N'Zue, Felix Fo ana
A icle
Assessing he impac o o icial de elopmen assis ance
on p ima y school pe o mance in Cô e d'I oi e: An
econome ic analysis
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences (IJMESS)
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In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences (IJMESS)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: N'Zue, Felix Fo ana (2025) : Assessing he impac o o icial de elopmen
assis ance on p ima y school pe o mance in Cô e d'I oi e: An econome ic analysis, In e na ional
Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences (IJMESS), ISSN 2304-1366, IJMESS
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In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
2025, Vol. 14(1-2), pp. 1 – 22.
ISSN 2304 – 1366
h ps://www.ijmess.com
Assessing he Impac o O icial De elopmen
Assis ance on P ima y School Pe o mance in
Cô e d’I oi e: An Econome ic Analysis
*Felix Fo ana N’Zué
Dep . o Economics, Uni e si é Felix Houphouë Boigny, Abidjan, Cô e d’I oi e
Dep . o Economics, Uni e si é NAYEBA In e na ional de Dabou, Dabou. Cô e d’I oi e
Despi e he bene i s o educa ion, he lea ning c isis in he
de eloping wo ld has led he Wo ld bank o cha ac e ize i as
lea ning po e y. Educa ion is ye o be decla ed a poli ical
p io i y in mos de eloping coun ies. O icial De elopmen
Assis ance (ODA), which is a mechanism o inancial suppo om
go e nmen s and hei agencies o de eloping coun ies and
e i o ies, o p ima y educa ion could imp o e educa ion
quali y. This s udy in es iga es he ela ionship be ween ODA o
p ima y educa ion, poli ical s abili y, eache -pupil a io,
go e nmen educa ion expendi u e, and p ima y school pe o mance
in Cô e d’I oi e. The s udy uses da a om he Wo ld De elopmen
Indica o s and Wo ld Go e nance Indica o s da abases o he yea s
2002-2021. The ime se ies cha ac e is ics o he da a we e
asce ained and he long- un dynamics among he a iables we e
in es iga ed. The indings sugges ha ODA has a signi ican
nega i e long- un impac on p ima y school pe o mance. Teache -
pupil a io and changes in poli ical s abili y also ha e a
nega i e impac . Go e nmen educa ion expendi u e has an
insigni ican impac . Howe e , in he sho - un, eache -pupil
a io and Go e nmen educa ion expendi u e ha e nega i e and
signi ican impac on p ima y school pe o mance. The s udy
highligh s he need o e icien aid alloca ion, op imal eache
deploymen , and s able policy en i onmen s o enhance p ima y
educa ion pe o mance.
Keywo ds: O icial de elopmen assis ance, p ima y educa ion,
Cô e d’I oi e, ARDL model, educa ion ou comes
JEL: O11, O15, I22
The lea ning c isis in de eloping coun ies has eached c i ical le els, wi h 53% o child en unable o
ead a simple ex by age 10 (Wo ld Bank, 2022a). Despi e poli ical he o ic, educa ion emains
unde p io i ized, and esou ce limi a ions plague p ima y educa ion sys ems. ODA is o en sough o
supplemen budge alloca ions, bu i s impac on educa ion quali y emains unclea (Niyonku u, 2016).
Educa ion quali y alls unde he heo y o he Educa ion p oduc ion unc ion which posi s ha se e al
ac o s (inpu s) a ec educa ion pe o mance (ou pu ) (Babcock and Be s, 2009; Coleman, 1966;
Hanushek, 1986). Exis ing li e a u e on he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion has heo e ical and p ac ical
gaps. Indeed, educa ion ou pu s (quali y) o ins ance could ake on di e en meaning o de ini ion.
Theo y does no sugges which de ini ion should be used. Howe e , o assess mo e ully p og ess in
p ima y educa ion, i is mos use ul o examine wha p opo ion o child en comple e p ima y school
(Glewwe and Mu alidha an, 2016a). Thus, educa ion quali y goes beyond he simple idea o en olmen
DOI:10.32327/IJMESS
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Manusc ip ecei ed Augus 7, 2024; e ised Decembe 30, 2024
; accep ed
Janua y 5, 2025. © The Au ho (s); CC BY-NC; Licensee IJMESS
Publishe : UCHPRO & Na ional D.B.A Socie y, USA
*Co esponding au ho : [email protected]
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
2
a e o in es iga e he a e o comple ion. While en olmen a es indica e he numbe o child en who
a e a ending school, comple ion a es p o ide o some ex inc a mo e accu a e pic u e o he
e ec i eness o he educa ion sys em (UNESCO, 2022). When add essing heo e ical issues in
educa ion quali y, coun ies o egion peculia i ies a e o en o e looked. Di e en coun ies could ha e
di e en educa ion ou pu s wi h simila inpu s. This unde sco es he need o cau ion in gene alizing
indings on he quali y o educa ion. Glewwe and Mu alidha an (2016b) emphasize eache quali y,
condi ional cash ans e s, and school in as uc u e as c i ical ac o s o school pe o mance. In
addi ion, Hanushek and Woessmann (2015) highligh educa ion quali y, cogni i e skills, and ins i u ional
amewo ks as d i e s o economic g ow h. The wo ks o hese schola s in o m ou s udy by emphasizing
he signi icance o unde s anding educa ion p oduc ion unc ions and he po en ial bene i s and impac
o ODA in imp o ing p ima y educa ion h ough he p o ision o unding o eache aining, and
educa ional ma e ials among o he hings. The e o e, his s udy add esses hese gaps by in es iga ing
he sho and long- e m dynamics o ODA’s impac on p ima y school pe o mance in Cô e d'I oi e.
