Agyeman-Boa en, Solomon Yaw
A icle
De e minan s o po e y in u al cocoa a ming
communi ies in Ghana: unidimensional and
mul idimensional analysis
Cogen Economics & Finance
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Agyeman-Boa en, Solomon Yaw (2024) : De e minan s o po e y in u al cocoa
a ming communi ies in Ghana: unidimensional and mul idimensional analysis, Cogen Economics
& Finance, ISSN 2332-2039, Taylo & F ancis, Abingdon, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp. 1-21,
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De e minan s o po e y in u al cocoa a ming
communi ies in Ghana: unidimensional and
mul idimensional analysis
Solomon Yaw Agyeman-Boa en
To ci e his a icle: Solomon Yaw Agyeman-Boa en (2024) De e minan s o po e y in u al
cocoa a ming communi ies in Ghana: unidimensional and mul idimensional analysis, Cogen
Economics & Finance, 12:1, 2397808, DOI: 10.1080/23322039.2024.2397808
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© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS | RESEARCH ARTICLE
De e minan s o po e y in u al cocoa a ming communi ies in
Ghana: unidimensional and mul idimensional analysis
Solomon Yaw Agyeman-Boa en
a,b
a
Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o Ghana, Legon, Ghana
b
School o Humani ies and Educa ion, Knu s o d Uni e si y
College, Eas Legon, Ghana
ABSTRACT
Po e y is a u al phenomenon due o he dominance o subsis ence a ming in u al
communi ies. This s udy compa es he es ima es o unidimensional and mul idimen-
sional me hodologies o analyse he ac o s ha in luence he po e y le els o cocoa
a ming households p edominan ly in u al Ghana. A census was conduc ed in he
Cho icho i communi y in Ghana using a s uc u ed ques ionnai e o ga he in o ma-
ion om 386 cocoa a ming households. The mul idimensional po e y index and
expendi u e-based po e y measu es we e used o es ima e a bi a ia e p obi eg es-
sion o ind he de e minan s o cocoa a ming households’po e y. The s udy’s ou -
come indica es ha po e y among he cocoa a me s is join ly de e mined,
unidimensionally and mul idimensionally, by he access o heal hca e, household child
dea hs, household’s school-age child no in school, access o a m inpu s, and he age
o he household head. Whe eas he educa ion le el o he household head, e-
quency o ill-heal h, use o ex e nal labou , mig a ion s a us, and ela ionship o he
household head we e signi ican in de e mining mul idimensional po e y, he num-
be o household membe s, coope a i e union membe ship, access o a m wa e ,
occupa ional di e si y, household access o inancial c edi , and he ma i al s a us o
he household head signi ican ly de e mined unidimensional po e y among he
cocoa a me s. E en hough bo h po e y measu es p oduced ai ly di e en esul s,
he s udy’s indings showed he mu ual and exclusi e impo ance o he unidimen-
sional and mul idimensional po e y app oaches in de e mining po e y and o mula -
ing good de elopmen al policies o cocoa a me s. The e o e, selec ing an app oach
should be based on p e ailing ci cums ances, such as di e ences ac oss loca ions and
wi hin households o en i ies.
IMPACT STATEMENT
This esea ch p o ides c i ical insigh s in o he complex na u e o po e y among
cocoa a ming households in u al Ghana. By compa ing unidimensional and mul idi-
mensional po e y measu es, he s udy e eals signi ican dispa i ies in how po e y is
assessed, o e ing a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o he socio-economic chal-
lenges aced by u al communi ies. This dual app oach no only unco e s he socioe-
conomic ac o s ha con ibu e o po e y bu also e eals disc epancies and
complemen a i ies be ween di e en po e y measu emen me hods, o e ing a
nuanced pe spec i e ha can enhance he accu acy o po e y assessmen s. The ind-
ings highligh he need o policymake s, de elopmen agencies, and social planne s
o a ge in e en ions ha add ess he speci ic ac o s con ibu ing o po e y in u al
a eas, he eby imp o ing he e ec i eness o po e y alle ia ion p og ams. By in o m-
ing mo e holis ic and inclusi e policies, his s udy suppo s e o s o educe po e y
among u al cocoa a me s, ul ima ely con ibu ing o b oade economic de elopmen
and social equi y in Ghana and simila con ex s ac oss de eloping coun ies.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 22 Ap il 2024
Re ised 1 Augus 2024
Accep ed 23 Augus 2024
KEYWORDS
Bi a ia e p obi eg ession;
cocoa a me s;
de e minan s; mul idimen-
sional po e y; u al a eas;
unidimensional po e y
SUBJECTS
De elopmen Economics;
Ag icul u al Economics,
Economics and
De elopmen ,
Mic oeconomics,
Econome ics, Economics,
Finance
JEL CLASSIFICATIONS
C31; I32; O13; Q12; Q14
CONTACT Solomon Yaw Agyeman-Boa en [email p o ec ed],[email p o ec ed] Depa men o Economics,
Uni e si y o Ghana, Legon, Ghana
Supplemen al da a o his a icle can be accessed online a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2397808.
ß2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE
2024, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 2397808
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2397808
In oduc ion
Po e y is a majo conce n o all go e nmen s globally. In he 1990s, de elopmen li e a u e ocused on
how economic g ow h can be used as a s a egy o educe po e y and no ed p og ess in many coun-
ies’po e y educ ion wi h apid and high a es o g ow h (Dolla & K aay, 2000; Wo ld Bank, 2000).
Subsequen li e a u e a gued ha po e y educ ion was no achie ed p ima ily h ough he s uc u e o
g ow h and income inequali y bu speci ically h ough g ow h a es (Asogwa e al., 2012; Mello , 1999;
Ra allion & Da , 1996). Recen li e a u e ad oca es o using inno a ion sys ems o educe po e y (eg
Onumah e al., 2023). Dzanku (2015) no ed ha ‘g ow h in ag icul u e is epo ed o be mo e p o-poo
han g ow h in o he sec o s’. Po e y is a u al phenomenon (De Jan y & Sadoule , 2000; GSS, 2014,
2018). Acco ding o Ghana Li ing S anda d Su ey (GLSS) 5–7 epo s
1
, u al a eas con ibu ed 85.3%,
78% and 83.2% o o al po e y in Ghana, despi e he di e en deg ees o po e y among u al dwelle s.
In Sub-Saha an A ica, u al dwelle s a e p edominan ly a me s and dis inc ions a e classi ied by he eco-
logical zones o u al a eas ( o es , sa annah and coas al). Fo es a eas a e sui able o cocoa cul i a ion,
and hence cocoa a me s domina e he o es zones in Ghana. The end o po e y incidence o all he
u al zones and na ional po e y in Ghana inc eased om GLSS 1–2 and hen dec eased in GLSS 3
epo s. Howe e , excep o he GLSS 3 epo in which u al o es a eas had a highe po e y inci-
dence (26.5%) han coas al a eas (22.6%), he ea lie ounds o GLSS epo s on po e y incidence by
locali y in Ghana (GLSS 1–3) show ha u al o es a eas had a lowe incidence o po e y han o he
zones and he na ional po e y incidence (Coulombe & McKay, 1995). Likewise, He n
andez-N
u~
nez e al.
