us , he o en- encoun e ed
meaning in he li e a u e is he one p o ided hus:
“ he willingness o a pa y o be ulne able o he ac ions o ano he pa y based on he expec a ion
ha he o he will pe o m a pa icula ac ion impo an o he us o i espec i e o he abili y o mon-
i o o con ol ha o he pa y” (Maye e al., 1995, p. 712).
Fo ins ance, he ollowing s udies (Bha acha ya e al., 1998; B own e al., 2004; Das & eng, 1998;
Hu & Kelley, 2003; Ja enpaa e al., 1998, 2004; Jones & geo ge, 1998; lewicki e al., 1998; Zolin e al.,
2004) ha e all made e e ence o he abo e de ini ion in add essing he issue o us om a ious epis-
emological and on ological posi ions. a claim is no being made he e, howe e , o co obo a e he
quo ed as he gene ally accep ed wo king de ini ion on us . he a gumen , none heless, is o poin o
he di ec ion on how he li e a u e has deal wi h us o e he yea s.
Gene a ing us
gi en he idea ha us is no au oma ic, i s ands o eason, hen, ha us comes abou by means
o depending on he a ailabili y o in o ma ion abou a pe son, objec o ins i u ion o be us ed
(noo eboom, 2002). in o he wo ds, us in ol es, and e ol es a ound, he use o a pe son’s oli ion;
4 K. a. BOa eng e al.
ha is he willingness o us , inspi ed by a ce ain amoun o in o ma ion in di ec ing he pa h o one’s
us in a pa icula pe son o sys em. go man (1971), howe e , po ays a ela i ely pa allel iew, a gu-
ing ha us emana es om unplanned in e ac ion.
us is o med when wo en i ies – by wil ul ag eemen – beha iou ally decide o be in e dependen
on each o he (Be scheid, 1985; B ehm, 1992), and each in u n akes due cognisance and ul il he con-
di ions go e ning hei mu ual in e dependence (Be scheid & g aziano, 1979). us is hen conside ed
key in oiling he ela ionship ha sus ains he in e dependence be ween and among people and
ins i u ions (a. K. Mish a, 1993; hompson, 1967). i could ha dly e e be possible o ha e ull knowledge
in e ms o in o ma ion abou he objec o us . we e his he case, ac ion could be aken wi h he
highes deg ee o ce ain y; lea ing no oom o us o build up in he i s place. in iew o his o
make a claim o us ing somebody 100%, is supe luous and edundan , and a bes , “con adic o y in
e ms” (noo eboom, 2003). he e e se si ua ion also holds ue o he gene a ion o us . hus, in a
si ua ion o absolu e igno ance he e canno be any possible g ounds o us ; he only op ion unde
his ins ance is o gamble, sugges lewis and weige (1985).
inadequa e in o ma ion in e ms o he cu en ci cums ances o he pa ies in ime ine i ably signals
he need o p oduce and main ain us in dis ibu ed ope a ions (O’lea y e al., 2002). Zand (1972)
ound ha dea h o us is inimical o in o ma ion exchange which is ins umen al in educing he
e ec i eness o manage s in inding common g ound in p oblem-sol ing endea ou s. he inclina ion o
a pe son o us is a e lec ion on hei subjec i e ai , hough he possibili y o his could be in o med
by he us s uc u e p e ailing in a pa icula socie y o cul u e (Fukuyama, 1995). O ganisa ions ind
hei day- o-day business and social ac i i ies unc ioning alongside o wi hin hese socie ies. i should
be poin ed ou ha o ganisa ional cul u es a e di e en om one ano he ; and his has i s own peculia
way o in o ming and in luencing he de elopmen and main enance o us .
Fo employees and s a egic pa ne s o wo k oge he in a ha monious appo , us is essen ially
c ucial. Scan le el o us could lead o he unwillingness o one pa y o sha e in o ma ion coupled
wi h he isk o oppo unis ic endencies likely o su ace among ading pa ne s and o ganisa ional
membe s. By oppo unis ic beha iou , williamson (1985) seeks o iden i y a si ua ion o employing guile
o achie e sel -seeking ends. ins ances o oppo unis ic beha io ind mani es a ions in misleading in o -
ma ion, inadequa e in o ma ion, and ailu e o honou one’s side o he ba gain (D. P. Mish a e al., 1998).