Thus, we seek answe s o he ollowing ques ions:
1. Does ODA alloca ed o p ima y educa ion signi ican ly impac changes in p ima y
school pe o mance in Cô e d'I oi e?
2. A e he e sho - and long- e m dynamics in he ela ionship be ween ODA and
changes in p ima y school pe o mance?
3. Does changes in poli ical s abili y in luence changes in p ima y school pe o mance in
Cô e d'I oi e?
The nex sec ion p esen s he s ylized ac s on p ima y educa ion in Cô e d’I oi e and ODA oge he
wi h comple ion a e and a se o con ol a iables. I is ollowed by a e iew o selec ed li e a u e. The
me hods o analysis and da a a e examined in he me hodology sec ion. Remaining sec ions ocus on
he empi ical indings, discussion o he esul s, policy implica ions, limi a ions and u u e esea ch
di ec ions.
S ylized Fac s
In Cô e d’I oi e, e o s a e made o li he a e o p ima y school achie emen . Da a ga he ed om
in e na ional sou ces (Wo ld Bank, 2022b) showed ha a e alling o i s lowes le el in 2006, i has
been on an upwa d sloping end. I d opped om 72% in 2002 o 43.7 in 2006 ep esen ing 39.3% all
in a ou -yea pe iod. I should be indica ed ha his pe iod co esponded o he beginning o he social
u moil ha he coun y expe ienced. Indeed, in Sep embe 2002, he e was a ailed mili a y coup ha
N’Zué
3
mu a ed in o a ebellion (in he Sou h) di iding he coun y in o wo sepa a e zones. One unde he con ol
o he o icial go e nmen whe e he e was a con inuous unc ioning o he public adminis a ion and he
o he (in he No h) unde he con ol o he ebel o ces. Thus, he school sys em was dis up ed in he
no he n pa o he coun y and could no be accoun ed o in he o icial educa ion da a.
Sou ce: Wo ld De elopmen Indica o s Wo ld Bank 2022
Figu e 1. T end o P ima y School Achie emen Ra e and ODA o he P ima y Educa ion Sec o in Co e d’I oi e
om 2002 o 2021
F om 2006 going o wa d, we obse ed ha school comple ion a e (TAP) had an almos smoo h
upwa d sloping end. This is hanks o he peace ul esolu ion o he con lic and he euni ica ion o he
coun y. Unlike he TAP a iable, ODA o p ima y educa ion was mos ly downwa d sloping wi h some
spikes in he yea s 2007, 2010, 2016-2017.
When we compa e he TAP a iable and pe capi a G oss Domes ic P oduc (GDP), i is obse ed
ha excep o he yea s 2002 o 2006 (Figu e 2) whe e a sha p d op o he TAP a iable was egis e ed,
he wo a iables had an upwa d sloping end.
Sou ce: Wo ld De elopmen Indica o s Wo ld Bank 2022
Figu e 2. T end o P ima y School Achie emen Ra e and GDP pe Capi a in Co e d’I oi e om 2002 o 2021
The isual g aphical analysis showed ha hese wo a iables could be mo ing oge he . Bu his
needs o be con i med empi ically. We hen compa ed he TAP a iable agains Go e nmen Educa ion
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
4
Expendi u es a iable (Figu e 3). I could be obse ed ha Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es d opped
in 2003 possibly due o he a e ma h o he ailed mili a y coup ha mu a ed in ebellion and hen
pa i ioned he coun y in o No h and Sou h. Going o wa d, he end o Go e nmen educa ion
expendi u es was upwa d sloping al hough no smoo h. Indeed, in 2011 ano he decline was obse ed.
This could also be a ibu ed o he pos elec o al c isis in he coun y ha led o a ci il wa . I is he e o e
e iden o Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es o all. Ano he all in Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es
could be obse ed om 2019 o 2021. This all could be a ibu ed o he Co id-19 pandemic whe e he
go e nmen had o edi ec esou ces o add ess he mo e p essing heal h conce ns.