(2022) ound among Colombian u al households ha Cocoa a me s ha e he highes capi al endow-
men and le el o wel a e compa ed o di e si ied a me s and new cocoa a me s. The cu en es ima es
o po e y incidence in Ghana by locali y a e measu ed by di iding o al household consump ion by he
numbe o adul equi alen s in he household, which is di e en om calcula ing he o al household
expendi u e, pe capi a, in cons an p ices, adjus ed o he e ec s o di e en ial ecall e o be ween
GLSS 1, 2, and GLSS 3. Despi e he di e ences in he me hodologies, he cu en ends o GLSS esul s
a e no di e en om ea lie ones (Coulombe & McKay, 1995; GSS, 2014,2018). GLSS 5–7 epo ha
u al o es a eas ha e he lowes po e y incidence among he di e en u al zones, u al a eas, and he
na ional po e y le el. E en wi h ex eme po e y, only he u al coas al zone eco ded a lowe inci-
dence o 9.6% compa ed o 12.6% in he u al o es . None heless, he u al o es zone has ecen ly ol-
lowed he gene al end o educ ion in Ghana’s po e y incidence. Al hough he con ibu ion o u al
o es zones o he o al po e y o Ghana has been lowe han ha o u al sa annah zones, i has
been a abo e ha o u al coas al zones. Ru al o es a eas, on he o he hand, inc eased hei con i-
bu ion o o al po e y om 29.1% o 30.3% om GLSS 5 o 6, be o e alling o 25.3% in GLSS 7 (GSS,
2018). Fu he mo e, e idence sugges s ha mos o he wo ld’s impo e ished li e and wo k in u al
a eas (IFAD, 2001; Wo ld Bank, 1999); hence, educing o e all po e y depends la gely on educing u al
po e y. In A ica, p og ammes and policies implemen ed o se e po e y educ ion s a egies included
he S uc u al Adjus men P og amme and Po e y Reduc ion S a egy Pape s (PRSPs). In Ghana, add-
i ional s a egies such as LEAP (Li elihood Empowe men Agains Po e y), he Capi a ion G an , he
School Feeding P og amme, he ee dis ibu ion o school uni o ms, exe cise books, and ex books, he
elimina ion o schools unde ees, and he ee senio high school educa ion a e jus a ew o he p o-
g ammes ha ha e been implemen ed o alle ia e po e y among he ulne able popula ion.
Consequen ly, i is c i ical o adop a po e y alle ia ion s a egy by p ima ily assessing he socioeco-
nomic cha ac e is ics o de e mine he ac o s ha in luence he po e y le els o u al dwelle s who a e
p edominan ly engaged in he ag icul u al sec o .
Based on he capabili ies app oach by Sen (1979,1985), many schola s ha e a gued ha po e y is
mul idimensional and includes dimensions o basic needs: educa ion, heal h, and o he indica o s o
s anda d o li ing (eg De Jan y & Sadoule , 2000; Fe gusson e al., 2001). Cu en s udies also ake in o
accoun in angible ac o s such as he sa is ac ion o being employed, empowe men , communi y ies,
legal and human igh s, and poli ical eedoms (Wo ld Bank, 2000). As such, he Wo ld Bank and o he
in e na ional bodies in ecen yea s ha e e ised hei ea lie eliance on measu ing po e y using a uni-
dimensional app oach, which iews wel a e acco ding o income o expendi u e (Ningaye e al., 2011).
Consequen ly, ecen s udies a ou he mul idimensional po e y measu e o e he adi ional
2 S. Y. AGYEMAN-BOATEN
expendi u e-based measu e o analysis and policy o mula ion due o i s inclusion o many indica o s o
li e. Mo eo e , cocoa a me s, p edominan ly in u al o es a eas, ace many challenges, including c op
diseases (cocoa swollen shoo i us disease (CSSVD), black pods), lack o social ameni ies, and inad-
equa e ex ension o ice s. Fo ins ance, he cocoa swollen shoo i us disease has caused a massi e
decline in he li ing s anda ds o many cocoa a me s in Ghana in ecen yea s (Agyeman-Boa en &
Fumey, 2021). Al hough ecen eco ds ha e shown a decline in po e y in Ghana, he po e y phenom-
enon pe sis s in u al a eas domina ed by a me s. Despi e all hese challenges, i is di icul o ind cu -
en s udies ha comp ehensi ely in es iga e he ac o s de e mining cocoa a me s’po e y and he
di e ences in he es ima es o he wo po e y measu ing echniques (money-me ic and non-money
me ic). De e mining he socioeconomic well-being o Ghana’s cocoa a me s is di icul wi hou empi -
ical e idence. Gi en he c i ical ole o cocoa a ming in he u al economy and he pe sis en po e y in
hese egions, mo e accu a e assessmen s o in o m e ec i e policy in e en ions a e needed. This s udy
aims o assess he ac o s ha in luence he po e y le els o cocoa a ming households in u al Ghana
by compa ing he indings o bo h unidimensional and mul idimensional app oaches. The speci ic objec-
i es include (1) iden i ying and examining he socioeconomic cha ac e is ics o u al cocoa a me s ha
in luence hei po e y le els, and (2) compa ing he indings o he mul idimensional po e y measu e
o he unidimensional (income- o expendi u e-based) measu e. To achie e his, quan i a i e da a o
he s udy we e collec ed h ough a su ey om Cho icho i (a cocoa a ming communi y in Ghana). The
bi a ia e p obi eg ession analysis was employed o he s udy es ima es, wi h mul idimensional po e y
index (MPI) and expendi u e-based app oaches as he measu es o he dependen a iables (mul idi-
mensional po e y and unidimensional po e y), espec i ely.
This s udy con ibu es signi ican ly o li e a u e and policy-making, ocusing on po e y measu emen
and alle ia ion among u al cocoa a me s in de eloping coun ies. Fi s ly, i con ibu es o unde s and-
ing he dynamics be ween he unidimensional and mul idimensional po e y me hods using da a om
u al cocoa a me s. Th ough empi ical esea ch, his s udy uniquely jux aposes mone a y and non-mon-
e a y wel a e indica o s om a u al popula ion in a de eloping coun y in A ica. This app oach high-
ligh s he disc epancies and complemen a i ies be ween he wo po e y me hods. Secondly, i
examines he ac o s de e mining he po e y le els o u al cocoa a me s, which a e unde -explo ed in
exis ing li e a u e. The indings a e in ended o in o m go e nmen s, po e y analys s, and social plan-
ne s o a ge he mos impo an ac o s o alle ia ing po e y in he u al sec o .
The emainde o he pape is o ganised as ollows. The nex sec ion p o ides an o e iew o po e y
in Ghana, ollowed by a b ie e iew o he li e a u e. The me hodology and da a collec ion p ocedu e
a e p esen ed in sec ion h ee. The s udy’s indings, analysis, and discussions a e p esen ed in he ou h
sec ion. The inal sec ion summa ises he indings and makes policy ecommenda ions o po e y
alle ia ion.