g ano e e (1985) di ec s his con ibu ion o he discou se on us in a adically di e en di ec ion;
ocusing on social ela ions as he d i ing o ce behind he p oduc ion o us in economic li e.
g ano e e howe e admi s ha , social ela ionships could no necessa ily be an assu ance o a e ing
mal easance and con lic ; on he con a y, e eals g ano e e , hey inspi e hei occu ence. g ano e e
ma shals h ee easons o back his ascina ing obse a ion. Fi s , he close he ela ionship, he mo e
ulne able he posi ion o he pe son who us s in ano he becomes; emphasising he acknowledged
concep o “you always hu he one you lo e”. Secondly, he le el o in e nal us p e ailing among
eams o e s an ob ious oppo uni y o hem o engage in all so s o shady deals; “honou among
hie es” eadily comes o mind in his con ex . las ly, he wide he ex en o a social ne wo k occa-
sioned by us , he g ea e he deg ee o damage esul ing om mal easance and aud when us
b eaks down.
i is ela i ely easy o glean om he o going ha isk is a ached o us jus as much he same
way as bile is a ached o he li e (Bha acha ya e al., 1998; cu all & Judge, 1995; lewicki & Bunke ,
1995; Sheppa d & She man, 1998). no wonde us is conside ed as a decision unde isk. Risk in us
inds exp ession in one o wo ways. Fi s , ha us occu s in an en i onmen o limi ed in o ma ion;
highligh ing he concep o bounded a ionali y agains he backd op o cogni i e es ic ion (Simon,
1957). las ly, ha us in ol es one pa y being ulne able o he po en ial abuse o ano he . i is his
isky aspec o us ha po en ially in oduces complexi y in o he pic u e. luhmann (1979) a gues o
he case ha us educes complexi y o unce ain y. he complexi y- educ ion componen o us ,
igge s he possibili y, o e en he p obabili y, o aising he le el o coope a ion (Misz al, 1996). P o iding
he enabling en i onmen o “social in e ac ions o p oceed on simple and con iden basis whe e, in he
absence o us , he mons ous complexi y posed by con ingen u u es would again e u n o pa alyse
ac ion” (Simmel, 1964). D awing on his, luhmann (1979) could no be a om igh in cau ioning ha
he al e na i e o us is o cou “chaos and pa alysing ea ”.
cOgen BUSineSS & ManageMen 5
Mechanics o in a and in e -o ganisa ional us
i is he undamen al assump ion o his pape ha us wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions can be
unde s ood om wo p ima y s andpoin s – ime and amilia i y. he ime dimension unde sco es he
du a ion i akes us o de elop wi hin wo sepa a e en i ies, while amilia i y iden i ies he wi h which
dis inc bodies come o know each o he as a esul o epea ed in e ac ions ha ob ain be ween hem
as a esul o con inuous mu ual engagemen s ha cha ac e ise hei comme cial ela ionships, as us
cons i u es a undamen al se ing o hei daily in e ac ion (Misz al, 2001).
The ime dimension o us
us has a unc ional ela ionship wi h ime; in o he wo ds, he le el o us ises wi h he ma u i y o
a ela ionship; ‘ us is de eloped o e ime as indi iduals gain con idence in he eliabili y o o he s
h ough a se ies o in e ac ions’ (Foun ain, 2001 p. 72). gouna is (2005) o ins ance a gues in his ega d
ha wi h ime, ma ke e s shi hei ocus om ansac ion owa ds main aining a sus ainable ela ionship
wi h cus ome s as way o e aining he la e ’s us in he o me ’s p oduc s o se ices. his cas s a
e lec ion on Fine and Holy ield’s claim (Fine & Holy ield, 1996) ha us changes o e ime as membe s
gain knowledge o an o ganisa ion. hey a gue ha ini ially o ganisa ion seeks o ac as alida ing he
us o new membe s. he o ganisa ion’s posi ion hen u ns o an “a ena in which us ing ela ions a e
enac ed and o ganisa ional in e ac ion se es as i s own ewa d” (p. 29). i is along his line o easoning
ha Ba and Pa lou (2002) pu o wa d he idea ha us ac s as a ca alys o aising buye -selle expec-
a ions in hei comme cial ela ionship. he same opinion esona es wi h he social capi al li e a u e
(Pu nam, 2000,). Fukuyama (1995) he e o e submi s ha us cons i u es one o he mos key exp essions
o social capi al; o his lies in i s abili y o s imula e an impulsi e social in e ac ion in he cou se o ime.