Sou ce: Wo ld De elopmen Indica o s Wo ld Bank 2022
Figu e 3. T end o P ima y School Achie emen Ra e and Go e nmen Educa ion Expendi u es in Co e d’I oi e
om 2002 o 2021
Figu e 4 pu s he end o ODA o he p ima y educa ion and go e nmen educa ion expendi u es side
by side. We obse e no sys ema ic co ela ion be ween he wo. Howe e , i appea s ha in some
ins ances whe e ODA is on he decline, he e was an inc ease o Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es.
Sou ce: Wo ld De elopmen Indica o s Wo ld Bank 2022
Figu e 4. T end o ODA o he P ima y Educa ion Sec o and Go e nmen Educa ion Expendi u es in Co e d’I oi e
om 2002 o 2021
N’Zué
5
This was he case in 2006, 2008-2009, and 2011-2015. Wi h he sha p inc ease in ODA in 2016 and
2017, a dec ease in he Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es was obse ed in 2017 and 2018.
Un o una ely, he educ ion in 2018 coincided wi h a sha p d op in ODA. Going o wa d a e 2018 ODA
and Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es had simila end.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theo e ical Unde pinnings
This s udy ancho s i sel in he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion heo y, o igina ing om he economic
heo y o p oduc ion unc ions. This amewo k models he ans o ma ion o inpu s in o educa ional
ou pu s, such as s uden achie emen (Glewwe and Mu alidha an, 2016b). They speci ied he educa ion
p oduc ion ou pu as a unc ion o yea s o schooling, school and eache cha ac e is ics, child
cha ac e is ics, household cha ac e is ics and educa ional inpu s (daily a endance and school supplies
among o he s). Recen ad ancemen s in his heo y highligh he complexi y in cap u ing all he ac o s
in he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion.
Building on Becke ’s (1964) human capi al heo y, esea che s ha e e ined he concep o educa ion
p oduc ion unc ions. Indeed, Becke ’s wo k in oduced he a e o e u n on educa ion, compa ing
bene i s o cos s (Becke , 2013). Subsequen s udies expanded on his ounda ion.
Coleman’s (1966) seminal wo k, “Equali y o Educa ional Oppo uni y,” examined he ela ionship
be ween school inpu s and s uden ou comes in he Uni ed S a es. Al hough no explici ly e med
“educa ion p oduc ion unc ion,” Coleman’s esea ch guided u u e s udies (e.g., Glewwe and
Mu alidha an, 2016b; Hanushek, 1986).
Hanushek’s (1986, 2013) con ibu ions emphasized he signi icance o eache quali y, school
esou ces and ins i u ional ac o s in de e mining s uden pe o mance. His indings challenged he
assump ion ha inc eased spending gua an ees imp o ed educa ional ou comes (Hanushek and
Woessmann, 2015). In addi ion, o he heo e ical de elopmen s highligh con ex ual in luences whe eby
ins i u ional amewo ks, go e nance and policy en i onmen s shape educa ion p oduc ion unc ions
(No h, 2013; Sen, 1993); Teache ’s quali y signi ican ly impac s uden ou comes (Hanushek and Ri kin,
2012; Rocko and Spe oni, 2011); amily and socioeconomic ac o s in luence educa ional a ainmen
(Ha eman and Wol e, 2015). To enhance he unde s anding o educa ion p oduc ion unc ions in he
con ex o Cô e d’I oi e, his s udy also conside s Ama ya Sen’s “Capabili y App oach” which ocuses
on access, equi y and quali y educa ion (Sen, 1993), and Bandu a’s Social Cogni i e Theo y (Bandu a,
2011) which examines eache -s uden in e ac ions, mo i a ion and lea ning en i onmen s. Thus, ou
s udy b ings and blinds oge he elemen s o he abo e heo ies.
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
6
Empi ical Re iew
O icial De elopmen Assis ance and School Pe o mance
The Educa ion P oduc ion Func ion (EPF) heo y conside s inancial esou ces as he key inpu because
i suppo s he esou ces, eache quali y, in as uc u e, and p og ams all ha a e o g ea impo ance
o pe o mance ia op imal s uden lea ning ou comes. While he e iciency o spending is impo an ,
esea ch by schola s such as Hanushek (2007), K uege (1999), and Woessmann (2016) consis en ly
demons a es ha adequa e and well- a ge ed unding can lead o imp o emen s in educa ional quali y,
equi y, and s uden achie emen s. The e o e, conside ing unding as a i al inpu in he educa ion
p oduc ion unc ion is c ucial o unde s anding how o enhance educa ional sys ems. A speci ic aspec
o unding has o do wi h de elopmen aid which plays a pi o al ole in he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion,
pa icula ly in coun ies ha lack he inancial esou ces o in es adequa ely in hei educa ion sys ems.
