Mazo odze, B ian Ta onga
A icle
The impac o ade openness and ICT on echnical
e iciency o ownship economies in Sou h A ica
Economies
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Mazo odze, B ian Ta onga (2025) : The impac o ade openness and ICT on
echnical e iciency o ownship economies in Sou h A ica, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI,
Basel, Vol. 13, Iss. 5, pp. 1-22,
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Ci a ion: Mazo odze, B. T. (2025). The
Impac o T ade Openness and ICT on
Technical E iciency o Township
Economies in Sou h A ica. Economies,
13(5), 125. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies13050125
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licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
The Impac o T ade Openness and ICT on Technical E iciency
o Township Economies in Sou h A ica
B ian Ta onga Mazo odze
Depa men o Accoun ing and Economics, Facul y o Economic and Managemen Sciences, Sol Plaa je Uni e si y,
Kimbe ley 8301, Sou h A ica; [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : While he impac o ade openness on economic g ow h has been widely s udied,
i s e ec on ownship economies emains unde explo ed. In iew o his empi ical gap, his
s udy examines he impac o ade openness p oxied by expo in ensi y on he echnical
e iciency o i e majo ownship economies in Sou h A ica—Sowe o, Khayeli sha, Alexan-
d a, Tembisa, and Soshangu e—while conside ing he mode a ing ole o in o ma ion and
communica ion echnology (ICT). This aim speaks o he ongoing ques o un a el ac o s
limi ing he ans o ma ion o Sou h A ican ownships since he ad en o democ acy
in 1994. The analysis uses an ins umen al a iable s ochas ic on ie model and annual
panel da a co e ing he 1995–2023 pe iod. On a e age, he i e ownships we e ound o
ha e ope a ed 19% below hei ull po en ial du ing he sampling pe iod, wi h Sowe o
being he leas e icien . Holding cons an ac o s peculia o ownship economies, such as
c ime a es and in o mali y, he main esul s show ha ICT plays a posi i e mode a ing
ole in educing ade- ela ed echnical ine iciencies o hese ownships. This inding
unde sco es he impo ance o a ge ed policy in e en ions, such as in es men s in digi al
in as uc u e and digi al li e acy p og ams, o ensu e ha ownship economies bene i
om global ma ke s and achie e hei ull po en ial.
Keywo ds: ade openness; echnical e iciency; ownships
1. In oduc ion
Township economies in Sou h A ica ha e long been cha ac e ized by in o mali y,
cons ained ma ke access, and limi ed in eg a ion in o he b oade na ional and global
economy. His o ically ma ginalized unde apa heid-e a spa ial planning, hese economies
con inue o ace s uc u al ba ie s ha hinde hei g ow h and compe i i eness. Despi e
a ious policy in e en ions aimed a os e ing inclusi e economic de elopmen , own-
ships emain economically isola ed, wi h low le els o o mal in es men and echnological
adop ion. Gi en hese pe sis en challenges, ade openness and in o ma ion and commu-
nica ion echnology (ICT) p esen wo a enues o enhancing p oduc i i y and e iciency
in hese unde de eloped a eas ha he majo i y o he coun y’s poo people call home.
T ade openness has he po en ial o unlock new ma ke oppo uni ies o ownship
businesses by acili a ing access o in e na ional ma ke s, os e ing compe i ion, and en-
cou aging inno a ion. The heo e ical and empi ical li e a u e sugges s ha inc eased ade
exposu e can d i e economic g ow h by imp o ing esou ce alloca ion and enabling i ms
o bene i om economies o scale. Howe e , i is a gued ha he ex en o which ownship
economies can capi alize on ade libe aliza ion depends on hei abili y o o e come s uc-
u al ine iciencies and le e age complemen a y ac o s such as echnological adop ion.
In his ega d, in o ma ion and communica ion echnology (ICT) plays a c ucial ole in
Economies 2025,13, 125 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13050125
Economies 2025,13, 125 2 o 22
mode nizing p oduc ion p ocesses, imp o ing access o ma ke in o ma ion, and educing
ansac ion cos s. Digi al pla o ms, mobile banking, and e-comme ce solu ions ha e he
po en ial o in eg a e ownship en e p ises in o egional and global alue chains, mi iga ing
he disad an ages o geog aphical and economic ma ginaliza ion.
Despi e he g owing ecogni ion o ade openness and ICT as key d i e s o eco-
nomic de elopmen , limi ed empi ical esea ch has examined hei combined e ec s wi hin
he con ex o ownship economies. Mos exis ing s udies ocus ei he on he impac o
ade openness a a na ional o sec o al le el o on ICT adop ion in u ban and o mal
business se ings. Consequen ly, he e is a gap in unde s anding how hese ac o s in e ac
in he unique se ing o ownship economies, whe e in o mali y, in as uc u e de ici s,
and ins i u ional cons ain s p esen unique challenges. This s udy seeks o ill his gap by
p obing he mode a ing ole o ICT in he ela ionship be ween ade openness and eco-
nomic g ow h in i e majo ownship economies in Sou h A ica: Khayeli sha, Soshangu e,
Sowe o, Alexand a, and Tembisa.
P ominen s udies on he g ow h e ec s o in e na ional ade (Dolla ,1992;F ankel &
Rome ,1999) ha e la gely demons a ed a posi i e and signi ican impac o ade openness
on economic g ow h. While he e idence is, o a la ge ex en , suppo i e o a posi i e
link be ween openness and g ow h, he ex en o which he bene i s o ade openness
acc ue o ownship economies emains unde explo ed. In addi ion, e y ew s udies ha e
conside ed he mode a ing e ec o ICT, which is su p ising gi en he g owing p ominence
o digi aliza ion and i s po en ial ole in inc easing ma ke access. Agains his backg ound,
his s udy con ibu es o he empi ical e idence by examining he impac o ade openness
on he echnical e iciency o ownship economies in Sou h A ica while conside ing he
mode a ing ole o ICTs. I de ines echnical e iciency as he abili y o ownships o p oduce
a ull po en ial.