Po e y in Ghana
Po e y in Ghana expe ienced a signi ican decline be ween 1988/1989 and 1991/1992 a e inc easing
be ween 1987/88 and 1988/89 (GLSS 1–3). I ose om 36.8% in 1987/88 o 41.8% in 1988/89 be o e all-
ing o 27.9% in 1991/92 (Coulombe & McKay, 1995). Acco ding o he Ghana S a is ical Se ice’s GLSS
epo , new po e y lines and p ice de la o s ha e demons a ed a d op in na ional po e y a es ac oss
all po e y indica o s om 1992 o 2017 (GLSS 3–7) (GSS, 2018). Be ween 1987 and 1992, po e y
dec eased d ama ically be ween 1988/89 and 1991/92, mo e han o se ing he inc eases in all u al
a eas be ween 1987/88 and 1988/89. Ghana achie ed he i s Millennium De elopmen Goal (MDG) o
hal ing po e y om 51.7% o he popula ion in 1992 o 24.2% o he popula ion in 2013. I is poised o
achie e Sus ainable De elopmen Goal (SDG) 1, which calls o an end o po e y in all i s o ms e e y-
whe e. F om 1992 o 2013, he headcoun a io declined om 56.5% o 24.2%. In ecen GLSS epo s,
po e y incidence has been educed sligh ly o 23.4%. Addi ionally, ex eme po e y dec eased om
33.2% in 1992 o 8.2% in 2017. As a esul , nea ly a qua e o Ghana’s popula ion is poo , wi h less han
a en h o he popula ion li ing in ex eme po e y. Gene ally, he dynamics o Ghana’s cu en po e y
condi ion, om GLSS 5 o GLSS 7 (2005/06–2016/17), show ha po e y is s ill p edominan ly a u al
phenomenon, wi h u al sa annah ha ing he highes incidence as he poo es locali y. Since 1991/92,
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 3
po e y has been mo e widesp ead in o he u ban a eas han in Acc a, bu po e y le els in u ban a eas
a e gene ally lowe han in any o he h ee u al locali ies (Coulombe & McKay, 1995; GSS, 2014,2018).
The GLSS 7 epo indica ed ha sel -employed household heads engaged in he ag icul u al sec o con-
ibu e he highes o po e y in Ghana, wi h hei highes po e y incidence. Meanwhile, p i a e
employees and sel -employed household heads wo king in indus ies o he han ag icul u e a e less
likely o be poo han hose who wo k in ag icul u e (GSS, 2018).
Li e a u e e iew
The e a e many heo ies o po e y discussed and classi ied di e en ly in he li e a u e. A common clas-
si ica ion in ecen li e a u e is based on he oo causes o po e y. Well-known classi ica ions include
heo ies based on he cause o po e y in indi idual de iciencies (conse a i e) and hose ha a ibu e
po e y o b oade social phenomena (libe al o p og essi e). The classi ica ion can be ex ended in o
i e causes o po e y, which a e he heo ies ha o igina e om indi idual de iciencies, cul u al belie
sys ems, poli ical o economic dis o ions, geog aphical dispa i ies, and cumula i e and ci cums an ial
o igins (B adshaw, 2007). This s udy delibe a es on wo phenomena o po e y:cul u al/beha iou al and
s uc u al/economic. The cul u al hesis linked o he indi idual heo y o po e y, a gues ha po e y is
oo ed in he beha iou o he poo and de icien cha ac e ha unde mines success and economic
well-being (Aikaeli, 2010). As a esul o he poo ’s dys unc ional alues conce ning mains eam social
no ms on amily, educa ion, and wo k, po e y is passed down om gene a ion o gene a ion, esul ing
in ising a es o iolence, c ime, subs ance abuse, and amily b eakdown (Aikaeli, 2010). This a gumen
is c i icised o blaming and s igma ising he poo , as i me ely ou lines he symp oms o po e y wi h-
ou add essing sys ema ic causes. The ‘s uc u al o economic’school o hough also a gues ha mos
po e y esul s om a ou s o a ce ain g oup o e o he s, which ensues om s uc u al ac o s in
economies and ins i u ional en i onmen s. Holze (1991) no ed ha an indi idual’s po e y can be
asc ibed no jus o pe sonal a ibu es, bu also o he condi ions in which hey li e. Economic oppo u-
ni ies, such as p oduc i e employmen and in as uc u e, and social ameni ies, may be among hese
a iables. Ma xis s endo se his iewpoin ha po e y in he de eloping wo ld highligh s he de eloped
wo ld’s pas exploi a ion (Aikaeli, 2010). Howe e , because some p esen p ospe ous coun ies we e
once colonies, his heo y has been c i icized as lacking adequa e p oo . No wi hs anding hese wo
main a gumen s, people, cul u es and ins i u ions in ce ain geog aphical egions ace dispa i ies in
essen ial esou ces necessa y o gene a e wel a e and income. Fu he mo e, hey a e limi ed in hei abil-
i y o ad oca e o equi able edis ibu ion o esou ces. The s uc u al app oach and he heo y o po -
e y due o geog aphical dispa i ies a e emphasised in his s udy. I ies u al income o d i ing
p oduc ion ac o s such as ecological condi ions, land de elopmen , and he size and educa ion o he
labou o ce (Aikaeli, 2010; Samuelson & No dhaus, 1992).
Empi ically, some s udies ha e employed di e en me hods o analyse po e y. Mekonnen (2024)
used a new ulne abili y o income and mul idimensional po e y es ima ion index o measu e he likeli-
hood o indi iduals alling in o and emaining in po e y. The s udy ound ha in Ghana ulne abili y o
income and mul idimensional po e y we e 37.9% and 56%, espec i ely wi h 23.4% o he 37.9% a isk
o alling in o po e y and 14.57% a isk o emaining in po e y. Cos a (2003) also employed ank co -
ela ion analysis o de e mine how he unidimensional and mul idimensional echniques e eal he p es-
ence o wo dis inc g oups o poo households. He concluded ha income-based e alua ion only
deli e s a pa ial pic u e o po e y. Compa ing mul idimensional and unidimensional po e y es ima es
o he Mandi Bahuddin Dis ic in Pakis an o 2010 and 2014, Khan e al. (2020) iden i ied mixed esul s
in compa ing unidimensional es ima es wi h mul idimensional po e y in Asia and A ica. They ecom-
mended a holis ic s a egy o iden i y mul idimensional po e y in he social sec o because he ela i e
p opo ion o educa ional and heal h po e y owa ds MPI emained la ge . Be sisa and Heshma i (2021)
used he logi model o in es iga e he de e minan s o household po e y s a us in E hiopia, employing
bo h unidimensional and mul idimensional measu emen s. They ound ha in ensi y, se e i y, and dep h
o po e y di e signi ican ly be ween he wo measu emen s. Meanwhile, Belhadj and Limam (2012)
e isi ed wo issues aised by he use o uzzy measu es a he han adi ional poo /non-poo
4 S. Y. AGYEMAN-BOATEN
dicho omous measu es, p oposing he use o uzzy mone a y and non-mone a y measu es wi h poo
and non-poo membe ship unc ions.