Resea ch consis en ly shows ha well- a ge ed ODA which is a mechanism o inancial suppo om
go e nmen s and hei agencies o de eloping coun ies and e i o ies can imp o e educa ional
ou comes. Collie (2007), D ehe
e al
. (2006), and Michaelowa and Anke (2007) demons a e ODA’s
posi i e impac on access, in as uc u e, and educa ion quali y. Recen s udies ein o ce hese indings:
Yogo (2017) assessed he e ec i eness o o eign Aid in he educa ion sec o in A ica ocusing on
p ima y educa ion in a panel da a se ing wi h da a anging om 2000 o 2010 o 35 coun ies. He
ound ha highe aid o educa ion signi ican ly inc eases p ima y comple ion a e in A ica.
Lim (2021) s udied he associa ion be ween o eign aid o educa ion and educa ional ou comes in a
panel da a se ing wi h da a anging om 1970 o 2013. The au ho showed ha highe pe capi a
educa ion aid associa es wi h inc eased en ollmen and comple ion a e.
Musa
e al
. (2021) analyzed he impac o o eign aid on educa ion and heal h ou comes in Nige ia
using dynamic o dina y leas squa es in a ec o au o eg essi e model se ing wi h da a anging om
1980 o 2019. Thei esul s e ealed o eign aid’s signi ican posi i e impac on p ima y school en ollmen
and comple ion a es in Nige ia. Simila ly, Lekhak (2023) examined he ela ionship be ween educa ion
aid and di e en le els o schooling, speci ically p ima y, seconda y, and e ia y educa ion. The au ho
analyzed he impac o educa ion aid on comple ion a es o emales and males a he p ima y le el.
The s udy used da a om a panel o 50 low and lowe -middle-income coun ies spanning o e he
pe iod anging om 2002 o 2020 in a sys em Gene alized Me hod o Momen s (GMM) se ing. The
au ho ound educa ion aid o ha e a posi i e impac on p ima y educa ion ou comes, speci ically
comple ion a es. The posi i e ela ionship was con i med by Sanga é and N’Zué (2023) in hei s udy o
he impac o ODA on school pe o mance wi hin he Wes A ican Economic and Mone a y Union
(WAEMU). They used a panel ARDL model wi h da a anging om 2002 o 2021. Unlike he abo e
N’Zué
7
empi ical s udies, ODA may no always posi i ely in luence school pe o mance. Fo ins ance, he e a e
s udies ha showed mixed o no impac o ODA on p ima y school pe o mance (Addis and Tu a, 2018;
Miyamo o and Chio alo, 2020).
Howe e , gi en he highe numbe o s udies ha ound a posi i e in luence o ODA on school
pe o mance, i can be in e ed ha by p o iding c i ical esou ces o building schools, aining eache s,
and e o ming cu icula, de elopmen aid could ce ainly enable coun ies o achie e be e educa ional
ou comes.
H1: O icial de elopmen assis an posi i ely in luences school pe o mance.
Teache - o-Pupils Ra io and School Pe o mance
This a io e e s o he numbe o eache s a ailable pe s uden in a class oom. A lowe eache - o-
pupil a io means ewe s uden s pe eache , which can lead o mo e pe sonalized ins uc ion, g ea e
s uden engagemen , and be e lea ning ou comes. The eache - o-pupil a io is a key inpu in he
educa ion p oduc ion unc ion because i di ec ly in luences he quali y o ins uc ion, class oom
managemen , and s uden engagemen (Glewwe and Mu alidha an, 2016a). By allowing eache s o
p o ide mo e indi idualized a en ion and educing hei wo kload, lowe eache - o-pupil a ios c ea e
a mo e conduci e lea ning en i onmen . Se e al schola s ha e p o ided s ong empi ical e idence ha
educing class size, and hus imp o ing he eache - o-pupil a io, can lead o signi ican imp o emen s
in s uden ou comes. Ca d and K uege (1992) linked lowe eache - o-pupil a ios o highe u u e
ea nings. They measu ed school quali y by he pupil/ eache a io and ound ha men who we e
educa ed in s a es wi h highe -quali y schools ha e a highe e u n.
K uege ’s (1999) wo k on he Tennessee STAR expe imen in which s uden s we e gi en a se o
s anda dized es s a he end o each school yea o ou yea s. S uden s we e andomly assigned o
di e en class sizes (small, egula , and egula /aide). They ound ha s uden s in smalle classes
pe o med be e hus suppo ing he a gumen ha a lowe eache - o-pupils a io (small classes) can
imp o e s uden ou comes. Ladd’s (2002) esea ch highligh ed ha pupil in smalle class sizes (mos ly
p i a e schools) pe o med be e han hose in la ge class sizes (mos ly public schools). In his
in e na ional compa isons o educa ion sys ems, Woessmann (2003) s udied a ious inpu s o he
educa ion p oduc ion unc ion, including class size and eache - o-pupil a ios. He ound ha while
eache quali y and o he ac o s play a signi ican ole, educing class size can enhance s uden
ou comes. Che y
e al
. (2011), in hei esea ch on long- e m impac s o educa ion inpu s, using da a
om P ojec STAR (indica ed ea lie ) ound ha s uden s assigned o smalle classes in ea ly g ades
we e mo e likely o a end college. Thei s udy demons a ed he long- e m bene i s o smalle classes.