Examining he impac o ade openness on he echnical e iciency o ownship
economies in Sou h A ica and unde s anding he mode a ing ole o ICTs is impo an
o se e al easons. Fi s , ownship economies ha e ailed o ans o m in o ci ies since
he ad en o democ acy in 1994 despi e Sou h A ica being a mo e open economy oday
han i was hi y yea s ago. I is gene ally unde s ood om he li e a u e ha ownship
economies ace a my iad o ac o s ha inhibi hem om achie ing hei ull po en ial
(Moos & Sambo,2018). Second, he majo i y o p e iously disad an aged popula ions
eside in ownship economies, whe e key d i e s o economic ac i i y—such as in o mal
businesses, shebeens, and Spaza shops—ope a e on he ma gins o global ma ke s due o
poo connec i i y and limi ed ne wo k co e age (B uma & Ma newick,2020b). I is neces-
sa y, agains his backg ound, o shed ligh on whe he imp o emen s in ICT in as uc u e
can help ownship economies in eg a e in o he global economy and eap he bene i s o
in e na ional ade.
D awing om exis ing li e a u e, he e is s ong e idence o sugges ha ade open-
ness and ICT adop ion can se e as ca alys s o economic ans o ma ion by enhancing
access o global ma ke s and os e ing g ow h wi hin ownships. T ade openness and
ICTs can pa icula ly enhance he compe i i eness o ownship economies by educing
ansac ion cos s and enhancing access o in o ma ion. I is addi ionally a gued ha digi al
echnologies acili a e ade pa icipa ion by lowe ing en y ba ie s, enabling e-comme ce,
and imp o ing ma ke linkages. Despi e his po en ial, he ex en o which ICTs mode a e
he ade-g ow h ela ionship in hese economies is less known, and unde s anding his
link could be key o unlocking he g ow h po en ial o ownship economies. This pape
speci ically es s he hypo hesis ha low ICT in as uc u e may impede he abili y o
ownship economies o capi alize on ade oppo uni ies.
Economies 2025,13, 125 3 o 22
The s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e in he ollowing ou ways. Fi s , i p o ides
empi ical e idence on he link be ween ade openness and echnical e iciency in own-
ship economies, an a ea ha emains unde explo ed in he exis ing li e a u e. Second, i
assesses he ole o ICT as a po en ial enable o e iciency gains, shedding ligh on he
impo ance o ICT in es men s and hei implica ions o ownship de elopmen . Thi d,
gi en he cu en absence o a model ha add esses bo h he e ogenei y endogenei y and
idiosync a ic endogenei y, his s udy uses an ad hoc p ocedu e in which a wi hin ans o -
ma ion is applied on on ie inpu s based on he Ka akaplan (2022) model. This p ocedu e
yields ine iciency sco es ha a e no con amina ed wi h unobse ed ac o s speci ic o
each ownship while a he same ime ci cum en ing he bias in on ie and ine iciency
speci ica ions. Fou h, i o e s policy insigh s in o how ownship economies can ha ness
globaliza ion and echnological p og ess o enhance hei compe i i eness.
Gi en Sou h A ica’s ongoing e o s o p omo e economic ans o ma ion and digi al
inclusion, he indings o his s udy ha e impo an implica ions o policymake s. In
addi ion, ownships a e cha ac e ized by high le els o po e y and economic s agna ion,
exace ba ed by geog aphical ma ginaliza ion. The e o e, a ge ing hese a eas om a e-
sea ch pe spec i e could yield policies ha may help he go e nmen o achie e Sus ainable
De elopmen Goals (SDGs) 1 (No Po e y) and 2 (Ze o Hunge ).
Wi hin he li e a u e, his s udy is closely ela ed o wo s ands o inqui y. The i s
s and comp ises s udies ocusing on ac o s ha hinde he g ow h and de elopmen
o ownship economies (Mbonyane & Ladzani,2011;Moos & Sambo,2018;B uma &
Ma newick,2020b;Wiid & Can ,2021). A cen al conclusion eached in hese s udies is ha
ownship economies a e cons ained by he lack o go e nmen suppo , poo in as uc u e,
and lack o access o unding. The second s and o he li e a u e comp ises s udies ocused
on he impac o ade openness on ci ies (Ka ayalcin & Yilmazkuday,2015;Muni &
Amee ,2018;Fang e al.,2020). A common inding in hese s udies is ha ade openness
is associa ed wi h he expansion o ci ies and u baniza ion. While hese conclusions shed
impo an insigh s, hey do no e eal much abou how ade openness and ICTs a ec
he g ow h and de elopmen o ownship economies. This s udy, he e o e, di e s om
he i s s and o he li e a u e by speci ically ocusing on he impac o ade openness
and limi ed access o global ma ke s. I di e s om he second s and o he li e a u e by
exclusi ely ocusing on ownship economies whose place in he ade-g ow h li e a u e is
ye o ecei e i s ai sha e o schola ly a en ion.
The p ima y objec i e o his s udy is o empi ically examine whe he ade openness
imp o es he echnical e iciency o ownship economies in Sou h A ica and whe he ICT
mode a es his ela ionship. The speci ic p oblem mo i a ing his analysis is he pe sis ence
o s uc u al ine iciencies in ownship economies despi e decades o economic libe aliza-
ion. Speci ically, he analysis poses he ollowing ques ion: do ownship economies bene i
om ade openness, and can ICT help hem o e come he s uc u al ba ie s o global
in eg a ion? This analysis seeks o con ibu e o he li e a u e by combining ade, ICT, and
e iciency analysis a a ownship le el, which is a e ain a ely add essed in he exis ing
li e a u e.
The esul s co obo a e he no ion ha ownship economies in Sou h A ica ope a e
below hei ull po en ial. On a e age, a ypical ownship is ound o ha e ope a ed 19%
below i s ull po en ial be ween 1995 and 2023. E idence demons a es he c i ical ole
o ICT in educing ine iciencies associa ed wi h he pa icipa ion o ownship economies
in global ade. In pa icula , in he absence o adequa e ICT in as uc u e, expo ing is
associa ed wi h highe echnical ine iciencies, highligh ing he need o digi al ans o -
ma ion o ownships o maximize he bene i s o pa icipa ing in global ma ke s. This
conclusion aligns wi h endogenous g ow h heo y, which emphasizes he ole o echnology
Economies 2025,13, 125 4 o 22
and knowledge di usion in enhancing e iciency when pa icipa ing in global ade. F om
a policy pe spec i e, he esul s aise he need o a ge ed in e en ions such as he ex-
pansion o digi al in as uc u e, subsidies o ICT adop ion, and digi al li e acy p og ams
aimed a enhancing he in eg a ion o ownship economies in o global ma ke s.
