Be g, Ch is
A icle
In e ope abili y
In e ne Policy Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y (HIIG), Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Be g, Ch is (2024) : In e ope abili y, In e ne Policy Re iew, ISSN 2197-6775,
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y, Be lin, Vol. 13, Iss. 2, pp. 1-10,
h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.2.1749
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In e ope abili y
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DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.2.1749
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10.14763/2024.2.1749
Keywo ds: In e ope abili y, Socio echnical ecosys ems, S anda ds
Abs ac : In e ope abili y desc ibes he abili y o sys ems o sha e se ices and esou ces wi h o he
sys ems. I is used in many ields — in he law, in communica ions and paymen s sys ems, in
heal hca e sys ems and in mili a y alliances, o name a ew — and desc ibes a la ge numbe o
cha ac e is ics om echnical s anda ds, o in o ma ion a chi ec u e, o o ganisa ional go e nance.
This glossa y en y p esen s a opology o in e ope abili y laye s and p esen s some o he key
economic and socio- echnical conce ns aced by in e ope able sys ems.
Issue 2
This a icle belongs o he Glossa y o decen alised echnosocial sys ems, a special
sec ion o In e ne Policy Re iew.
De ini ion
In e ope abili y in socio- echnical sys ems desc ibes he abili y o disc e e and
echnically o o ganisa ionally he e ogeneous sys ems o sha e se ices o e-
sou ces wi h o he sys ems. Sys ems ha a e ully in e ope able a e expe ienced
by he ele an g oup o s akeholde s as a single ‘in eg a ed’ sys em (Cooling &
Hixson, 1978) o as a sense o ‘seamlessness’ be ween sys ems (Lawson & He ada,
2022), al hough his expe ience can disguise conside able e o on behal o hose
who design and main ain hese sys ems. In e ope abili y can be achie ed h ough
pa icula ised wo k o connec wo sys ems oge he h ough he de elopmen and
adop ion o s anda ds ha allow an a bi a y numbe o sys ems o in e ace wi h
each o he , o h ough in eg a i e app oaches ha build gene alisable in e ope -
abili y a he design and implemen a ion o sys ems hemsel es.
O igin and scope
The s udy o in e ope abili y pe se is highly domain-speci ic and used in many
ields o desc ibe a a ie y o sys em cha ac e is ics. Fo example, heal hca e in e -
ope abili y desc ibes he abili y o sys ems o pass pa ien in o ma ion be ween
each o he (I oju e al., 2013). Paymen sys em in e ope abili y e e s o he abili y
o di e se paymen pla o ms (such as c edi ca d ne wo ks and bank accoun s) o
in e ac , hus acili a ing ansac ions ac oss ne wo ks (Lawson & He ada, 2022).
Blockchain in e ope abili y e e s o he abili y o blockchain ne wo ks o pass in-
o ma ion o each o he in a manne ha allows ( o example) use s o expe ience
he mo emen o 'digi al asse s' be ween chains. Al hough much o he discou se
on in e ope abili y ac oss domains ends o ocus on he in e ope abili y o com-
munica ion sys ems and da a, he concep is equen ly ex ended o a b oade con-
ex . Fo example, he domain o en e p ise in e ope abili y (A chimède & Valle-
spi , 2017) desc ibes bo h echnical ba ie s o in e ope abili y bu also ba ie s o
meaning and ba ie s o o ganisa ion and coo dina ion. This wide pe spec i e em-
phasises he socio echnical s uc u es which in luence he in e ac ion be ween
sys ems.
This b oade ision o in e ope abili y is e iden in he domain in which in e ope -
abili y i s eme ges as a signi ican conce n. The in e ope abili y be ween mili a y
2 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
sys ems was a cen al ocus o allied wa a e du ing he Second Wo ld Wa . Fo he
Allies, he expe ience o a long- e m engagemen be ween mul iple allied a mies
in single hea es o wa allowed in e ope abili y o de elop as a p ocess o ial
and e o , wi h he ul ima e goal o in eg a ed ope a ions (Cooling & Hixson,
1978). Con empo a y mili a y in e ope abili y desc ibes he capabili y o mili a y
uni s om di e en na ions o sha e se ices and he eby bene i om e icien
join ope a ions, which spans e e y hing om s a egic in e ope abili y (such as
objec i e se ing p ocesses) o echnical in e ope abili y (such as he sha ing o
equipmen s anda ds and communica ions sys ems) (Moon e al., 2008; Pe nin e
al., 2020). Thus, while i should be no ed ha ea ly discussion a ound in e ope -
abili y ocused on he in e ace be ween compu a ional sys ems o communica-
ions sys ems (see o example Zakanycz & Be s, 1978; LaVean, 1980), om i s
ea lies concep ion, in e ope abili y in speci ic ields has always been conce ned
wi h he ins i u ions and in as uc u e o allow wo sys ems ha migh in e ace
o in eg a ed beha iou .