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
8
Simila esul s we e ound by Kamwi ha (2023) who s udied he in luence o pupil- eache a io in Ea ly
Childhood Educa ion (ECE) on g adua ion a es in in eg a ed Embu Coun y public p ima y schools,
Kenya. The au ho showed a posi i e co ela ion be ween pupil- eache a io and in e nal e iciency.
Consequen ly, we can in e om he abo e ha high eache o pupil a io (a p oxy o educa ion quali y)
nega i ely in luences school pe o mance.
H2: Teache - o-pupil a io nega i ely in luences school pe o mance.
Poli ical S abili y and School Pe o mance
Poli ical s abili y as an elemen o go e nance is a key inpu in he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion model
(Bloom and Sachs, 1998; Collie and Hoe le , 2004). Indeed, i a ec s a ious aspec s o educa ional
deli e y, and can ha e dis up i e e ec s on educa ional ou comes (Collie and Hoe le , 2004). Fo
ins ance, i allows o main ain consis en in es men s in educa ion o e he long- e m and suppo s he
es ablishmen o e ec i e policies, educa ion budge s, and e o m agendas wi hou he dis up ion o
go e nance changes o con lic . This long- e m commi men is essen ial o building quali y educa ional
in as uc u e, eache ec ui men , aining, e en ion, and he consis en p o ision o educa ional
ma e ials. Thus, poli ical s abili y ensu es con inui y in educa ional policies and in es men s. Se e al
schola s ha e emphasized poli ical s abili y in he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion. Fo ins ance, Bénabou
(1996) showed how poli ical ins abili y leads o sho - e mism in go e nmen policies and educes long-
e m educa ional ou comes. In he same line, Alesina
e al
. (1996) showed he nega i e impac o
poli ical ins abili y on economic g ow h and educa ion. In addi ion, Bloom and Sachs (1998), in hei
esea ch on global de elopmen , a gued ha poli ical s abili y suppo s sus ained educa ional
imp o emen s and showed how poli ical ins abili y in low-income coun ies o en leads o he
unde unding o social se ices, including educa ion. Simila ly, while analyzing he ela ionship be ween
ci il con lic and educa ion, Collie and Hoe le (2004) highligh ed how poli ical ins abili y and con lic
can dis up educa ional sys ems. In he same ein, Da ies (2007) a gued ha poli ical s abili y enhances
educa ion ou comes. Coun ies wi h s able poli ical en i onmen s a e be e able o in es in hei
educa ion sys ems, p o ide equi able access, and imp o e long- e m educa ional ou comes. Based on
abo e ins ances, poli ical s abili y is a key inpu in he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion since i c ea es he
condi ions necessa y o sus ained in es men , con inui y o policies, and a sa e lea ning en i onmen .
We he e o e hypo hesize ha :
H3: Poli ical s abili y posi i ely in luences school pe o mance.
Go e nmen Educa ion Expendi u es and School Pe o mance
N’Zué
15
ARDL (1,0,1,1,0,1) ARDL (1,0,1,0,1)
Coe icien Coe icien
ECT -0.836** -0.884**
Long Run Dynamics
Lnaidp im -0.067 -0.059†
G
dpg
-
0
.002
Ln a ensel 0.784 -0.859†
Ds abpol -0.541* -0.510*
D
lndepped
0.223
-
0.011
Sho Run Dynamics
D1. Gdpg -0.007
D1. ln a ensel -1.457** -1.500**
D1. dlndepped -0.262 -0.326*
Cons -2.707 -3.077†
Adj R
-
sq
0.789
0.777
B eusch–God ey LM Tes o Au oco ela ion
chi2(1) 6.634* 2.034
Whi e’s Tes o He e oskedas ici y
chi2(18)
18.000
18.000
Skewness 8.140 5.89
Ku osis 0.320 0.000
Sou ce: Au ho ’s calcula ion using STATA
†p <.10 *p < .05; **p < .01; Dependen a iable: dlnschoolpe
Table 6. Resul s o he Es ima ed ARDL(p,q) Models
-Teache -Pupil Ra io
(ln a ensel): A 1% inc ease in he eache -pupil a io dec eases p ima y school
pe o mance by app oxima ely 0.86%. This is also signi ican only a he 10% p obabili y le el (p- alue =
0.094). This esul is also pa ially suppo i e o he hypo hesis ha eache - o-pupil a io nega i ely
in luences p ima y school pe o mance.