The es o he s udy is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2 e iews he heo e ical and em-
pi ical li e a u e. Sec ion 3p o ides he me hodology. Sec ion 4p esen s and in e p e s he
empi ical esul s. Sec ion 5discusses he indings, while Sec ion 6p o ides he conclusion
and policy implica ions and sugges s a eas o u he s udy.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Township economies in Sou h A ica ha e hei oo s in he coun y’s apa heid e a
when acially seg ega ed u ban a eas we e c ea ed o en o ce spa ial inequali y. They we e
p ima ily es ablished as esiden ial a eas o black Sou h A icans, who we e denied access
o be e oppo uni ies in p oduc i e ci ies. As a esul , ownship economies emained
unde de eloped, wi h limi ed in as uc u e and esou ces. The apa heid go e nmen ’s
policy o economic exclusion mean ha hese a eas we e la gely isola ed om global
ma ke s, wi h he majo i y o businesses being small, in o mal, and elian on local demand.
In he pos -apa heid pe iod, whe e ade libe aliza ion and ma ke access ha e opened
new a enues o g ow h, ownship economies a e s ill s uggling o compe e on an in e na-
ional scale due o pe sis en ba ie s such as low p oduc i i y, inadequa e in as uc u e,
and a lack o skills. Global ma ke o ces, coupled wi h he challenges o ope a ing in a
highly compe i i e en i onmen , ha e made i di icul o ownship businesses o b eak
in o in e na ional supply chains. The lack o digi al in as uc u e and he slow adop ion
o ICTs ha e u he hinde ed hei abili y o engage wi h global ma ke s, lea ing many
ownship economies a he ma gins o Sou h A ica’s b oade economic g ow h and limi ing
hei capaci y o bene i om globaliza ion.
This sec ion e iews he exis ing li e a u e on h ee key a eas: (1) he impac o ade
openness on economic g ow h and e iciency, wi h a ocus on de eloping and ma ginalized
economies; (2) he ole o ICT in economic ans o ma ion, pa icula ly in imp o ing
p oduc i i y and ma ke in eg a ion; and (3) he in e sec ion o ade openness and ICT in
d i ing economic de elopmen .
2.1. Theo e ical F amewo k
This s udy is g ounded in endogenous g ow h heo y, pa icula ly he models de el-
oped by Rome (1990) and G ossman and Helpman (1991), which emphasize he ole o
echnological p og ess and knowledge di usion in d i ing long- e m economic g ow h.
Rome ’s (1990) amewo k posi s ha echnological ad ancemen s, acili a ed by knowl-
edge spillo e s and inno a ion, enhance p oduc i i y and e iciency. In he con ex o
ownship economies, ICTs se e as a condui o hese spillo e s by enabling i ms o
access, abso b, and implemen new knowledge and p oduc ion echniques. The adop ion
o digi al echnologies educes ansac ion cos s, acili a es ma ke access, and imp o es
business p ocesses, all o which imp o e echnical e iciency. Howe e , he ex en o hese
e iciency gains may be con ingen upon he le el o digi al in as uc u e and i ms’ abili y
o le e age ICTs e ec i ely.
G ossman and Helpman’s (1991) open economy endogenous g ow h model u he
p o ides a heo e ical lens h ough which o examine he ole o ade openness in shap-
ing e iciency ou comes. Thei amewo k sugges s ha exposu e o in e na ional ma -
ke s enhances p oduc i i y by os e ing echnology di usion, compe i i e discipline, and
lea ning-by-doing e ec s. In ownship economies, ade openness c ea es oppo uni ies
o i ms o in eg a e in o global alue chains, adop o eign echnologies, and imp o e
Economies 2025,13, 125 5 o 22
hei p oduc ion e iciency. Howe e , wi hou adequa e ICT adop ion, hese bene i s may
no be ully ealized, as i ms may s uggle o engage in digi al ade, op imize supply
chains, o abso b ex e nal knowledge e icien ly. The in e ac ion be ween ICTs and ade
openness is hus concep ualized as a mode a ing mechanism ha de e mines he ex en o
which ownship i ms can enhance hei echnical e iciency. This s udy, he e o e, si ua es
i sel wi hin he b oade discou se on endogenous g ow h and echnological di usion,
examining how he syne gis ic e ec s o ICTs and ade openness shape e iciency dynamics
in ownship economies.
In line wi h hese heo ies, his s udy assumes ha ownship economies p oduce
ou pu (
Y
) using capi al s ock (
K
), labo (
L
), and human capi al (
H
). Fu he assumed is
ha , as a esul o ine iciencies, he ac ual obse ed ou pu de ia es om he po en ial
on ie ou pu . The p oduc ion unc ion is speci ied as
Y=AF(K,L,H)(1)
whe e A ep esen s o al ac o p oduc i i y p oxying e iciency in he use o K,L, and H.
Assuming a Cobb–Douglas echnology, we ha e
Y=AKαLβHθ(2)
whe e
α
,
β
, and
θ
a e ou pu elas ici ies wi h espec o capi al s ock, labou , and human
capi al. T ade openness and ICT a e hypo hesized o a ec Yindi ec ly by in luencing
echnical ine iciency. Wi h his hypo hesis, Acan be speci ied as
A=e −u(3)
whe e
cap u es de ia ions o obse ed ou pu om po en ial on ie ou pu due o
ac o s beyond he con ol o ownship economies, and
u
is a e m cap u ing de ia ions o
obse ed ou pu due o echnical ine iciency. The inal speci ica ion is gi en by
u= (z)(4)
whe e z cap u es he sou ces o echnical ine iciency, including ade openness, ICT, and
hei in e ac ion. I is hypo hesized ha ICT acili a es he bene i s o pa icipa ing in
global ade; hence, ownships ha in es mo e in ICT a e expec ed o bene i mo e om
ading in global ma ke s. This hypo hesis is plausible gi en he widely documen ed
ole o ICT as a complemen o in e na ional ade. ICT acili a es ade by educing
ansac ion cos s, imp o ing ma ke access, and enhancing business p oduc i i y h ough
digi al pla o ms. In ownship economies, whe e s uc u al impedimen s such as poo
in as uc u e and limi ed inancial access cons ain g ow h, ICT se es as a ca alys o
local economic g ow h. Theo e ically, as de i ed om open economy endogenous g ow h
heo ies, ICT can enhance he bene i s o ade openness by imp o ing i ms’ abili y o
in eg a e in o b oade ma ke s, access p ice in o ma ion, and op imize p oduc ion. In he
con ex o his s udy, he in e ac ion be ween ICT and ade openness is he e o e expec ed
o in luence he echnical e iciency o ownship economies, as i ms ha le e age ICT a e
likely o o e come adi ional ba ie s o ma ke en y and global compe i ion.