i should be no ed ha us holds a po en ial p omise o building endu ing social ne wo ks and
ela ionships bo h wi hin and be ween ins i u ions. a coun y’s p ospe i y is con ingen on i s global
compe i i eness which is e lec ed by he deg ee o us p e ailing in he socie y in a gi en pe iod. in
iew o his Hu and Kelley (2003) con end ha he associa ion o us wi h ce ain cul u es is key o
hei gaining o compe i i e ad an age on he global ma ke . us could also play an in luen ial ole in
ini ia ing indus ial decline (Ke n, 1988), and could also be implica ed in he de e mina ion o he poli -
ical des iny o a na ional en i y. a ege ou e al. (2005) a es o he chie ole us played in he ci izen-
y’s esponse o, and subsequen us in, la ge-scale e-go e nmen ic ini ia i es in wo la in ame ican
coun ies, namely, B azil and chile.
echnological sys ems ha e he endency o blun he sha pness o us (K ame , 1999). Zubo p o-
ides us wi h some kind o insigh s o suppo his claim. He pa h-b eaking wo k cap u es a complain
made by a manage a he ins alla ion o a su eillance sys em:
“i i didn’ ha e he O e iew Sys em, i would walk a ound and alk o people mo e. i would make mo e
phone calls and dig ess, like asking someone abou hei amily. i would be mo e in e es ed in wha people
we e hinking abou wha s esses hey we e unde . when i managed in ano he plan wi hou i , i had a
be e eeling o he human dynamics. now we ha e all he da a, bu we don’ know why. he sys ems can’
gi e you he hea bea o he plan ; i pu s you ou o ouch” (Zubo , 1998 p. 326).
he undamen al impac o us in he social dynamics o human li e is oo palpable o escape ca e ul
obse a ion. luhmann (1979) and gambe a (1988) emind us o he linge ing epe cussions o us in
a gi en socie y; simple o complex; wi h a sugges ion by Mölle ing (2001) ha us is “one o he mos
impo an syn he ic o ces wi hin socie y”. o his end, we pa e n ou ac ions as hough we a e in a
p i ileged posi ion o be awa e o he ends o u u e e en s. luhmann (1979) e sely eminds us ha :
“Ra he han being jus an in e ence om he pas , us goes beyond he in o ma ion i ecei es and isks
de ining he u u e. he complexi y o a u u e wo ld is educed by he ac o us . in us ing one engages
in ac ion as hough he e we e only ce ain possibili ies in he u u e”.
Familia i y-enabled us
in o ma ion gene a ion and ga he ing p ocesses ake place wi hin he amewo k o sha ed unde -
s anding and coope a ion, agains he backg ound o mu uali y o ein o ced expec a ions and
6 K. a. BOa eng e al.
ecip oci y (Sco , 1999). his adds a cogni i e dimension o us ; implying he amilia i y o he us -
ing pa y wi h he selec i e p ocesses ha p ecede he poin a which one deposi s hei us in a
sys em o pe son. emphasising he e ec i eness o amilia i y o he assu ance o us and i s subse-
quen main enance, Handy (1995) easons “ us needs ouch”. his a m’s leng h pe spec i e on us
ein o ces he no ion o close p oximi y o bo h he objec and subjec in us de elopmen ela ion-
ships. Fo i is he closeness he s ikes he cho d o aken- o - g an edness in building omen ing us
en i onmen necessa y o mu ual admi a ion o keep one ano he ’s side o he ba gain o o es all he
occu ence o suspicion and doub ha always emain exis en ial h ea o s ong any endea ou s
o us .
us ing ela ionships usually o med wi hin his con ex p ecludes all connec ions wi h media ed
objec s o pla o ms. in o he wo ds, wi h ega d o us d i en by conside a ions o amilia i y, di ec
in e ac ions wi h he pa ies wi h no a o dance p o ided by p oxy sys ems o sys ems o echnological
ep esen a ions assu es he g ow h and de elopmen o mu ual con inuous engagemen wi h one
ano he . gi en he con empo a y accoun acili a ed by laby in h o echnological de ices, bo h mo able
o s a iona y, us de elopmen in espec o his scena io o ‘… ouch’ as ad anced by Handy is dimin-
ishing in popula i y, as one does no ha e o be necessa ily p esen wi h he o he pa y be o e en us -
ing us -building mechanisms o he wisdom o sys ems.