Besides, many s udies ha e ied o in es iga e he de e minan s o wel a e o po e y among di e -
en g oups o popula ion wi h he expendi u e-based app oach o wel a e (eg Asogwa e al., 2012;
Baba unde e al., 2008; Eyasu, 2020; Owuo e al., 2007; Salami e al., 2017; Woldie e al., 2020). In he
con ex o mul idimensional po e y, Huluka (2024) u ilized an o de ed p obi model and ound he loca-
ion, household’s head demog aphics (sex, li e acy and age), amily size, land a ea and egion o esi-
dence as he key in luencing ac o s o mul idimensional po e y in E hiopia, which is p edominan ly
u al. Howe e , limi ed li e a u e has empi ically highligh ed he di e ences be ween he unidimensional
and he mul idimensional me hods, especially wi h a da ase om u al a eas and de eloping coun ies
such as Ghana. Cos a (2003) belie es ha compa ing unidimensional and mul idimensional me hodolo-
gies is an app op ia e s ep in po e y analyses and ha i he di e ences a e mino , unidimensional ana-
lysis should con inue o play a signi ican ole in po e y esea ch. When he wo g oups o poo , on he
o he hand, show signi ican di e ences, an app op ia e amewo k mus be chosen.
Me hodology
Resea ch design
Su eys se e as a p ima y me hods o ga he ing da a om esponden s o quan i a i e s udies, ena-
bling he analysis o la ge samples be o e gene alising he indings o he b oade popula ion (Hesse-
Bibe , 2010)). Consequen ly, he s udy u ilises quan i a i e me hods and da a o d aw conclusions on he
nume ical alues. The s udy is pa o a b oade s udy o in es iga e he impac o cocoa swollen shoo
i us disease (CSSVD) on he li elihood o cocoa a me s in Ghana (Agyeman-Boa en & Fumey, 2021).
The s udy elied mainly on p ima y da a; howe e , seconda y in o ma ion was also sou ced om he
Ghana S a is ical Se ice, Ghana Cocoa Boa d and he Se wi Akon omb a Dis ic Assembly.
3.2. S udy a ea
The esea ch a ea, Cho icho i, is in he Se wi Akon omb a Dis ic o he Wes e n No h Region, nea he
Sui Fo es Rese e. Figu e 1 illus a es he dis ic map o Se wi Akon omb a Dis ic , delinea ing he spe-
ci ic posi ion o Cho icho i, while Figu e 2 shows he spa ial layou o he Cho icho i communi y. The
communi y is loca ed 281 km om Acc a, Ghana’s capi al ci y. F om 1964 o 2001, he communi y
ecei ed an a e age o 1461 mm o annual ain all, and he clima e is opical, wi h an a e age empe a-
u e o 22 C–27 C (Boni e al., 2004). Du ing he cocoa season, wo ke s and ade s om ancophone
Figu e 1. Akon omb a dis ic popula ion p ojec ion map. Sou ce: Akon ob a Dis ic Assembly.
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 5
coun ies and o he pa s o Ghana, p ima ily om he no h, used o do business in he s udy a ea.
Un o una ely, he eme gence o he cocoa swollen shoo i us disease in ecen yea s has caused a
massi e decline in he economic ac i i ies o hese mig an s in and a ound he s udy a ea. O e 75% o
he people in he a ea wo k in ag icul u e, a ming cocoa and ood c ops including plan ain, cassa a,
ege ables, and ice, among o he s (Schul e-He b uggen, 2012). The clima e, soil ype, opog aphy, and
o he cha ac e is ics o he s udy loca ion make i ideal o cocoa cul i a ion. The communi y is con-
nec ed o he na ional elec ici y g id. O he social ameni ies o he communi y include a basic school
up o junio high le el, a communi y cen e, wo bo eholes, a i e , wo public pi -la ine oile s, a com-
muni y heal h planning and se ices (CHPS) compound, nine chu ches and a mosque. The main cooking
uel used by he communi y dwelle s is wood and he p ima y building ma e ials a e me al oo ing
shee s, cemen loo s, and mud o clay o he ou e walls. Abou 84 pe cen o he people in he com-
muni y g ow cocoa, making i a ai ep esen a i e o he u al cocoa a ming communi ies. Howe e ,
he su ey does no claim o be comple ely ep esen a i e o Ghana bu an icipa es ha he indings
based on his sample will se e as a use ul es ima e o u al cocoa a me s when b oadly in e p e ed.
Sampling p ocedu e and echnique
Da a collec ion
The s udy da a we e collec ed p ima ily om a p ima y sou ce in ou weeks om Janua y o Feb ua y
2018. A s uc u ed ques ionnai e was adminis e ed o ga he he p ima y da a. The ques ionnai e aimed
o cap u e a ious aspec s o he esponden s’socioeconomic condi ions, pa icula ly ocusing on hei
engagemen in cocoa a ming.
Sampling echnique
Ma
ınez-Mesa e al. (2016) no ed ha sampling esul s, especially in s udies aiming o es ima e he
p e alence o disease, can be a ec ed by andom o sampling e o . To mi iga e hese e o s and ensu e
he eliabili y o he da a, an exhaus i e app oach wi hin he cocoa a ming communi y was adop ed.
Gi en he p ac ical limi a ions such as ime es ic ions, e hical conce ns, budge a y cons ain s, and
logis ical challenges, a non-p obabilis ic sampling me hod, speci ically pu posi e sampling echnique,
was adop ed.
Ta ge popula ion
The a ge popula ion o he s udy comp ised households wi hin a u al cocoa a ming communi y ha
was signi ican ly a ec ed by he cocoa swollen shoo i us disease. The goal was o ob ain comp ehen-
si e da a om his speci ic popula ion segmen . To achie e a ho ough and ep esen a i e da a se , a
census o he cocoa a ming communi y was conduc ed. I in ol ed in e iewing all households in he
communi y, bu he su ey was e mina ed i a household was ound no o engage in cocoa a ming.
This app oach ensu ed ha only ele an esponden s (cocoa a me s) we e included in he su ey.
Figu e 2. Cho icho i: s udy si e. Sou ce: Google map.
6 S. Y. AGYEMAN-BOATEN
Sample size and da a collec ion p ocess
Da a we e collec ed om 386 u al cocoa a me s who we e iden i ied h ough a communi y su ey con-
duc ed in Cho icho i and i s su ounding hamle s. The su ey was conduc ed as a one- ime exe cise
h ough ace- o- ace in e iews. The me hod acili a ed comp ehensi e da a collec ion and allowed o
cla i ica ions and addi ional in o ma ion o be ga he ed du ing he in e iews. The objec i e o ob aining
a o al enume a ion o households in he communi y was success ully achie ed h ough his me hod.