2.2. Empi ical Li e a u e
Empi ical s udies examining he ela ionship be ween ade openness, ICT, and ech-
nical e iciency ha e la gely ocused on ei he mac o, sec o al, o i m-le el e ec s. A
subs an ial body o li e a u e highligh s he ole o ade openness in enhancing i m-le el
p oduc i i y by exposing p oduce s o compe i i e p essu es, encou aging echnological
Economies 2025,13, 125 6 o 22
upg ading, and acili a ing knowledge spillo e s om in e na ional ma ke s (Yasin,2022;
Mazo odze,2020;Wenlong e al.,2023). Simila ly, esea ch on he use o ICT emphasizes i s
con ibu ion o e iciency gains h ough imp o ed in o ma ion lows, educed ansac ion
cos s, and enhanced p oduc ion p ocesses (Adeleye e al.,2021;Ndubuisi e al.,2022). How-
e e , he combined e ec o ade openness and ICT on echnical e iciency, pa icula ly
wi hin he con ex o ownship economies, emains less unde s ood.
Gi en he s uc u al cons ain s and his o ical legacies o ownship economies, unde -
s anding how ICT adop ion mode a es he e iciency gains om ade openness is c i ical.
Some s udies sugges ha ICTs enhance he abso p i e capaci y o p oduce s, allowing
hem o capi alize on ade-induced e iciency gains (Sua mi e al.,2017), while o he s
indica e ha he bene i s o ade libe aliza ion may be limi ed in he absence o su icien
digi al in as uc u e (Adeleye e al.,2021). In addi ion, esea ch has shown ha ac o s
such as c ime and in o mali y can also hampe he abili y o ownships o achie e hei
ull po en ial. The ollowing subsec ions e iew key empi ical indings on hese ela ion-
ships, wi h a ocus on s udies ha analyze hei implica ions in de eloping economies and
ma ginalized a eas.
2.2.1. T ade Openness and G ow h
A signi ican s and o he li e a u e examines he ela ionship be ween ade open-
ness and economic g ow h a a mac o-economic le el, wi h ea ly con ibu ions such as
Dolla (1992) and F ankel and Rome (1999) demons a ing a posi i e and sizeable e ec o
ade openness on economic g ow h. Dolla (1992) a gues ha ade openness enhances
g ow h by imp o ing esou ce alloca ion and acili a ing echnology di usion. Using
c oss-coun y da a, he inds ou wa d-o ien ed policies acili a ing g ow h compa ed o
es ic i e ade policies. Simila ly, F ankel and Rome (1999) p o ide empi ical e idence
ha g ea e ade in eg a ion leads o highe income, p ima ily h ough inc eased spe-
cializa ion, economies o scale, and knowledge spillo e s using an ins umen al a iable
app oach o pin down causali y.
These s udies la gely sugges ha ade libe aliza ion p omo es economic g ow h
by expanding ma ke access, encou aging in es men , and accele a ing echnological
p og ess. Howe e , he magni ude o hese e ec s depends on complemen a y ac o s such
as ins i u ional quali y, in as uc u e, and human capi al. While ade openness c ea es
oppo uni ies o e iciency imp o emen s, i s bene i s a e no au oma ic, pa icula ly in
economies wi h s uc u al cons ain s. Recen s udies suppo i e o a posi i e causal e ec
o ade openness on economic g ow h include bu a e no limi ed o Jalil and Rau (2021),
Ib ahim and Abdulmalik (2023), and Abdulka im (2023). A key me hodological ca ea
aised and add essed in hese s udies ela es o he endogenei y o ade openness. Mos
s udies in his a ea use he panel Gene alized Me hod o Momen s (GMM), which uses
lagged alues o endogenous eg esso s as ins umen s.
2.2.2. ICT and G ow h
Se e al s udies ha e explo ed he impac o ICT on economic g ow h. These s udies
emphasize he ole o ICT in enhancing p oduc i i y, inno a ion, and knowledge di u-
sion. Ea ly s udies, such as Rölle and Wa e man (2001), es ablish a posi i e ela ionship
be ween ICT in as uc u e and economic pe o mance, a guing ha digi al connec i i y
acili a es e iciency gains by educing ansac ion cos s and imp o ing access o in o ma-
ion. Mo e ecen ly, using he pa ial leas squa es, Fe nández-Po illo e al. (2020) simila ly
demons a e ha ICT con ibu es posi i ely o economic g ow h, pa icula ly in de eloped
economies whe e digi al adop ion is widesp ead.
Economies 2025,13, 125 7 o 22
Some o he s udies, including P adhan e al. (2021), ha e di e en ia ed be ween
long- un and sho - un e ec s. P adhan e al. pa icula ly ocus on he ole played by ICT
in economic g ow h using da a on 20 Indian s a es obse ed be ween 1991 and 2018. The
esul s om hei analysis demons a ed a causal e ec o ICT on economic g ow h. This
esul is simila ly documen ed in D. Wang e al. (2021), Dumo e al. (2024), and Saba
e al. (2024). Pa icula ly con i med by Dumo e al. (2024) is ha ICT and in as uc u al
g ow h ha e p o ided he Eas A ican Communi y (EAC) wi h oppo uni ies o boos
in a- egional ade. These indings, he e o e, collec i ely sugges ha ICTs a e a ca alys
o economic g ow h and could be i al o ownship economies whe e he pa icipa ion o
i ms in global ma ke s is impeded by s uc u al ba ie s and geog aphical ma ginaliza ion.