Topology
The e exis a numbe o mul ilaye ed models o unde s and in e ope abili y which
a iously seek o gene alise o pa icula ise app oaches o in e ope abili y. Fo ex-
ample, Chen’s (2017) en e p ise in e ope abili y amewo k dis inguishes be ween
in e ope abili y o da a (how da a is sha ed and in e p e ed), o se ices (how dis-
c e e applica ions in e ace), o p ocess (how business p ocesses connec ), and o
business (how decisions, ules, cul u es, p ac ices, and legisla i e and egula o y
go e nance in e ac ). The Eu opean In e ope abili y F amewo k o e-go e nmen
se ices dis inguishes be ween legal, o ganisa ional, seman ic, and echnical in e -
ope abili y (Eu opean Commission, 2017). This en y is mo i a ed by a belie ha
in e ope abili y should be unde s ood om a gene alisable socio- echnical and
economic lens p io o applying a pa icula policy o ope a ional lens. Hence his
en y i s desc ibes a opology o in e ope abili ies, expanding in scope om ech-
nical, syn ac ic and seman ic, and o ganisa ional in e ope abili y.
To explo e his opology we use as an example he ield o in e ope abili y be-
ween blockchain ne wo ks. Blockchains a e dis ibu ed da abases ha use con-
sensus mechanisms o main ain s a e wi hou he need o a single au ho i y.
The e a e a la ge numbe o blockchains, each wi h usually a leas one bu in
some cases housands o di e en digi al asse s implemen ed upon hem. One
p ominen goal o blockchain in e ope abili y is o gi e use s o hose blockchains
he expe ience o being able o ans e asse s om one blockchain o ano he
3 Be g
blockchain (Belchio e al., 2022). Such a p oblem equi es e o s o es ablish in-
e ope abili y a all le els, echnical, syn ac ic and seman ic, and o ganisa ional.
Technical in e ope abili y
Technical in e ope abili y e e s o he abili y o di e en echnological sys ems,
pla o ms, o de ices o communica e and exchange in o ma ion. I in ol es he
compa ibili y o ha dwa e, so wa e, ne wo k p o ocols, and in e aces allowing o
he smoo h ans e o in o ma ion be ween sys ems. We can unde s and his as a
cha ac e is ic o he in as uc u e on which in e ope able sys ems a e buil ,
whe eby echnical sys ems a e capable o ansmi ing da a o each o he . Techni-
cal in e ope abili y in blockchain ne wo ks desc ibes he abili y o hose ne wo ks
o ecei e da a om ano he sepa a e blockchain ha may o he wise be go e ned
by di e en consensus algo i hms, alida ed by di e en nodes o se e s, o ha e
di e en da a o ma s. The abili y o ecei e ha da a is dis inc om he abili y o
in e p e o ac upon ha da a. Howe e , such a echnical in e ope abili y is a base
equi emen o in e ope abili y bu using and ac ing on sha ed se ices and e-
sou ces equi es in e ope abili y a highe le els o abs ac ion. Fo example, being
able o pass da a be ween blockchain ne wo ks does no mean ha hose ne -
wo ks will mu ually ecognise ha da a as ‘digi al asse s’ — o such in e ope abil-
i y o be achie ed hey need in e ope abili y a he seman ic and syn ac ic le el.