-Poli ical S abili y (ds abpol): The coe icien (-0.510) sugges s ha a uni inc ease in he change in
poli ical s abili y dec ease changes in p ima y school pe o mance by app oxima ely 0.51% (p- alue =
0.011). Le ’s ecall ha he poli ical s abili y index anges om -2.5 o 2.5. Fo Cô e d’I oi e, his index
has always been nega i e o e he pe iod o analysis. Thus, an imp o emen o his index is an amoun
o an inc ease in he alue o he index mo ing close o posi i e numbe . The empi ical esul could be
hough as coun e in ui i e. Howe e , i is a s able poli ical en i onmen ha could ha e a posi i e bea ing
on school pe o mance. Bu a poli ical en i onmen ha is always changing may no be conduci e o
imp o ed school pe o mance. Indeed, poli ical ins abili y ( equen change in go e nmen ) could lead
o educa ion e o m which will no necessa ily yield he expec ed ou come (imp o ed p ima y school
pe o mance). Fo ins ance, esul s o he “CONFEMEN Educa ion Sys em Analysis P og amme” 2014
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
16
(PASEC144) and 2019 assessmen s (PASEC19) showed ha despi e e o ms implemen ed a e
PASEC14, p ima y school pe o mance did no imp o e in Cô e d’I oi e i e yea s la e (PASEC, 2020).
The mo e e o ms we e implemen ed (wi h change in go e nmen ) he wo se he quali y o he p ima y
school pe o mance became (The esul does no suppo he ini ial hypo hesis bu i cap u es well he
s a e o he quali y o he p ima y educa ion sys em in Cô e d’I oi e).
-Go e nmen Educa ion Expendi u e
(lndepped): He e, he coe icien (-0.011) is insigni ican (p- alue =
0.976), indica ing ha Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es ha e no long- un impac on he changes in
p ima y school pe o mance. This esul is also no suppo i e o he hypo hesis ha Go e nmen
Educa ion Expendi u es posi i ely in luence changes in p ima y school pe o mance.
Sho -Run Dynamics
Wi h espec o
Teache -Pupil Ra io
(
D1.ln a ensel
),
he coe icien (-1.500) indica es ha a 1% inc ease
in he eache -pupil a io dec eases he change in p ima y school pe o mance by app oxima ely 1.5%
in he sho un (p- alue = 0.005).
This esul is suppo i e o he hypo hesis ha eache - o-pupil a io
nega i ely in luences p ima y school pe o mance.
Simila esul is ound o
Go e nmen Educa ion Expendi u e
(
D1.lndepped
).
The coe icien (-0.326)
indica es ha a 1% inc ease in he change o go e nmen educa ion expendi u e dec eases he change
in p ima y school pe o mance by app oxima ely 0.33% in he sho - un (p- alue = 0.033). Unlike he
long- un esul which was no signi ican , in he sho - un al hough he esul is no suppo i e o he
hypo hesis ha Go e nmen Educa ion Expendi u es posi i ely in luence changes in p ima y school
pe o mance, bu i is s a is ically signi ican .
E o Co ec ion Model (ECM)
The ECM coe icien (-0.884) indica es ha app oxima ely 88.4% o he disequilib ium o he change in
p ima y school pe o mance is co ec ed in he nex pe iod.
Diagnos ic Tes s
Fo pos -es ima ion diagnos ic es s, we conside ed se e al es s i.e. B eusch-God ey Lag ange
Mul iplie (LM) es , he Whi e’s es o he e oskedas ici y, he CUSUMSQ g aph o s abili y es , and
he Skweness and Ku osis es s o No mali y. The B eusch-God ey LM es showed No au oco ela ion
(p- alue = 0.153). Simila ly, he Whi e’s es o he e oskedas ici y ailed o ejec he null hypo hesis o
homoskedas ici y (p- alue = 0.389).
The CUSUMSQ g aph, as shown in Figu e 6, appea s s able, wi h no signi ican b eaks o di e gences
om he s aigh line. This sugges s ha he e is no s uc u al b eaks which implies ha he model’s
N’Zué
17
pa ame e s emain ela i ely cons an o e ime. Mo eo e , he squa ed esiduals do no exhibi
signi ican pa e ns o ends.
Sou ce: STATA 17 ou pu
Figu e 6. CUSUMSQ G aph
The Skewness (p- alue = 0.552) and Ku osis (p- alue = 0.996) es s o no mali y ailed o ejec he
null hypo hesis o no mali y. The ARDL (1,0,1,0,1) model is he e o e sui able o analyzing he ela ionship
be ween ODA o p ima y educa ion, go e nmen educa ion expendi u e, and changes in p ima y school
pe o mance. The model’s coe icien s ( epo ed ea lie ) can consequen ly be elied upon o in e ence.
DISCUSSION
The empi ical indings om his s udy align wi h and con ibu e o he exis ing li e a u e on he impac o
O icial De elopmen Assis ance (ODA), eache - o-pupil a io, poli ical s abili y, and go e nmen
educa ion expendi u e on p ima y school pe o mance.