E hical compliance
To achie e ull pa icipa ion om esponden s as well as mee esea ch e hical equi emen s, he ques-
ionnai e was me iculously designed o assu e esponden s o con iden iali y and anonymi y. Mo eo e ,
esponden s’pa icipa ion in he in e iew was en i ely olun a y, wi h each esponden p o iding e bal
consen ollowing a ho ough explana ion o he ques ionnai e’s pu pose and p ocedu es. This s udy
was pa o a b oade s udy o in es iga e he impac o cocoa swollen shoo i us disease (CSSVD) on
he li elihood o cocoa a me s in Ghana, and hence, e hical clea ance was secu ed h ough he
Uni e si y o Ghana, Legon, Depa men o Economics E hics Commi ee in adhe ence o he guidelines
se o h by he E hics Commi ee o Humani ies. Consequen ly, he depa men issued an in oduc o y
le e o he s akeholde ins i u ions and esponden s, ou lining he e hical conside a ions and objec i es
o he s udy.
Ins umen s
Quan i a i e da a was collec ed wi h a pape -based s uc u ed ques ionnai e adminis e ed o households
in he cocoa a ming communi y. Access o he ques ionnai e and s udy da a is acili a ed h ough he
da a a ailabili y s a emen . The su ey collec ed indica o s on he cocoa a me s’household demo-
g aphic o pe sonal cha ac e is ics, capabili y (educa ion and heal h), CSSVD and a m cha ac e is ics,
economic esou ces (Food and Non- ood expendi u e), housing/dwelling- ela ed in o ma ion, and house-
hold asse owne ship (li ing s anda d indica o s). The ques ionnai e was designed ollowing Ghana li ing
s anda d su eys o he Ghana s a is ical se ice p io o 2018 and he new (acu e) mul idimensional
po e y index o de eloping coun ies p oposed by Alki e and San os (2011).
Analy ical echnique: es ima ion app oach
To ensu e accu acy, consis ency, and eliabili y, he p ima y da a collec ed we e sc eened. Codes we e
assigned o he esponses ex ac ed om he ques ionnai e be o e da a en y. Desc ip i e analyses o
he a iables we e conduc ed o analyse he socioeconomic cha ac e is ics o he cocoa a me s. The
Mul idimensional Po e y Index (MPI) and he unidimensional (expendi u e-based) app oaches we e
used as dependen a iables o measu e he po e y a iable. Finally, he esea ch objec i e o de e -
mine he p edic o s o he po e y o u al cocoa a me s was achie ed wi h he es ima ion o a bi a i-
a e p obi eg ession model. A e wa ds, an analysis was made o compa e he mul idimensional and
he unidimensional de e minan s o po e y among u al cocoa a me s.
S udy a iables
The dependen a iable 1: he mul idimensional po e y index (MPI)
Typically, he con en ional way o measu ing po e y, wel a e, o li ing s anda ds o a household is
likely o be unidimensional, p e e ably o al household expendi u e. Meanwhile, cu en s udies ha e
opposed using unidimensional app oaches o measu e po e y o mul idimensional me hods o cap-
u e ce ain quali y-o -li e a ibu es (Ningaye e al., 2011). Bou guignon and Chak a a y (2002)no ed
ha he idea ha all non-mone a y aspec s o wel a e ha e no ma ke s, and when hey do, hey a e
impe ec , is a key unde lying ea u e o he mul idimensional app oach. Thus, he e is no gua an ee
ha hey will be supplied wi h goods. Because some au ho s belie e he money-me ic app oach is
unsui able because i ocuses solely on mone a y indica o s, he Mul idimensional Po e y Index (MPI)
was used in his s udy o es ima e he wel a e o po e y le els o cocoa a me s in he s udy a ea and
compa ed o expendi u e-based unidimensional es ima es. Ini ially, he global Mul idimensional
Po e y Index (MPI) was aligned wi h indica o s used o ack he Millennium De elopmen Goals
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 7
A he 1% le el, he coe icien o he numbe o household membe s was also signi ican and indi-
ca ed a nega i e ela ionship wi h unidimensional po e y, which is con i med by Baba unde e al.
(2008) and Salami e al. (2017). I indica es an inc ease in he numbe o membe s in a cocoa a ming
household by one pe son is associa ed wi h highe income and a dec eased likelihood o being unidi-
mensionally poo by abou 0.309 uni s. Some s udies a gue ha wi h a la ge numbe o child en and
ewe ac i e adul membe s o a household (unemployed and elde ly), he bu den o mee ing he
Table 6. Reg ession es ima es o he u al cocoa a me ’s po e y s a us.
Model_1a Model_1b Model_2a Model_2b
eWel MPI eWel MPI
Household Head Ma i al s a us 0.393 −0.008 0.451 0.073
(0.09) (0.097) (0.101) (0.092)
Age o Household Head −0.020.014−0.025 0.018
(0.011) (0.008) (0.011) (0.009)
Access o Financial C edi −4.12 0.126 −3.894 0.667
(0.523) (0.563) (0.571) (0.608)
Mig a ion S a us o he Household −0.216 0.838 −0.144 0.757
(0.282) (0.355) (0.327) (0.365)
Membe o Coope a i e Union −0.917 0.078 −1.214 −0.009
(0.446) (0.236) (0.431) (0.245)
Access o Fa m Inpu s −0.922 0.331−1.113 0.377
(0.239) (0.188) (0.29) (0.185)
Cocoa Land Size −0.029 0.022 −0.01 −0.024
(0.125) (0.11) (0.123) (0.109)
Access o Fa m Wa e 2.003 0.274 2.003 0.244
(0.549) (0.192) (0.56) (0.202)
Numbe o Household Membe s −0.309 −0.019 −0.349 −0.008
(0.061) (0.041) (0.062) (0.047)
Occupa ion Di e si ica ion 0.619 −0.267 0.509 −0.361
(0.218) (0.203) (0.239) (0.203)
Use o Ex e nal Labou Fo ce 0.36 0.5320.245 0.512
(0.315) (0.31) (0.35) (0.321)
Access o Heal hca e 3.553 −6.241 3.084 −7.143
(0.484) (0.361) (0.406) (0.612)
Ill-Heal h F equency −0.09 −0.684 −0.04 −0.761
(0.154) (0.16) (0.167) (0.164)
Child Dea h 0.711 7.722 1.576 7.523
(0.359) (0.448) (0.511) (0.473)
Household’s child no in school 0.936 2.966 0.781 2.956
(0.293) (0.311) (0.314) (0.321)
Household Head Educa ion le el −0.114 0.304
(0.14) (0.112)
Rela ionship o he household head −0.048 −0.252
(0.092) (0.091)
1bn. Household Head Educa ion le el
2.P eschool/P ima y −0.702−0.046
(0.361) (0.341)
3.Middle/JSS/JHS −0.503 0.563
(0.312) (0.278)
4.SSS/SHS/Voc/Tech/Com 0.516 1.281
(0.584) (0.456)
5.Te ia y 0.9 0.232
(0.691) (0.923)
1bn. Rela ionship o he household head
2.Spouse 0.06 −0.331
(0.377) (0.296)
3.Son o Daugh e 0.224 −0.366
(0.317) (0.236)
4.G andchild 0.123 −1.944
(0.41) (0.608)
5.O he Rela i e −1.117 −0.463
(0.816) (0.483)
6.Non Rela i e 0.125 −4.895
(0.759) (0.285)
_cons −4.508 3.243 −3.874 4.233
(1.364) (1.24) (1.253) (1.132)
a h ho:_cons 0.333*0.292
(0.201) (0.202)
Obse a ions 381 381
Pseudo R
2
.z .z
Robus s anda d e o s a e in pa en heses. p<.01, p<.05, p<.1.