Seman ic in e ope abili y
Syn ac ic in e ope abili y deals wi h he s uc u e and o ma o da a exchanged
be ween sys ems. I ensu es ha da a con o ms o a common syn ax o se o
ules, acili a ing i s exchange and p ocessing. This includes s anda d da a o ma s,
encoding schemes, and message p o ocols o enable in e ope abili y be ween di -
e en sys ems. Seman ic in e ope abili y desc ibes he abili y o in o ma ion o
be unde s ood — ha is, he abili y o di e en sys ems o unde s and in o ma ion
accu a ely and meaning ully, despi e a ia ions in hei s uc u e, o ma , o ocab-
ula y ac oss sys ems (Heile , 1995). Seman ic in e ope abili y ocuses on ensu ing
ha da a can be in e p e ed and u ilised co ec ly ac oss sys ems. I in ol es he
use o s anda dised and well-de ined ocabula ies, on ologies, and da a models o
enable he accu a e in e p e a ion, in eg a ion, and u ilisa ion o da a ac oss di-
e se domains and applica ions.
Fo blockchain in e ope abili y he syn ac ic and seman ic equi emen s o in e -
ope abili y equi e each blockchain o ecognise he da a hey ha e ecei ed as an
“asse ” which can be ep esen ed on he ecei ing blockchain. An asse on he
4 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
E he eum blockchain is coded as a s anda dised sma con ac (such as an
ERC-20). A ecei ing chain needs o in e p e ha con ac as an asse , ecognise
ha he asse has been locked on he sending blockchain, and min he asse on
i s own blockchain acco ding o i s own seman ic model o asse speci ica ions.
Thus while asse s a e ne e “sen ” om one blockchain o ano he , he seman ic
ans o ma ion ( he locking o a syn ac ically disc e e asse on one chain and he
min ing o a syn ac ically disc e e asse on ano he ) p o ides he e ec o a ans-
e .
O ganisa ional in e ope abili y
O ganisa ional in e ope abili y e e s o he abili y o di e en o ganisa ions o
en i ies o collabo a e, sha e esou ces, and align hei p ocesses and goals (Ku-
bicek & Cimande , 2009). I in ol es es ablishing common amewo ks, p o ocols,
and p ac ices o enable e ec i e coo dina ion, communica ion, and coope a ion
be ween di e se en i ies, os e ing seamless collabo a ion and in eg a ion. Gold-
kuhl (2008) no es ha o ganisa ional in e ope abili y is o en used as a ca ch-all
o in e ope abili y equi emen s ha do no all wi hin o he ca ego ies, and de-
composes he concep u he be ween axeological (coo dina ion a ound alues
and goals), cogni i e (sha ed o ganisa ional easoning and knowledge), in a-
p ocessual ( he abili y o wo k p ocesses in e nal o each o ganisa ion o connec ),
and in e ac ional (s uc u al cha ac e is ics ha acili a e o ganisa ional in e ac-
ions be ween sys ems). The o ganisa ional laye is wha Pal ey and Gasse (2012,
p. 6) call he “human laye ”, w i ing ha in e ope abili y “o en succeeds o ails
based on whe he we a e willing o pu e o in o wo king oge he as human be-
ings”. In he case o blockchain in e ope abili y, such o ganisa ional in e ope abili-
y desc ibes a a ie y o cha ac e is ics, such as he abili y o blockchain explo e s
and walle s o ep esen o use s he asse s in a manne consis en wi h he expe-
ience o he c oss-blockchain ans e , o he expe ience o in e ac ing wi h hose
ans e ed asse s in o he sma con ac o business sys ems (such as digi al as-
se exchanges).
Pa hs o in e ope abili y
In e ope abili y and go e nance
No all app oaches o achie ing in e ope abili y a e uni o m. ISO 14258 desc ibes
h ee app oaches o achie e in e ope abili y: disc e e connec ions be ween sys-
ems ( ede a ed), sha ed s anda ds be ween o he wise he e ogeneous sys ems (uni-
ied), o ha monisa ion om he g ound up (in eg a ed), emphasising he dis inc
5 Be g
go e nance o pa hs o in e ope abili y (Chen, 2017; Fe nandes e al., 2020).