The digi al-led us
One o he p incipal means o ini ia ing us by digi al means is h ough he in ane . in ane e e s o
an in-house ne wo k ha uns on so wa e modelled on in e ne echnology e en hough i is mean o
in ao ganisa ional in e ac ion (laudon & laudon, 2014). in ane echnology appea s o be cos e ec i e
and ime-sa ing in linking he a ious aspec s o o ganisa ions o e he yea s. i sui s bo h i ual and
non- i ual o ganisa ions in he dissemina ion o in o ma ion on company-wide s a egies, policies, ules,
egula ions, communica ion, news and se ice.
he ne wo ks c ea ed by in ane se ice p o ide he needed link o coo dina ing dis ibu ed in ao -
ganisa ional endea ou s and uni ying he collabo a i e e o s on eal- ime basis. he ne wo ks span
ac oss unc ional, o ganisa ional e i o ies and s e ch o co e in e o ganisa ional bounda ies hus p o-
iding he po en ial o inc eased us wi hin and be ween o ganisa ions (lai, 2001). wi h he in ane
many a enues could be opened o app eciable seamless in eg a ion o wide o ganisa ional
communica ion-enhancing mechanisms. us could be de eloped in his ega d as a necessa y de ice
o s imula ing in a and in e o ganisa ional pe o mance and communica ion. his bea s a linea ela-
ionship wi h o ganisa ional e iciency, e ec i eness, p oduc i i y, business p ocess imp o emen ; all o
which could ha e di ec implica ions on cos minimisa ion (lai, 2001).
he in ane has po en ial in delaye ing he s uc u es o o ganisa ions, and possibly sho ens he
channel o communica ion o gua an ee p omp esponse o que ies and people’s g ie ances, essen ial
o decision making, especially in eme gency ci cums ances. he ease wi h which messages low
h ough and ac oss digi al o ganisa ional channels acili a e ela i ely quicke access o in o ma ion as
communica ion gaps ge smalle ; whiles p omo ing he spi i o eamwo k in he p oduc ion and main-
enance o us . Fo in ane o e ec i ely sus ain signi ican le el o us he e should be egula and
pe iodic moni o ing in e ms o app aisal and e alua ion. he aim is o solici use s’ iews, opinions,
pe cep ions and cons uc i e c i icisms o se e as a baseline and ya ds ick o u u e upg ade. his
could be ins i u ionalised as pa o o ganisa ional cul u e and s a egising o aise use s’ us le els in
he in ane use.
he inc eased dependence o he online business en i onmen on ic s has gi en bi h o a new us
dilemma in in a-o ganiza ional and in e -o ganiza ional in e ac ions, hough us is conside ed nowa-
days as he mains ay o he digi al wo ld (Keen, 2000). he complexi y o ou mode n wo ld makes he
issue o us e e mo e c ucial (child, 2001). he eason s ems om he obse a ion ha he de elop-
men o us is some imes con ingen on sha ed con ex (McKnigh e al., 2002), join in e p e i e cog-
ni ion o social no ms and in e dependence (Rousseau e al., 1998), and common expe iences (B adach
& eccles, 1989), ha colloca ed people a e no mally assumed o ha e by de aul .
cOgen BUSineSS & ManageMen 7
a i m’s abili y o gene a e us h ough i s in e nal s uc u es and be ween i s ex e nal ade alliances
could be help ul in os e ing compe i i e ad an age (lane, 1998) by he ins umen ali y o digi al ne -
wo ks in in ane s and ex ane s o he in e ne i sel . us is seen o p omo e dependabili y, e icien
p oduc planning and he enhancemen o quali y managemen in in e nal business p ocesses. he e ec
could p esumably be he jus -in- ime deli e y, good quali y goods and se ices p oduc ion he eby
leading o e icien cus ome sa is ac ion. he e o e, us is necessa y o he es ablishmen o in e o -
ganisa ional ne wo ks cha ac e ized by a ied cul u al p ac ices and belie s sys ems ope a ing in compe -
i i ely global, comme cial en i onmen whe e ma ke unce ain ies a e high, p oduc li e is ansien and
unp edic abili y is he no m (lane, 1998).