2.2.3. T ade Openness, ICT and G ow h
Recen s udies ha e conside ed he mode a ing e ec o ICT on ade openness. These
s udies a e mainly p emised on he no ion ha ICTs imp o e ade e iciency by educing
in o ma ion asymme ies, lowe ing ansac ion cos s, and expanding ma ke access. These
e ec s a e pa icula ly p onounced in de eloping economies, whe e digi al in as uc u e
enables p oduce s o in eg a e in o global supply chains and capi alize on in e na ional
ade oppo uni ies. No able s udies include Awad and Albai y (2022), who ci e open-
ness as one o he ac o s h ough which ICT pene a ion indi ec ly p omo es pe capi a
income g ow h. O he s include Cla ke and Walls en (2006) and F eund and Weinhold
(2004). Wi hin his li e a u e, common p oxies o ICT include in e ne pene a ion, mobile
phone subsc ip ions, ixed b oadband subsc ip ions, ICT in es men , elecommunica ion
in as uc u e, and ICT se ice expo s.
2.2.4. Summa y and Empi ical Gap
F om he abo e b ie e iew, i is clea ha a well-es ablished body o li e a u e has
explo ed he ela ionship be ween ade openness and economic g ow h, wi h seminal
s udies such as Dolla (1992) and F ankel and Rome (1999) demons a ing ha ade
libe aliza ion enhances economic pe o mance. Pa allel o his, he ole o ICT in economic
g ow h has been widely examined, wi h s udies such as Rölle and Wa e man (2001)
and Fe nández-Po illo e al. (2020) highligh ing ICT’s abili y o educe ansac ion cos s,
enhance p oduc i i y, and os e inno a ion. Addi ionally, g owing esea ch explo es how
ICT mode a es he ade-g ow h nexus, a guing ha digi al in as uc u e s eng hens he
e iciency gains om ade, pa icula ly in de eloping economies (Cla ke & Walls en,2006;
Awad & Albai y,2022).
Despi e hese insigh s, li le a emp has been made o examine he ela ionship be-
ween ade openness, ICT, and economic e iciency a he ownship le el, whe e s uc u al
cons ain s may limi i ms’ abili y o ully capi alize on ade libe aliza ion. Exis ing s udies
p ima ily ocus on mac o o indus y-le el analyses, o e looking he unique challenges and
oppo uni ies wi hin ownship economies. This s udy ex ends he app oach o Abdulka im
(2023) by inco po a ing an ine iciency e m o accoun o de ia ions om on ie ou pu
due o echnical ine iciency. By applying a s ochas ic on ie model, his esea ch p o ides
a mo e nuanced unde s anding o how ICT and ade openness join ly in luence e iciency
in ownship economies, some hing ha has been o e looked in he li e a u e.
3. Me hodology
The empi ical amewo k o his s udy uses he s ochas ic on ie model pionee ed by
Aigne e al. (1977). This app oach is p e e ed o e i s al e na i e, he da a en elopmen
app oach (DEA), due o i s abili y o sepa a e andom noise om echnical ine iciencies
(Aigne e al.,1977). Township economies a e gene ally con on ed by ad e se en i on-
Economies 2025,13, 125 8 o 22
men al ac o s ha a e beyond hei con ol, making he s ochas ic on ie analysis (SFA)
mo e appealing. The analysis ollows Abdulka im (2023), who ex ended a Cobb-Douglas
speci ica ion o accommoda e he e ec o ade openness. This s udy imp o es Abdulka-
im’s speci ica ion by adding an ine iciency e m wi hin a s ochas ic on ie amewo k o
sui he con ex o he analysis. The applica ion o a s ochas ic on ie model in analyzing
ownship economies is pa icula ly jus i ied by he need o measu e no only he p oduc i e
capaci y o hese economies bu also he ex en o ine iciency ha hinde s hei g ow h.
Township economies ope a e in unique en i onmen s cha ac e ized by esou ce cons ain s
and sys emic ine iciencies. Unlike he adi ional p oduc ion unc ion model applied in
Abdulka im (2023), which assumes ha all de ia ions om he on ie a e pu ely an-
dom, he s ochas ic on ie model explici ly accoun s o ine iciency, making i a sui able
amewo k o assessing p oduc i i y in hese se ings. By decomposing ou pu de ia ions
in o ine iciency and s a is ical noise, he model allows o a mo e nuanced unde s anding
o he cons ain s aced by ownship economies. In addi ion, gi en he ole o ICT and
ade openness as po en ial d i e s o e iciency, he chosen amewo k p o ides a ele an
empi ical app oach o analyze how hese en i onmen al ac o s in e ac wi h ine iciency.
3.1. Model Speci ica ion
Building on he heo e ical amewo k p esen ed ea lie , he s a ing poin empi ically
is speci ica ions ha ake he ollowing o m:
Yi = (Xi β)+εi (5)
εi = i −ui
ui = (zi )(6)
whe e subsc ip s
i
and
deno e ownship and yea , espec i ely, Y is ou pu , X is a ec o
o inpu s (labou , human capi al, and physical capi al s ock),
β
is a ec o o on ie
pa ame e s, and
εi
is an e o e m composed o he andom componen (
i
) and he
ine iciency e m (
ui
). The ine iciency e m (
ui
) speci ically measu es he dis ance be ween
each ownship’s le el o ou pu and i s ull po en ial. Equa ion (6) is hen speci ied o
iden i y he sou ces o ine iciency. In his equa ion,
z
is a ec o o a iables ha a ec
e iciency. Wi h he ac ual a iables, he econome ic speci ica ions in his s udy ake he
ollowing o m.
log(y)i, =γ0+γ1log(L)i, +γ2log(K)i, +γ3EDUi, +εi, (7)
ui, =α0+α1OPi, +α2log(ICT)i, +α3OPi, ×log(ICT)i, +α4log(C)i,
+α5INFi, +ϵii,
(8)
i=1, . . . , 5; =1995, . . . , 2023
whe e yi, is he le el o local GDP in ownship iyea ;Lis labo cap u ed by he numbe
o employed wo ke s;
K
is ixed capi al s ock;
EDU
is educa ion, which is he sha e o
li e a e popula ion cap u ing he quali y o labo ;
OP
signi ies ade openness;
ICT
cap u es
he s ock o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies; C cap u es c ime measu ed by
he o al numbe o epo ed c imes; and
INF
is in o mali y measu ed as he numbe o
in o mal wo ke s as a sha e o o al employmen p oxying he in o mal sec o . The inclusion
o he in e ac ion e m (OP
∗
ICT) is mo i a ed by he hypo hesis ha he impac o ade
openness on echnical e iciency in ownship economies is condi ional upon he le el o
ICT in as uc u e. Tha is, while ade openness heo e ically enhances e iciency h ough
exposu e o global ma ke s and echnology spillo e s, hese bene i s may no ma e ialize
Economies 2025,13, 125 15 o 22
Table 8. T ade openness, ICT, and echnical e iciency.