14 S. Y. AGYEMAN-BOATEN
minimum cos o a household’s nou ishmen becomes hea ie , esul ing in highe le els o po e y
(Asogwa e al., 2012; Omonona, 2001; Wo ld Bank, 1996). This s udy con e sely sugges s ha households
wi h mo e membe s we e less likely o be unidimensionally poo on a e age i hese membe s a e mo e
ac i e. Con a y o he s udy o Huluka (2024), he nega i e ela ionship o he mul idimensional model
was no signi ican .
Con a y o ea lie s udies by Adenuga e al. (2013) and Baba unde e al. (2008), he age o he house-
hold head was ound o be signi ican in bo h models bu a a ma ginal in luence o 10% in he main
model and 5% in he second model o bo h po e y measu es. None heless, Adeo i (2014) and Huluka
(2024) ound a signi ican ela ionship be ween age and mul idimensional po e y.
A he 1% le el, he coe icien o educa ion le el o household heads showed a posi i e and s a is ic-
ally signi ican ela ionship wi h mul idimensional po e y bu was no signi ican wi h unidimensional
po e y. The posi i e ela ionship indica es an inc ease in he le el o educa ion o cocoa a me s’house-
hold heads is associa ed wi h a 0.304 uni p obabili y o being mul idimensionally poo . Howe e ,
Adenuga e al. (2013) ound educa ion le el o be posi i e bu no signi ican in in luencing mul idimen-
sional po e y. Adeo i (2014) and Huluka (2024), on he o he hand, ound ha educa ion le el signi i-
can ly dec eases he p obabili y o being mul idimensionally poo . Al hough he ela ionship be ween
he educa ion le el o he household head and unidimensional po e y was no signi ican , Wo ld Bank
(1996), Baba unde e al. (2008), Asogwa e al. (2012), Salami e al. (2017) and Eyasu (2020) ound an
inc ease in expendi u e wel a e o associa e wi h a ise in educa ion le el; hus, a nega i e e ec
be ween educa ion le els and unidimensional po e y sugges s a ise in educa ion le el leads o a
educ ion in po e y le el. The ambiguous esul s ega ding he ela ionship be ween educa ion le els
and bo h MPI and unidimensional po e y p omp ed u he in es iga ion, which equi ed he second
model. A u he examina ion indica ed ha some educa ion up o he p ima y le el (abou 6–8 yea s,
including p eschool) was ma ginally signi ican (a he 10% le el) in lowe ing he cocoa a me s’unidi-
mensional po e y. Highe le els we e no signi ican . On he o he hand, middle school o junio high
(seconda y) school and senio high (seconda y) school, oca ional o echnical school lea e s who a e
u al cocoa a me s a e likely o be poo mul idimensionally a a 5% and 1% signi icance le el. O he le -
els we e no signi ican . Fa me s’unde s anding o new echnologies is belie ed o imp o e wi h educa-
ion, enhancing hei knowledge o cocoa p oduc ion and managemen p ac ices. Some educa ion le el
o he cocoa a me household heads builds hei capabili ies o app op ia ely ollow he bes p ac ices
in cocoa a ming, such as he igh applica ion o e ilize , weedicide, and pes icides, which e lec s high
c op yield and hei abili y o spend mo e. Howe e , highe educa ion does no in luence he unidimen-
sional po e y o u al cocoa a me s. On he mul idimensional on , a aining a seconda y le el educa-
ion inc eases he p obabili y o a u al cocoa a me being poo . The esul s indica e ha i would
bene i an indi idual wi h highe educa ion o engage in la ge-scale cocoa p oduc ion wi h imp o ed
echnologies and managemen p ac ices a he han engaging in subsis ence a ming which is p edom-
inan in u al cocoa a ming communi ies.
Household membe s’ ela ionship wi h he household head was also signi ican and nega i ely in lu-
enced only mul idimensional po e y a he 1% le el. The coe icien sugges s ha he ela ionship o
he household membe s o he household head is associa ed wi h a lowe household’s mul idimensional
dep i a ion by app oxima ely 0.252 uni s. Fo u he unde s anding o he ela ionship, he esul s based
on he second model showed ha being a g andchild o non- ela i e o he cocoa a ming household
head we e he only signi ican indica o s o de e mine mul idimensional dep i a ion. The nega i e coe i-
cien s (−1.944 and −4.895) signi y he low p obabili y o he g andchild o non- ela i es being mul idi-
mensionally poo ela i e o he household head. No o he ela ionships o he household head we e
ound o be associa ed wi h mul idimensional po e y o expendi u e-based po e y.
E en hough he coe icien o he ma i al s a us o household heads (0.393) was highly signi ican in
he expendi u e model a he 1% le el, i was no signi ican in he mul idimensional model. I implies
ha a household head’s ma i al s a us is associa ed wi h unidimensional po e y h ough expendi u e
bu does no in luence mul idimensional po e y. This inding is consis en wi h he s udies o Adenuga
e al. (2013) and Be sisa and Heshma i (2021). Likewise, Adeo i (2014) also con i med he insigni icance
o he household head’s ma i al s a us in a mul idimensional model.
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 15
The coe icien o households ha mig a ed o he s udy a ea was signi ican a a 5% le el and nega-
i ely ela ed o he mul idimensional po e y bu no he expendi u e-based po e y. The coe icien
(0.838) indica es ha se le s a e mo e likely o be mul idimensionally poo han indigenous households.
This inding could be pa ly a ibu ed o he ac ha while indigenous households accumula e and
main ain asse s such as com o able homes and imp o ed li ing s anda ds in he s udy a ea, se le s
may p io i ise hese aspec s elsewhe e, hence dep i ed o hose indica o s. This inding is suppo ed by
Am o e al. (2022,2023).
The esul s showed ha households’access o inancial c edi nega i ely and signi ican ly in luenced
expendi u e po e y a he 1% le el. Howe e , i did no signi ican ly in luence he dep h o mul idimen-
sional po e y, as con i med by Adenuga e al. (2013). The esul s signi y ha households ha house-
holds wi h access o loans expe ience lowe unidimensional po e y by app oxima ely 4.12 uni s. The
ease wi h which such unds can be u ilized in nume ous household ac i i ies may explain he la ge in lu-
ence ha he households’access o c edi has on hei expendi u e wel a e (Apa a e al., 2010). Some
au ho s a gue ha access o c edi enables households o acqui e mo e p oduc i e esou ces o hei
household en e p ises and mee consump ion expendi u es such as medical cos s, school ees, ood, and
social eme gencies, he eby enhancing hei income-gene a ing capaci y and o e all wel a e (Apa a
e al., 2010; Asogwa e al., 2012; FOS, 1999; Owuo e al., 2007; Omonona, 2001).