Pe spec i es o us wi hin o ganisa ions
us ela ionships wi hin an ins i u ion can be desc ibed as in a-o ganisa ion us . Such us s ands o
he hope ul an icipa ion o mu ual con idence ha employees wi hin an o ganisa ion sha e amongs
hemsel es depending on hei job de ini ion, in e pe sonal appo and mu uali y (Schockley-Zalabak
e al., 2000). a guing om a sociological s andpoin , o ganisa ional us is con ingen on he sha ed
unde s anding and coope a ion o he membe s o he o ganisa ion. he p edisposi ion o indi iduals in
an o ganisa ion o epose us in one ano he and he business coun e pa s could be encou aging in
aising he us le el in one ano he . in a si ua ion whe e membe s’ p epa edness o us one ano he
is p e y much ale since he condi ions wi hin he same o ganisa ional en i onmen p o ides amilia
con ex , he deg ee o in a-o ganisa ional us could be enhanced. o his end membe s a e able o
us each o he i espec i e o hei g oup o ien a ion; ‘in-g oup’ o ‘ou -g oup’ (Hu & Kelley, 2003).
D awing on Ho s ede (1980) hese ea u es a e mo e isible in indi idualis cul u es han hey a e in col-
lec i is socie ies.
O ganisa ions ha demons a e a high le el o us wi hin i s s uc u al se -up a e mo e likely o be
success ul, adap o changing si ua ions p e y much quicke , gi ing mo e oom o inno a ion o lou -
ish; he same canno be said o i ms ha a e de icien in us (Schockley-Zalabak e al., 2000). us
cons i u es a signi ican chunk o an o ganisa ion’s social capi al, and hence a possible de i a ion o
p iceless ad an age (Foun ain, 2001). he spi i o us wi hin an o ganisa ion p oduces in o ma ion
exchange and sha ing, collabo a i e e o s, mu ual coope a ion, commi men and pa icipa o y commu-
nica ion ha play dominan ole in o ganisa ional s a egising. in his ein in ao ganisa ional us can
be hough o enhance eamwo k and sha pen o ganisa ional pe o mance in he in e es o he s a ed
objec i es o he en e p ise (Jones & geo ge, 1998). a si ua ion like his makes o ganisa ions espond
swi ly o hei challenging and dynamic business en i onmen s and demons a e hei legi imacy and
aison d’e e.
employee sa is ac ion ecei es a boos , he eby aising hei con idence le el and sense o commi -
men (Flahe y & Pappas, 2000) o he cause o he o ganisa ion. indi iduals in he o ganisa ion could be
con iden in aking isks in he hope ha hey ha e he us o hei colleagues o b eak new g ounds.
in ao ganisa ional us is also e ec i e in ensu ing ha indi iduals eel secu e, which in u n engende s
sel -assu ance ha could mean less esis ance o o ganisa ional change in c i ical imes. his con as s
sha ply wi h an en i onmen whe e he p e ailing si ua ion is one o inadequacy o in e nal us . in his
case, indi iduals do no eel challenged o ini ia e p oduc i e mo es o he bene i o he o ganisa ion.
his may ansla e in o less secu i y wi h he po en ial o diminishing he us le el. Subsequen ly, mem-
be s a e likely o ake ela i ely longe ime o in eg a e hei e o s and align hei in e es s wi h he
o ganisa ional philosophy.
academics ha e ad anced he hough ha us is i al o in ao ganisa ional e iciency, e ec i eness
and enhanced eam pe o mance (golembiewski & Mcconkie, 1975; Po e & lilly, 1996). us has been
acknowledged as ha ing di e se ames depending on he s uc u e o he o ganisa ion. in e pe sonal
us is ecognised as an essen ial a iable o he di e en kinds o o ganisa ional s uc u e. One o he
p ominen componen s o in ao ganisa ion ela ionships is in e pe sonal us . Mcallis e (1995) sugges s
ha in e pe sonal us illus a es he ex en o which an indi idual is p epa ed o depend on he ac ions,
ema ks, hough s and decisions o ano he pa y. in e pe sonal us pe ades h ough he many di i-
sions o o ganisa ional li e e lec ing in he way membe s’ us b ings abou ecip ocal suppo , imely
eedback and e ec i e in o ma ion sha ing. Mcallis e (1995) delinea es wo key o ms o in e pe sonal