In he long- un, he esul s indica e ha ODA o p ima y educa ion has a nega i e and signi ican
impac on changes in p ima y school pe o mance (p- alue < 0.10), sugges ing ha aid may no be
e ec i ely a ge ed o u ilized. This inding is consis en wi h Addis and Tu a (2018), who epo ed mixed
e ec s o ODA on educa ion ou comes in Sub-Saha an A ica. I is also in line wi h Miyamo o and
Chio alo (2020) indings o limi ed impac o ODA on p ima y educa ion comple ion a es. The eason
his esul could be ha ODA is no e ec i ely a ge ed o u ilized in he coun y because o co up ion
o insu icien capaci y. Howe e , his s udy’s nega i e coe icien con as s wi h Glewwe and Maïga’s
(2011) indings o posi i e e ec s o ODA on p ima y educa ion en ollmen a es.
On Teache -Pupil Ra io, he long- un esul s also show signi ican nega i e impac (p- alue < 0.10)
on p ima y school pe o mance suppo s indings by Hanushek
e al
. (2013), who emphasized he
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
18
impo ance o op imal eache deploymen and UNESCO (2019), which highligh ed he need o
adequa e eache -pupil a ios. In addi ion, he indings con i med s udies by Ca d and K uege (1992),
K uege (1999), Ladd (2002), Woessmann (2003), Che y
e al
. (2011), and Kamwi ha (2023). A high
a io o eache s o pupils indica es an inadequacy o quali ied eache s in he educa ion sys em. When
he e a e no enough eache s o ca e o he educa ional needs o all s uden s, i can lead o
o e c owded class ooms and limi ed indi idual a en ion, esul ing in a lowe quali y o educa ion. This
could impac s uden s’ abili y o lea n e ec i ely and comple e hei p ima y educa ion success ully. In
addi ion, when he e is a high a io o eache s o pupils, eache s may ha e excessi e wo kloads, wi h
la ge class sizes and mo e s uden s o manage. This can lead o inc eased s ess, bu nou , and educed
mo i a ion among eache s. Fa igued and o e whelmed eache s may ind i challenging o p o ide he
necessa y suppo and pe sonalized a en ion equi ed o s uden s o h i e academically.
On changes in poli ical S abili y, i s signi ican (p- alue < 0.05) nega i e ela ionship wi h changes in
p ima y school pe o mance aligns wi h Alesina
e al
. (1996), who demons a ed he nega i e impac o
poli ical ins abili y on economic g ow h and educa ion and Da ies (2007), who ound ha poli ical
s abili y enhances educa ion ou comes. A poli ically s able en i onmen allows schools o emain open
and ope a e consis en ly. S uden s could a end school egula ly wi hou dis up ions, con lic , o
closu es. Poli ical s abili y enables go e nmen s o p io i ize in es men s in educa ion, including p ima y
educa ion wi h a g ea e likelihood ha su icien budge a y alloca ions would di ec owa ds he sec o
he eby imp o ing school in as uc u e, a ailing lea ning ma e ials, and ensu ing eache ec ui men
and aining, which could posi i ely impac changes in p ima y educa ion comple ion a es.
On Go e nmen Educa ion Expendi u e, he insigni ican impac o go e nmen educa ion expendi u e
on p ima y school pe o mance esona es wi h Gup a
e al
. (2019) on he ine icien alloca ion o
educa ion esou ces, and Oke ch and Rolles on (2007) on he limi ed impac o inc eased educa ion
spending. This may esul om ine ec i e o ine icien a ge ing o educa ion expendi u es.
In he sho - un, esul s e eal in iguing insigh s in o he ela ionships be ween he a iables. Indeed,
on eache -pupil a io, he coe icien (-1.500) is nega i e and signi ican (p- alue = 0.005), indica ing
ha an inc ease in he eache -pupil a io ha ms p ima y school pe o mance in he sho e m. This
inding aligns wi h UNESCO’s (2019) emphasis on op imal eache deploymen o quali y educa ion.
On Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es, in e es ingly, he esul (-0.362) exhibi s a nega i e and
signi ican impac on changes in p ima y school pe o mance (p- alue = 0.033). This esul esona es
wi h Oke ch and Rolles on’s (2007) indings on he ine iciency o educa ion expendi u e in A ica. These
indings highligh he complexi y o educa ion de elopmen and he need o nuanced policy app oaches.