Fede a ed in e ope abili y e e s o a dis ibu ed and decen alised app oach o
achie ing in e ope abili y. In his mode, indi idual sys ems o componen s main-
ain hei au onomy while es ablishing communica ion channels and p o ocols o
enable da a exchange and collabo a ion. Each sys em e ains i s own decision-
making capabili y — a o m o sys em so e eign y. Fede a ed in e ope abili y al-
lows o a loosely coupled in eg a ion whe e di e en sys ems can in e ac and
sha e in o ma ion while main aining hei independence. I p o ides lexibili y and
scalabili y as new sys ems can join o lea e wi hou a ec ing he o e all in eg a-
ion. Howe e , i may in oduce complexi ies in managing coo dina ion and ensu -
ing consis ency ac oss in e ope abili y sys ems, as well as high cos s ela i e o
o he modes as he e ogeneous links be ween sys ems may ha e o be de eloped
in a ede a ed app oach (Fe nandes e al., 2020). One open ques ion o e-
sea che s is how au onomous sys ems — such as hose unde pinned by machine
lea ning and a i icial in elligence — migh be able o implemen such “on he ly”
in e ope abili y whe e o he modes o coo dina ion ha e so a ailed.
Uni ied in e ope abili y, on he o he hand, aims o coo dina e he e ogeneous sys-
ems. I in ol es es ablishing a common da a model, a sha ed in as uc u e, and
s anda dised p ocesses. Typically e e ed o as he p ocess o ‘s anda disa ion’,
uni ied in e ope abili y ocuses on achie ing seamlessness by adop ing sha ed
p o ocols o ule-se s ha can be adop ed by exis ing and u u e ma ke pa ici-
pan s o achie e in e ope abili y. Howe e , i may equi e signi ican e o in s an-
da disa ion and coo dina ion among di e se sys ems and i may be less lexible in
accommoda ing new sys ems o changes in equi emen s.
The in eg a ed model o in e ope abili y mo es owa ds he in eg a ion o sys ems,
a he han he o ging connec ions be ween sys ems. In eg a ed models a e a
o m o “bo om-up” in e ope abili y, whe e sys ems ollow pa e ns and s anda ds
ha a e consis en and ha monised. As Chen (2017) no es, his makes in eg a ion
mo e app op ia e o sys ems ha a e buil om sc a ch wi h in e ope abili y a
he ounda ion. While he in eg a ed app oach o in e ope abili y sha es common
ins i u ions and in as uc u e, his does no imply ha hey a e in eg a ed sys ems
— each sys em e ains he echnical o o ganisa ional decen alisa ion ha is cha -
ac e ised by independen sys ems (Weichha & Wachholde , 2014).
In e ope abili y and policy
As his migh sugges , he in eg a ed app oach o in e ope abili y a ou s sys ems
6 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
whe eby a single coo dina o can se he e ms o he in eg a ion o all in e ope -
able sys ems. A dominan ma ke pa icipan can impose in e ope abili y ac oss an
indus y o sec o . This was e iden om he ea lies ins ances: Ame ican domi-
nance o e a ms p oduc ion in he Second Wo ld Wa mean ha i se implici
s anda ds ac oss echnical, seman ic, syn ac ic, and o ganisa ional in e ope abili y
(Cooling & Hixson, 1978). Ma ke dominance o en de e mines app oaches o in-
e ope abili y as compe i o s seek o ake ad an age o he lead i m’s ne wo k e -
ec s (Kielle , 2011). The dominance o Mic oso Windows in he ope a ing sys em
ma ke , e en in he con ex o a signi ican al e na i e p o ided by Apple, has
mean ha Mic oso was able o achie e in e p e abili y a ound ( o example) de-
ice d i e s and ile ypes.