The coe icien o he cocoa a me households’membe ship in a coope a i e union was nega i e
and signi ican ly in luenced unidimensional po e y a a 5% le el bu was no signi ican mul idimen-
sionally. I de ia es om Adenuga e al. (2013) indings ha membe ship in an associa ion was nega i e
and signi ican in in luencing he dep h o mul idimensional po e y. The esul s sugges ha a cocoa
a ming household ha joins a coope a i e union is associa ed wi h highe expendi u e wellbeing o
app oxima ely 0.917 uni s. This indica es ha households ha join a coope a i e union a e mo e likely
o imp o e hei money-me ic wel a e han hose ha do no join. Va ious bene i s h ough c edi acili-
ies, access o imp o ed p oduc ion inpu s, and access o in o ma ion, among o he s, ex ended o mem-
be s could be he eason o hei imp o ed well-being. As a o m o social capi al, He n
andez-N
u~
nez
e al. (2022) ad oca ed o he pa icipa ion o u al household membe s in local o ganisa ions.
In he expendi u e-based po e y model, he coe icien o he households’access o a m wa e was
posi i e and signi ican a a 1% le el, bu no signi ican in he mul idimensional po e y model. The
coe icien indica es ha a cocoa a me ’s household wi h access o a m wa e is associa ed wi h
expendi u e-based po e y by app oxima ely 2.003 uni s. Thus, households wi h access o wa e o
cocoa a ming o nea i e bodies a e mo e likely o expe ience unidimensionally po e y han hose
wi hou . A simple explana ion could be ha some a me s belie e ha cocoa a ms nea wa e bodies
su e speci ic challenges such as educed sunligh in he a m, causing da kness on cocoa a ms, which
leads o o en cocoa pods, he eby educing cocoa yield and dep i ing he households o income o
e enue.
The indings showed ha occupa ional di e si y has a signi ican (1% le el) and posi i e in luence on
unidimensional po e y. The coe icien shows ha a cocoa a me household ha di e si ies occupa ion-
ally is associa ed wi h a highe unidimensional po e y o abou 0.619 uni s. I sugges s ha a house-
hold’s unidimensional po e y inc eases wi h occupa ional di e si ica ion and con i ms he indings o
He n
andez-N
u~
nez e al. (2022) in he cocoa sec o . Con e sely, some s udies ha e ound ha occupa-
ionally di e se households enhance li ing s anda ds unidimensionally and ha e been con i med by
Asmah (2011), Schul e-He b uggen (2012), Gua em and Ande sen (2016), Ampaw e al. (2017), and Eyasu
(2020). This s udy could no con i m he claim ha di e si ica ion ensu es income s abili y as he a me
engages in o he economic ac i i ies (Asogwa e al., 2012). E en hough he e was a nega i e and ma -
ginal associa ion a a 10% le el in he second model, occupa ional di e si y was no signi ican in in lu-
encing mul idimensional po e y in he main model. Howe e , Dagunga e al. (2020) ound ha he
ex en and dimension o di e si ica ion educe mul idimensional po e y among a ming households.
The coe icien o cocoa a ming households wi h access o heal hca e was signi ican o bo h dimen-
sions in he wo models a a 1% le el. Access o heal hca e nega i ely in luences and is associa ed wi h
a lowe p obabili y o mul idimensional poo cocoa a ming households by app oxima ely 6.241 uni s.
Also, i posi i ely in luences and is associa ed wi h highe expendi u e-based po e y by app oxima ely
3.553 uni s. While access o heal hca e is likely o educe he mul idimensional po e y o cocoa a me s,
16 S. Y. AGYEMAN-BOATEN
i is likely o inc ease expendi u e-based po e y. Fu he mo e, a household ha eco ded a child’s dea h
signi ican ly in luenced bo h he mul idimensional and unidimensional models a 1% and 5% le els,
espec i ely. The posi i e coe icien o bo h dimensions indica es ha a household wi h a eco d o
child dea h in he las 12 mon hs is associa ed wi h a highe p obabili y o being dep i ed mul idimen-
sional by 7.722 uni s and is likely o be unidimensionally poo by 0.711 uni s. A child’s dea h may be
a ibu ed o malnu i ion, bad hygiene, and inancial di icul y, esul ing om he household’s dep i -
a ion ende ing i incapable o sa ing he li es o child en li ing in he household. Meanwhile, he e-
quency o ill-heal h in he cocoa a ming household was nega i e o bo h dimensions in he wo
models bu signi ican a he 1% le el o mul idimensional po e y and no signi ican in expendi u e-
based po e y. The coe icien (0.684) indica es ha a dec ease in he equency o illness among cocoa
a ming households is associa ed wi h a low p obabili y o being mul idimensional poo . This sugges s
ha good heal h emains a i al indica o o he mul idimensional well-being o he cocoa a me . The
posi ion o his inding has been con i med by Adenuga e al. (2013) and Lawal e al. (2018).
A Household wi h a school-age child no a ending school was posi i e and signi ican ly in luenced
bo h unidimensional and mul idimensional po e y a he 1% le el. The coe icien s indica e ha on
a e age a cocoa a ming household wi h a school-age child no a ending school is associa ed wi h
mul idimensional po e y by app oxima ely 2.966 uni s and unidimensional po e y by 0.936 uni s.
Child en who a e no able o a end school may be due o he dep i ed s a us o he household and
low household income, hence, unable o ca e o he child h ough school.
The s udy’s indings also showed ha he mul idimensional po e y o cocoa a me s is posi i ely
in luenced by he use o an ex e nal labou o ce a a 10% signi icance le el. Howe e , i showed no sig-
ni icance o unidimensional po e y. The ma ginal signi icance indica es ha he engagemen o he
ex e nal labou o ce by he cocoa a ming households is associa ed wi h he households’mul idimen-
sional po e y by app oxima ely 0.532 uni s.
The household’s access o inpu s was posi i e and signi ican in in luencing mul idimensional po e y
a he 10% le el. I was also ound o be nega i e and signi ican in he unidimensional model. I indi-
ca es ha households wi h access o a m inpu s a e associa ed wi h a highe dep h o mul idimensional
po e y by app oxima ely 0.019 uni s. Addi ionally, he esul s con i m he s udy by Woldie e al. (2020),
who ound he nega i e and signi ican in luences o inpu u iliza ion on expendi u e-based po e y.
Finally, he cocoa land size o he household had no signi ican in luence on bo h unidimensional and
mul idimensional po e y, con adic ing he indings o Huluka (2024).
Ra allion (1996) a gues ha a model’s use ulness depends on i s abili y o cap u e and de e mine
wha i ough o, no on he deg ee o i s sophis ica ion. Acco ding o Khan e al. (2020), mul iple me h-
ods o iden i ying and designing po e y alle ia ion p og ams should be p omo ed because he se e i y
and dep h o po e y di e h oughou illages and wi hin households. Simila o he indings o ea lie
schola s (eg Cos a, 2003; Khan e al., 2020), di e en esul s we e ealised o bo h mone a y and non-
mone a y po e y o wel a e measu es. Cos a (2003) con ends ha because he wo app oaches desc ibe
wo dis inc g oups o poo households, any socioeconomic policy o dec ease po e y based on income
da a is unlikely o mee i s s a ed objec i es because i is di ec ed a socioeconomic uni s ha a e, in
eali y, non-poo . As a esul , i is only wi hin he con ex o a mul idimensional app oach ha i is eas-
ible o app op ia ely iden i y he poo and c ea e po e y- educ ion s a egies.