F on ie Equa ion Model EX Model EN
Dependen a = Log Ou pu
Log Labou 0.489 *** 0.418 ***
(0.067) (0.114)
Log Capi al 0.055 0.031
(0.054) (0.068)
Li e acy (%) 0.003 *** 0.004 ***
(0.0004) (0.0004)
Ine iciency equa ion
Dependen a : ln σ2
u
Cons an 17.227 *** 15.384 ***
(2.727) (2.035)
Log ICT −1.183 *** −1.196 ***
(0.116) (0.107)
Expo s/Ou pu (%) 0.101 *** 0.046 **
(0.029) (0.023)
Expo s/Ou pu (%) ×Log ICT −0.027 *** −0.018 ***
(0.006) (0.004)
In o mal wo ke s/ o al employmen (%)
0.011 0.014
(0.011) (0.012)
Log C ime −1.277 *** −1.021 ***
(0.235) (0.172)
Dependen a = Dependen a : ln
σ2
Cons an −7.555 ***
(0.122)
Dependen a = Dependen a : ln
σ2
w
Cons an −7.989 ***
(0.125)
E a1 (Log ICT) −0.288 ***
(0.042)
E a2 (Expo s/Ou pu (%)) −0.019 ***
(0.005)
E a3 (Log Labou ) 0.047
(0.151)
E a4 (Log Capi al) 0.848 ***
(0.315)
Obse a ions 140 140
Log Likelihood 312.91 1275.33
Mean Technical E iciency 0.8318 0.8089
Median Technical E iciency 0.8786 0.8580
*** and ** deno e signi icance a 1% and 5%, espec i ely. Figu es in pa en heses a e s anda d e o s. In he
speci ica ion, labo , capi al, OP, and ICT a e ea ed as endogenous, and hey a e ins umen ed by hei i s lag
(i.e., −1).
Wi h espec o he con ol a iables, he e idence shows no signi ican link be ween
in o mali y and echnical ine iciencies. Wo isomely, he c ime a iable is signi ican ly
nega i e, sugges ing ha c iminali y has a posi i e e ec on economic ac i i y in hese
Economies 2025,13, 125 16 o 22
ownships. The a e age echnical e iciency based on he p e e ed model is 0.8089, sugges -
ing ha a ypical ownship municipali y p oduced abou 81 pe cen o i s po en ial ou pu .
Thus, a ypical ownship economy ope a ed abou 19 pe cen below i s ull po en ial. When
decomposed by ownship, Sowe o was ound o be he leas e icien , ope a ing 21% below
i s ull po en ial. This illus a es a sizeable scope o economic ans o ma ion in hese
ownships. I is necessa y o men ion ha he end a iable was excluded om he speci i-
ca ion o a oid unnecessa y model o e i ing, as i u ned ou o be highly insigni ican .
I s insigni icance demons a ed he absence o echnical changes o on ie shi s, which is
no su p ising gi en he low le els o inno a ion a he ownship le el.
Diagnos ic Tes s
This subsec ion p esen s he esul s om diagnos ic es s conduc ed o ensu e he
eliabili y o he esul s p esen ed abo e. I was necessa y o jus i y he Cobb–Douglas
unc ional o m in pa icula compa ed o i s lexible coun e pa , he T anslog speci ica ion.
I was also necessa y o es he p esence o echnical ine iciencies as hei absence would
educe he s ochas ic on ie model in o a no mal p oduc ion unc ion es imable using he
s anda d o dina y leas squa es me hod. Las ly, he analysis es ed o endogenei y as an
ins umen al a iable app oach when he a iables a e exogenous can be wo se han he
OLS me hod (S u m,1998). Accompanying his was a es o weak ins umen s.
Table 9p esen s he esul s om unc ional o m and ine iciency es s. The likelihood
(LR) es s a is ic ha compa es he es ic ed OLS eg ession and he un es ic ed s ochas ic
on ie model is signi ican a a 1% le el. This implies ha he ownships a e echnically
ine icien and ha a s ochas ic on ie model is jus i ied o e he s anda d OLS eg ession
wi h no mal e o s. The Wald es was pe o med o de e mine he join signi icance o
in e ac ions and highe -o de e ms in he on ie speci ica ion. As Table 9shows, he es
yielded an insigni ican p obabili y alue, sugges ing ha he Cobb–Douglas speci ica ion
was an adequa e ep esen a ion o he da a. Table 10 p esen s he skewness o he esiduals
gene a ed om an OLS eg ession. Fo a p oduc ion- ype s ochas ic on ie model, he
p esence o ine iciencies is no mally e lec ed in nega i ely skewed esiduals (Kumbhaka
e al.,2015). The esul s in Table 6 alida e his p oposi ion, lending u he suppo o a
s ochas ic on ie model o e a no mal OLS eg ession. Table 11 p esen s he esul s o
an endogenei y es . The es e u ns a low p obabili y alue, jus i ying he co ec ion o
endogenei y in he model. This esul con i ms ha he ue- ixed e ec s o G eene (2005)
and o he s ochas ic on ie models ha igno e idiosync a ic endogenei y would be biased.
Table 9. P e-es ima ion es s.
Tes Tes S a is ic Conclusion
LR Tes o echnical ine iciencies −2×(H0) −L(Ha) = 2218 *** ui =0
Func ional Fo m (Wald es ) Chi2= 3.52, p- alue = 0.1724 Cobb–Douglas
*** deno es signi ican a 1%.
Table 10. Skewness o OLS esiduals.
Va iables Obs Mean S d. De . Min Max Skew. Ku .
OLS esiduals 145 0 0.077 −0.22 0.203 −0.135 3.336
Table 11. Endogenei y and weak ins umen es .
Tes Tes S a is ic p-Value
e a Endogenei y Tes X2= 64.89 0.000
Weak ins umen es Chi2= 478 0.000
Economies 2025,13, 125 17 o 22
Las ly, o es he s eng h o he ins umen s, he s udy applied he app oach p oposed
by Ka akaplan (2022). In S a a 17, his is achie able h ough he command es es ModelEN
ollowed by he command es i , whe e i is a ec o o ins umen s used in he model.
As Table 11 shows, he co esponding p obabili y o he es is low, which, as a gued by
Ka akaplan (2022), sugges s ha he ins umen s a e no weak.