The desi abili y o in e ope abili y commonly leads o he e olu ion o s anda ds,
whe eby ma ke pa icipan s coo dina e o de elop sha ed ag eemen s abou ech-
nical and o he cha ac e is ics (Fa ell & Salone , 1985; Kindlebe ge , 1983; Tassey,
2000). S anda ds and in e ope abili y a e no synonyms — in e ope abili y can ex-
is wi hou s anda ds (such as he “on he ly” app oaches o in e ope abili y com-
mon in ede a ed modes), and s anda ds can exis o se e pu poses o he han in-
e ope abili y (such as minimum quali y s anda ds). None heless, in e ope abili y
is equen ly b ough abou by he de elopmen and adop ion o s anda ds. S an-
da ds can e ol e om he dispa a e coo dina ion o economic pa icipan s, indus-
y associa ions, quasi-go e nmen al bodies (such as he US’s Na ional Bu eau o
S anda ds), go e nmen egula o s, and in e na ional coo dina ion agencies (such
as he In e na ional S anda ds O ganiza ion). O en in e ope abili y s anda ds a e
de eloped by indus y pa icipan s and shi in o egula o y o legal equi emen s
as hey a e o malised. In he blockchain indus y, o example, s anda ds can be
b ough abou h ough decen alised go e nance (such as E he eum’s ERC-20 o-
ken s anda d) o h ough a compe i i e landscape whe e s anda ds compe e wi hin
and be ween ecosys ems (such as he Cosmos ecosys em’s in e blockchain commu-
nica ions p o ocol (Goes, 2020), Polkado ’s c oss-consensus message o ma (Bu -
dges e al., 2020), o Chainlink’s c oss-chain in e ope abili y p o ocol), o h ough
s anda ds o ganisa ions (such as he IEEE S anda d o Blockchain In e ope abili y
Da a Au hen ica ion and Communica ion P o ocol IEEE 3205-2023).
In e ope abili y s anda ds a e inc easingly seen by compe i ion egula o s as a e-
hicle o educe ma ke dominance (B own, 2020), and in e ope abili y is inc eas-
ingly being seen by compe i ion law schola s h ough he lenses o e ical and
ho izon al compe i ion dynamics (see o example Bou eau & K aeme , 2022). The
Eu opean Union’s Digi al Ma ke s Ac equi es, o example, ha end- o-end en-
7 Be g
c yp ed messaging applica ions p o ided by la ge i ms in digi al ma ke s imple-
men in e ope abili y such ha use s o di e en se ices can communica e wi h
each o he while main aining end- o-end enc yp ion (Len, 2023). Simila ly, he Eu-
opean common cha ge di ec i e, a egula o y decision o he Eu opean Council,
equi es elec onic de ices such as mobile phones and able s use a USB-C po o
cha ging (Council o he Eu opean Union, 2022). Such ules po en ially demon-
s a e, howe e , some o he di icul ies o imposing in e ope abili y h ough
manda o y ule-making; c i ics ha e sugges ed ha he common cha ge equi e-
men could hampe inno a ion in he use o cha ging po s by eezing he echno-
logical s a us quo a he momen o egula o y ulemaking (Innocen i, 2022;
Tassey, 2000). A he same ime, in e ope abili y can aise o he compe i ion policy
conce ns by acili a ing ecosys em lock in o c ea ing da a p i acy isks (Pal ey &
Gasse , 2012).
Conclusion
In e ope abili y allows he e ogeneous sys ems o in e ac and exchange — i is a
binding agen o independen and semi-independen complex sys ems ha may
ha e di e se o igins, goals, and designs. In ha sense, as Pal ey and Gasse (2012)
w i e, many o ou bigges p oblems om heal hca e in o ma ion p o ision o
clean ene gy anspo a ion a e undamen ally p oblems ha need o be sol ed by
be e unde s anding how di e se sys ems can wo k oge he — how hey can co-
o dina e. Howe e , achie ing in e ope abili y a each o he le els desc ibed abo e
equi es i s own complex coo dina ion p ocesses. Ma ke o ces can push sys ems
owa ds in e ope abili y — whe e sys em designe s o con olle s iden i y gains
ha hey migh cap u e by doing so — o can p e en in e ope abili y om being
es ablished whe e hose same con olle s migh iden i y monopoly o quasi-mo-
nopoly bene i s om p e en ing compe i o s om accessing hei sys em (o , pe -
haps mo e salien ly, he use s o hei sys em). Regula o y app oaches can equi e
in e ope abili y in he pu sui o compe i ion o equi y goals bu a he same ime
isk locking in pa icula echnologies o p ac ices in a way ha migh educe
echnological inno a ion.
Re e ences
Allen, D. W. E., Be g, C., Da idson, S., No ak, M., & Po s, J. (2019). In e na ional policy coo dina ion
o blockchain supply chains. Asia & he Paci ic Policy S udies, 6(3), 367–380. h ps://doi.o g/10.100
2/app5.281
8 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(2) | 2024