Conclusion and policy implica ions
In Ghana, adi ional po e y measu emen and analysis ha e p ima ily been based on a single-dimen-
sion mone a y o expendi u e-based app oach, wi h li le a en ion de o ed o mul idimensional po e y
assessmen . Howe e , many au ho s asse ha he mul idimensional po e y app oach is mo e sui able
o measu e po e y han a unidimensional app oach and ha e highligh ed he c i ical limi a ions o he
mone a y app oaches o measu ing po e y. Compa ing he unidimensional and mul idimensional
app oaches using he bi a ia e p obi model, his s udy examines he ac o s ha in luence he po e y
o u al cocoa a me s in Ghana. The esul demons a es some di e ences d awn om he mul idimen-
sional and unidimensional es ima es. I is e iden om he esul ha he in luence o he a iables on
ei he he expendi u e-based app oach o he mul idimensional po e y app oach depends on se e al
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 17
ac o s, which include he di e ences in cocoa a ming household cha ac e is ics, he household head
cha ac e is ics, and he se ing o he s udy. Fo ins ance, unidimensional po e y was signi ican ly in lu-
enced by household cha ac e is ics a he han mul idimensional po e y. Howe e , many o he a ia-
bles simul aneously in luenced bo h mul idimensional po e y and unidimensional po e y. Ano he
po en ial ac o could be a ibu ed o ecen p e alence o he cocoa swollen shoo i us disease in he
s udy a ea, a aging cocoa p oduc ion and hei income-ea ning abili y. Since mul idimensional wel a e
is a ained o e ime, hese households we e conside ed mul idimensionally su icien be o e he inci-
dence o he disease, hence he less mul idimensional impac . Al hough he di ec ions and signi icance
le els may di e , he wo app oaches es ima ed i e a iables ha simul aneously in luenced po e y
signi ican ly wi h coe icien om 0.014 o 7.722 uni s. They include access o heal hca e, household
child dea h, household’s school-age child no in school, access o a m inpu s and he age o he house-
hold head. In addi ion, he wo app oaches p oduced di e ing signi ican associa ions o he emaining
a iables. While he educa ion le el o he household head, ill-heal h equency, use o ex e nal labou
o ce, mig a ion s a us, and he ela ionship o he household head we e signi ican o de e mining
mul idimensional po e y, he numbe o household membe s, coope a i e union, access o a m wa e ,
occupa ional di e si y, household access o inancial c edi , and ma i al s a us o he household head
signi ican ly de e mined unidimensional po e y o he cocoa a me s. The wo app oaches di e ged on
many a iables in e ms o di ec ion and signi icance because po e y indica o s canno be di ec ly
acqui ed h ough he income o cocoa a me households.
The s udy’s indings sugges ha o imp o e he li ing s anda ds o cocoa a me s who mos ly
depend on he cocoa ou pu o hei li elihood, a measu e o mo e om subsis ence o la ge-scale
a ming is c ucial, especially o highe -educa ed a me s. The a ailabili y o imp o ed and subsidised
a m inpu s and access o inancial c edi a e among he measu es o mo e many cocoa a me s om
income po e y and hence, subsis ence o a la ge scale. The o ma ion o e ec i e a me s’unions and
a me s’o ganisa ions o p omo e knowledge ans e , sa ings mobilisa ion, inpu s, and ou pu ma ke -
ing and dis ibu ions, and a m c edi sou cing and supply should be encou aged among cocoa a ming
households o imp o e economic well-being. The heal h s a us o he cocoa a ming household la gely
de e mines hei mul idimensional wel a e. The e o e, go e nmen s, policymake s, and s akeholde s o
he cocoa indus y and he ag icul u al sec o should ensu e ha access o heal hca e se ices, and
measu es o educe he households’ equency o ill heal h, and child dea h, among o he s, a e main-
ained. La ge households we e ound o educe unidimensionally po e y among he cocoa a ming
households. I indica es ha a la ge labou o ce in he household is equi ed o signi ican ly make a o -
une ou o cocoa a ming. Since he esul showed ha cocoa a me s equi e some le el o educa ion
o abou eigh yea s o educe unidimensional po e y, p io i ising comp ehensi e social policy, which
gua an ees access o quali y educa ion a he basic le el is essen ial. This s udy concludes ha e en
hough mul idimensional me hods o po e y measu emen p o ide wide co e age o dep i a ions
de e mining po e y, analysis based on bo h he unidimensional and he mul idimensional me hods p o-
ides a be e unde s anding o he po e y si ua ion o a popula ion o he o mula ion o good de el-
opmen al policies. Hence, an app oach should be adop ed based on ci cums ances a s ake, such as he
di e ences ac oss loca ions and wi hin households o en i ies.
No es
1. The Ghana Li ing S anda d Su eys a e ound o su eys ini ia ed in he 1980s and conduc ed by he Ghana
S a is ical Se ice o p o ide benchma k da a on li ing s anda d o he popula ion, moni o , and e alua e
p og ess made by planne s and policymake s in imp o ing and sus aining hose s anda ds. The ounds include
GLSS 1 (1987/88), GLSS 2 (1988/1989), GLSS 3 (1991/1992), GLSS 4 (1998/1999), GLSS 5 (2005/06), GLSS 6 (2012/
2013) GLSS 7 (2016/17).
2. MPI dep i a ion a es and cu o s o indica o s analysis based on OPHI Coun y B ie ing 2017, on Ghana (OPHI,
2017); A e age MPI ¼0.26.
18 S. Y. AGYEMAN-BOATEN
Au ho s con ibu ions
The co esponding au ho solely con ibu ed o he concep ion and design, analysis and in e p e a ion o he da a,
and d a ing and e ision o he manusc ip o in ellec ual con en o be published. He ag ees o be accoun able
o all aspec s o he wo k.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Funding
This esea ch ecei ed no di ec unding.
Abou he au ho
Solomon Yaw Agyeman-Boa en holds a pos g adua e deg ee (Mas e o Philosophy) and a bachelo ’s deg ee in
Economics om he Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o Ghana, Legon. Yaw lec u es a Knu s o d Uni e si y
College, Eas Legon, Ghana. He is also pu suing an MSc in Quan i a i e Finance in Kiel, Ge many. Yaw has published
ex ensi ely in enowned jou nals, ocusing on De elopmen Economics, Mone a y Economics, En ep eneu ial
Economics, Applied Econome ics, and Quan i a i e Finance. He se es as a pee e iewe o se e al academic jou -
nals, including SN Business & Economics (Sp inge Na u e) and he Jou nal o Social and Economic De elopmen
(Sp inge ).
ORCID
Solomon Yaw Agyeman-Boa en h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4299-5419
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The da a suppo ing he indings o he s udy a e openly a ailable in Mendeley Da a a 10.17632/hpk3ddmj 3.1 and
he ques ionnai e is included as a supplemen a y documen .
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