In summa y, he diagnos ic es s jus i y he me hodology used in he s udy. The
LR es con i ms he p esence o echnical ine iciency, alida ing he use o a s ochas ic
on ie model o e a con en ional OLS eg ession. The Wald es o unc ional o m
adequacy e eals ha he Cobb–Douglas speci ica ion is a sui able ep esen a ion o he
da a, as highe -o de e ms and in e ac ions we e ound o be s a is ically insigni ican .
Addi ionally, he skewness o OLS esiduals aligns wi h he expec a ions o a p oduc ion-
ype s ochas ic on ie model, ein o cing he choice o model. The endogenei y es e eals
signi ican e idence o endogenei y, jus i ying he use o an ins umen al a iable app oach
o a oid biased es ima es, while he weak ins umen es con i ms ha he ins umen s
employed a e alid. O e all, he baseline esul s p esen ed in his s udy can be deemed
eliable based on hese diagnos ic checks.
5. Discussion
The main hypo hesis o his s udy was ha low ICT in as uc u e may limi he abili y
o ownship economies o capi alize on ade oppo uni ies. The e idence suppo s his
claim as he in e ac ion be ween ICT and expo in ensi y is signi ican ly nega i e. As
a gued in he li e a u e, ownship businesses ypically ope a e in localized and in o mal
ma ke s, limi ing hei abili y o in eg a e in o egional o global ade ne wo ks. ICT
acili a es ma ke expansion by enabling i ms o access ma ke in o ma ion, connec wi h
in e na ional buye s, and op imize supply chain logis ics. This enhanced ma ke access
allows ownship i ms o capi alize on expo oppo uni ies and educe ine iciencies
associa ed wi h expo ing. The posi i e coe icien o expo in ensi y is no su p ising as i
sugges s ha expo ing is associa ed wi h echnical ine iciencies when ICT is held cons an .
This esul demons a es he impo an complemen a y ole o ICT i ownship economies
a e o ake ad an age o global ma ke oppo uni ies and achie e hei ull po en ial.
Wi h espec o o he a iables, he weak posi i e e ec o li e acy on local ou pu can
be explained by he lack o employmen oppo uni ies o skilled wo ke s in ownships.
The insigni ican link be ween capi al s ock and local ou pu , on he o he hand, may e lec
a subop imal alloca ion o capi al in ownships, which limi s he p oduc i i y o capi al.
This explana ion is plausible conside ing Can ’s (2017) p oposi ion ha Sou h A ica’s
ownships a e con on ed by subop imal in as uc u e.
The nega i e e ec o c ime on echnical ine iciency sugges s ha c iminali y d i es
economic ac i i y in ownships. Al hough su p ising a i s glance, his esul is consis en
wi h he no ion ha c iminali y can be a sou ce o li elihood when income inequali y is
high, and he labo ma ke has limi ed employmen oppo uni ies. The e o e, c ime may ac
as an in o mal li elihood s a egy in con ex s whe e o mal employmen is sca ce. In such
cases, illici economic ac i i y, al hough undesi able om a legal and e hical s andpoin ,
migh suppo household income and enable con inued economic pa icipa ion, he eby
masking ine iciencies a he agg ega e le el. Ano he po en ial in e p e a ion lies in he
en ep eneu ial esilience o ownship economies. In high-c ime en i onmen s, i ms
may be compelled o adop e iciency-enhancing p ac ices (e.g., digi al paymen sys ems,
secu i y in as uc u e, and localized supply chains). These adap a ions may inad e en ly
imp o e p oduc i i y. A hi d possible explana ion may ela e o da a limi a ions. C ime
epo ing is o en highe in be e - esou ced a eas due o s onge ins i u ional capaci y,
which a e also he ownships wi h ela i ely be e economic ac i i y. In his iew, he
Economies 2025,13, 125 18 o 22
nega i e ela ionship may be spu ious, e lec ing adminis a i e e iciency a he han a
causal economic link.
To explo e his u he , a sensi i i y analysis was conduc ed using he one-yea lag o
c ime o educe he possibili y o e e se causali y. The di ec ion and s a is ical signi icance
o he coe icien emained obus , ein o cing he obse ed ela ionship. Ne e heless,
gi en he complexi y o c ime’s socio-economic impac s, his esul should be in e p e ed
wi h cau ion, and u u e esea ch is encou aged o unpack his ela ionship mo e closely.
The inding ha in o mali y does no ha e a s a is ically signi ican e ec on echnical
ine iciency is no ewo hy, especially gi en he cen ali y o in o mal economic ac i i y in
ownship economies. One possible explana ion is he he e ogenei y wi hin he in o mal
sec o . In o mal businesses ange om mic o-en e p ises wi h high en ep eneu ial capaci y
o su i alis ope a ions. These di e gen cha ac e is ics may o se each o he in agg ega e
analysis, esul ing in no ne e ec on ine iciency.
A second conside a ion ela es o measu emen challenges. In o mali y is p oxied by
he sha e o in o mal wo ke s in o al employmen , which may no ully cap u e he in en-
si y o p oduc i i y o in o mal en e p ise ac i i y. Mo eo e , in o mali y s a is ics o en
unde epo ac ual ac i i y due o de ini ional ambigui ies and da a collec ion cons ain s.
Las ly, i is plausible ha in o mal businesses ope a ing ou side o mal egula o y
amewo ks may al eady be ope a ing nea hei e iciency on ie , cons ained by limi ed
capi al, low o e heads, and simpli ied p oduc ion p ocesses. In such cases, while hese
businesses may be small in scale, hey migh s ill exhibi echnical e iciency wi hin hei
ope a ional con ex . These in e p e a ions highligh he complexi y o he in o mal sec o ’s
ole in local p oduc i i y dynamics and sugges ha a mic o-econome ic app oach ha
dis inguishes be ween ypes o in o mal ac i i y may be needed in u u e esea ch.