CONCLUSION
N’Zué
19
This s udy examined he impac o O icial De elopmen Assis ance (ODA) o p ima y educa ion,
eache - o-pupil a io, poli ical s abili y, and go e nmen educa ion expendi u e on changes in p ima y
school pe o mance in Cô e d’I oi e. The indings con i m ha he esea ch objec i e has been ul illed,
p o iding aluable insigh s in o he complex ela ionships be ween hese a iables. The esul s sugges
ha in he long- un, 1) ODA o p ima y educa ion has a nega i e and signi ican impac on changes in
p ima y school pe o mance in Cô e d’I oi e. 2) Teache -pupil a io shows signi ican nega i e impac
on changes in p ima y school pe o mance. 3) Changes in poli ical s abili y nega i ely impac s changes
in p ima y school pe o mance. Las ly, 4) Go e nmen educa ion expendi u e has an insigni ican impac
on changes in p ima y school pe o mance.
In he sho - un, Teache -pupil a io, has a nega i e and signi ican impac on changes in p ima y
school pe o mance. Go e nmen educa ion expendi u es also ha e a nega i e and signi ican impac
on changes in p ima y school pe o mance.
In ligh o he abo e, his s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e on aid e ec i eness and educa ion
de elopmen , highligh ing he impo ance o conside ing he nuances o aid alloca ion and u iliza ion.
The indings suppo he no ion ha educa ion ou comes a e in luenced by a complex in e play o ac o s,
including policy s abili y and esou ce alloca ion. The esul s ha e signi ican implica ions o
policymake s, and dono s i.e., 1) E icien aid alloca ion and u iliza ion s a egies should p io i ize
eache deploymen and policy s abili y. 2) Go e nmen s should ocus on op imizing esou ce alloca ion
and imp o ing educa ion sec o planning. 3) Dono s should align unding wi h ecipien coun ies’
educa ion p io i ies and suppo capaci y-building ini ia i es. Ou indings consequen ly unde sco e he
need o e icien aid alloca ion, op imal eache deploymen , and s able policy en i onmen s o enhance
p ima y educa ion ou comes.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In line wi h he indings, he ollowing ecommenda ions o Policy Make s a e in o de : 1) The e is he
need o ensu e ha ODA is a ge ed, e icien , and aligned wi h ecipien coun ies’ educa ion p io i ies;
2) The coun y should implemen policies ha p omo e op imal class size; and 3) he coun y should
endea o o main ain a s able policy en i onmen ha is conduci e o educa ion.
To Dono s, we would ecommend ha hey should 1) suppo capaci y-building ini ia i es o e ec i e
aid managemen , and 2) p io i ize educa ion sec o unding wi h clea pe o mance me ics.
IMPLICATIONS
The s udy’s indings ha e signi ican implica ions i.e., heo e ical, manage ial, and policy. In e ms o
In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
20
heo e ical implica ions, ou s udy s ongly suppo s ha he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion inco po a e
de elopmen aid, go e nmen educa ion expendi u es, and poli ical s abili y (policy en i onmen ), and
eache - o-pupil a io (school esou ces) as key inpu s ha ha e a bea ing on educa ional ou comes.
Al hough he policy en i onmen is al eady among he inpu s, i is no usually disagg ega ed o accoun
o de elopmen aid, go e nmen educa ion expendi u es, and poli ical s abili y. In he same ein,
eache - o-pupil a io should be conside ed when speci ying he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion.
In e ms o managemen implica ions, he e is he need o de elop he capaci y o all s akeholde s
in ol ed in he educa ion sys em o ensu e he e icien managemen o esou ces including ODA.
Rega ding policy implica ions ou indings emphasize he need o ensu e he op imiza ion o eache
deploymen o an op imal eache - o-pupil a io o imp o e p ima y school pe o mance. Coun ies a e
encou aged o main aining a s able policy en i onmen , alloca ing educa ion esou ces e icien ly o
maximize impac , and de eloping s akeholde s’ capaci y o e ec i e aid managemen and u iliza ion.
In addi ion, Dono s and In e na ional O ganiza ions, should p io i ize educa ion sec o unding wi h clea
pe o mance me ics and suppo capaci y-building ini ia i es o e ec i e aid managemen .
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The limi a ions o his s udy include 1) da a a ailabili y cons ain s (20 obse a ions), 2) possibili y o
omi ed a iable issues, and 3) ocus on p ima y educa ion only. Wi h he limi ed da a ange, only limi ed
numbe o possible explana o y a iables could be included in he educa ion p oduc ion unc ion. By
add essing hese limi a ions and implemen ing he ecommended policies, Cô e d’I oi e can op imize
ODA and go e nmen educa ion expendi u e o imp o e p ima y school pe o mance.
Going o wa d, we would like o 1) in es iga e he impac o ODA in di e en educa ion sub-sec o s
i.e., he seconda y educa ion sec o and e ia y educa ion sec o , 2) analyze he ela ionship be ween
educa ion expendi u e and economic g ow h, and 3) ha e a b oade geog aphic scope by u ilizing a
panel o coun ies. Mo eo e , we shall conside inco po a ing a iables ha we e no included in ou
cu en analysis—such as co up ion pe cep ion, ade openness, ins i u ional quali y e c.
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