F om a heo e ical pe spec i e, he main esul s o he s udy align wi h endogenous
g ow h heo y (Rome ,1990;G ossman & Helpman,1991), which highligh s he ole o
echnological p og ess and knowledge di usion in d i ing p oduc i i y and economic
g ow h. ICT adop ion acili a es knowledge spillo e s, educes ansac ion cos s, and
imp o es coo dina ion, he eby inc easing he e iciency o expo ing i ms in ownship
economies. Empi ically, he main esul s ag ee wi h B uma and Ma newick (2020a), whose
esul s demons a ed he need o add ess ICT issues wi h SMMEs ope a ing in Sou h
A ican ownships. Makena e al. (2015) also highligh he posi i e ole o ICT usage
on businesses in ownship economies in he con ex o Zambia. The complemen a y
ole o ICT in expo ing is in line wi h p e ious s udies such as hose o Knelle and
Timmis (2016) and Adeleye e al. (2021). The analysis o Adeleye e al. (2020) pa icula ly
ound ha ICT enhances he impac o ade on g ow h in A ica. The cu en s udy has
con ibu ed o his unde s anding by p esen ing es ima es d awn a he ownship le el.
Such a g anula app oach is impo an as i p o ides localized insigh s ha a e mo e
applicable o he eali ies o ownships, b idging he gap be ween mac oeconomic indings
and mic o-le el expe iences.
I is impo an o men ion he limi a ions o his s udy a his s age. Fi s , he modeling
app oach employed in his analysis igno ed spa ial e ec s. Townships a e no isola ed
economic uni s and may po en ially in e ac wi h each o he h ough supply chains, mi-
g a ion, and sha ed in as uc u e. I is possible ha echnical e iciency imp o emen in
one ownship could ha e posi i e ex e nali ies o nea by ownships. Neglec ing such
spa ial dependence may, he e o e, pain an incomple e pic u e o ine iciency dynamics in
ownships. A mi iga ing ac o , howe e , is ha he i e ownships included in his analysis
a e ha dly close o each o he , making spa ial spillo e s a ising om geog aphical p oxim-
i y less p oblema ic. In addi ion, inco po a ing spa ial e ec s wi hin a s ochas ic on ie
amewo k emains a de eloping a ea o esea ch, and he p ope ies o many eme ging
Economies 2025,13, 125 19 o 22
spa ial s ochas ic on ie es ima o s a e no ye well unde s ood. Ano he limi a ion o he
s udy ela es o da a cons ain s on some o he key challenges a ec ing he ans o ma ion
o ownship economies, such as income inequali y and limi ed access o unding.
Las ly, he s udy was based on a ela i ely small sample, which migh hinde gene al-
iza ion beyond he i e ownships analyzed in his s udy. This sample e lec ed he bes
possible numbe o obse a ions gi en cu en da a a ailabili y and he need o ocus on
majo ownships. Township-le el annual economic da a a e only sys ema ically a ailable
om 1995 onwa ds, and ex ending he sample pe iod u he was no easible. Simila ly,
da a co e age ac oss ownships is highly une en, and only i e majo ownship economies
had su icien ly comple e da a o suppo he analysis. While ecognizing he sample size
limi a ion, he use o small-N panel econome ic echniques and diagnos ics es s pe o med
p o ides easonable con idence in he alidi y o he empi ical indings. Fu u e esea ch
could expand he scope as mo e ownship-le el da a become a ailable o e ime.
6. Conclusions
This s udy se ou o examine he impac o ade openness on he echnical e iciency
o ownship economies in Sou h A ica and o assess whe he ICT ac s as a mode a ing
ac o in his ela ionship. Using an ins umen al a iable s ochas ic on ie model applied
o a balanced panel o i e majo ownships om 1995 o 2023, he esul s p o ide clea
empi ical suppo o he hypo hesis ha ICT signi ican ly enhances he e iciency bene i s
o ade openness. The indings o his s udy pa icula ly p o ide s ong empi ical e idence
ha inadequa e ICT in as uc u e cons ains ownship economies om ully capi alizing
on ade oppo uni ies. The signi ican nega i e in e ac ion be ween ICT and expo
in ensi y unde sco es ICT’s c i ical ole in acili a ing ma ke access, op imizing logis ics
o ownships, and educing ine iciencies. Wi hou su icien ICT in as uc u e in place,
expo ing is linked o echnical ine iciencies, highligh ing he u gen need o digi al
ans o ma ion o maximize he bene i s o ade libe aliza ion. This conclusion aligns wi h
endogenous g ow h heo y, which emphasizes echnology and knowledge di usion as key
d i e s o e iciency and long- e m economic g ow h.
These indings con ibu e o economic heo y by ex ending he applica ion o endoge-
nous g ow h models o subna ional ownship economies, a domain ypically excluded om
he mac o ade-g ow h empi ical li e a u e. The s udy in oduces new empi ical insigh s o
unde s and p oduc i i y dynamics in ma ginalized u ban con ex s by demons a ing ha
he in e ac ion be ween ICT and ade openness signi ican ly a ec s echnical e iciency.
F om a p ac ical pe spec i e, he esul s ca y impo an implica ions o policymak-
e s. Ta ge ed in e en ions o expand digi al in as uc u e, p omo e digi al li e acy, and
subsidize ICT adop ion can unlock signi ican e iciency gains in ownship economies, pa -
icula ly by enabling in o mal and small businesses o engage mo e e ec i ely wi h global
ma ke s. The esul s essen ially highligh he p essing need o policies ha s eng hen
ICT in as uc u e in Sou h A ican ownships o ensu e ha i ms each he ull po en ial
o global ma ke pa icipa ion. Gi en ha ICT mi iga es ine iciencies associa ed wi h
expo ing, go e nmen in e en ions may need o, as alluded o sho ly abo e, ocus on
expanding digi al access, subsidizing ICT adop ion o small businesses, and implemen ing
digi al li e acy p og ams. These ini ia i es would empowe ownship en e p ises o in e-
g a e mo e e ec i ely in o egional and global ma ke s, imp o ing e iciency and boos ing
local economic ou pu .
A key limi a ion o his s udy is i s inabili y o accoun o spa ial dependencies, which
may in luence e iciency spillo e s ac oss ownship economies. Fu u e esea ch could
explo e ecen ad ancemen s in spa ial s ochas ic on ie models o cap u e he po en ial
in e dependence o ownship economies. Addi ionally, u u e s udies could apply he
Economies 2025,13, 125 20 o 22
indi ec p oduc ion unc ion app oach o examine he combined e ec s o ICT and ade
openness on echnical e iciency in he p esence o bo owing cons ain s.
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da ase suppo ing he esul s o he s udy was submi ed o he
jou nal. The da ase is also a ailable upon eques om he au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho decla e no con lic o in e es .
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