Magaloni Ke pel, Bea iz; Dal Pogge o, So ía Ma inko ic; Mu phy, Tommy E.; Pucci,
Flo encia; Fe nández, Bea iz Se a
Wo king Pape
Cogni i e beha io al he apy o gende based iolence
p e en ion: E idence om a andomized ial in Mexico
IDB Wo king Pape Se ies, No. IDB-WP-1702
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank (IDB), Washing on, DC
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Magaloni Ke pel, Bea iz; Dal Pogge o, So ía Ma inko ic; Mu phy, Tommy E.;
Pucci, Flo encia; Fe nández, Bea iz Se a (2025) : Cogni i e beha io al he apy o gende based
iolence p e en ion: E idence om a andomized ial in Mexico, IDB Wo king Pape Se ies, No.
IDB-WP-1702, In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank (IDB), Washing on, DC,
h ps://doi.o g/10.18235/0013519
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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Cogni i e Beha io al The apy o Gende -
based Violence P e en ion:
E idence om a Randomized T ial in Mexico
Bea iz Magaloni-Ke pel
So ía Ma inko ic Dal Pogge o
Tommy E. Mu phy
Flo encia Pucci
Bea iz Se a Fe nández
WORKING PAPER No IDB-WP-1702
In e -
A
me ican De elopmen Bank
Gende and Di e si y Di ision
May 2025
* S an o d Uni e si
y
** Uni e sidad de San And és and REDDES
*** Uni e si y o Wisconsin-Madison & REDDES
**** REDDES
Cogni i e Beha io al The apy o Gende -
based Violence P e en ion:
E idence om a Randomized T ial in Mexico
Bea iz Magaloni-Ke pel*
So ía Ma inko ic Dal Pogge o**
Tommy E. Mu phy**
Flo encia Pucci***
Bea iz Se a Fe nández****
In e -
A
me ican De elopmen Bank
Gende and Di e si y Di ision
May 2025
Ca aloging-in-Publica ion da a p o ided by he
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank
Felipe He e a Lib a y
Cogni i e beha io al he apy o gende -based iolence p e en ion: e idence
om a andomized ial in Mexico / Bea iz Magaloni-Ke pel, So ía Ma inko ic
Dal Pogge o, Tommy E. Mu phy, Flo encia Pucci, Bea iz Se a Fe nández.
p. cm. — (IDB Wo king Pape Se ies ; 1702)
Includes bibliog aphical e e ences.
1. Gende -based iolence-Mexico-P e en ion. 2. Violence-P e en ion-Mexico.
3. Cogni i e he apy-Mexico. I. Magaloni, Bea iz. II. Ma inko ic Dal Pogge o,
So ía. III. Mu phy, Tommy E. IV. Pucci, Flo encia. V. Se a Fe nández, Bea iz.
VI. In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank. Gende and Di e si y Di ision. VII.
Se ies.
IDB-WP-1702
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he In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank, i s Boa d o Di ec o s, o he coun ies hey ep esen .
Abs ac *
Cogni i e beha io al he apy (CBT) has become a powe ul and e ec i e ool o
deal wi h iolence in many a - isk a eas in he wo ld. Howe e , i s use o gende -
based iolence (GBV) and da ing iolence, al hough p omising, has been limi ed
and used as a esponse se ice o su i o s, a he han o p e en ion. To unde -
s and o wha ex en such in e en ions can help p o ide ools and skills o young
people in hei imp essionable yea s o p oduce beha io al changes ha p e en
GBV, we ca ied ou such an in e en ion among high school s uden s in he mu-
nicipali y o Eca epec in Mexico. We assessed he in e en ion wi h a andomized
con ol ial. We in oduce he no el y o collec ing objec i e measu es om au o-
ma ed neu opsychological es s o explo e whe he CBT migh be unc ioning
h ough he de elopmen o subjec s’ execu i e unc ions. Resul s om his in e -
en ion ail o show any clea change in sel - epo ed iolence. They do show, how-
e e , impac s on execu i e unc ions ela ed o iolence, such as emo ional ecog-
ni ion and inhibi o y con ol skills.
JEL classi ica ions: J16, I31, Z18, H43
Keywo ds: Gende -based iolence, Violence p e en ion, Cogni i e-beha io al
he apy (CBT), Execu i e unc ions, Mexico
* This p ojec was conduc ed by he Mexican NGO Redes Sociales pa a el Desa ollo A.C. (REDDES) in collabo a-
ion wi h he Po e y, Go e nance, and Violence Labo a o y (Po Go ) a S an o d Uni e si y. We a e g a e ul o he
unding p o ided by he Gende and Di e si y Knowledge Ini ia i e (GDLab) and he Ci izen Secu i y Di ision o he
In e -Ame ican De elopmen Bank. We also deeply app ecia e he aluable eedback om And és Moya and Ambe
Pe e man, bo h ad ise s a GDLab. Ou hanks ex end o A aceli Sanz Ma in a he Ins i u e o Neu o-sciences a he
Uni e si y o Guadalaja a o he guidance on neu opsychological es s, and o Edua do Ve duzco Ga cía Ruiz o his
suppo in de eloping he in e ace o au oma e hese es s on mobile de ices. Addi ionally, we acknowledge he con-
ibu ion o En ique A iza Moedano a he Cen o In eg al de Educación y Salud, who played a key ole in implemen -
ing he in e en ion in Eca epec de Mo elos.
2
1. In oduc ion
Ra es o gende -based iolence (GBV) in Mexico a e ala mingly high. Acco ding o INEGI
(2021), in 2021 oughly 70 pe cen o women (15-yea -old o olde ) had expe ienced a iolen
si ua ion a leas once in hei li e ime. Al hough gende iolence is obse ed in many public and
p i a e sphe es, one o i s mos pe asi e mani es a ions akes place in in ima e pa ne ela ion-
ships. The pa e ns o in e ac ion ha occu in hese ela ionships a e lea ned and consolida ed
om an ea ly age in da ing ela ionships. The Na ional Su ey on Da ing Violence (ENVINOV
2008) shows ha da ing iolence is a social p oblem in Mexico, indica ing ha 76 pe cen o young
people o bo h sexes be ween he ages o 15 and 24 who a e in a da ing ela ionship ha e su e ed
emo ional iolence (insul s, humilia ion, h ea s), 15 pe cen ha e su e ed physical iolence, and
16.5 pe cen sexual iolence. Se e al s udies show ha da ing iolence is bidi ec ional (S aus,
2004; O’Lea y & Smi h-Slep, 2003; Rey-Anacona, 2013), wi h men epo ing g ea e ic imiza-
ion and women g ea e pe pe a ion (Co és-Ayala e al., 2015). Howe e , he mos se e e phys-
ical agg essions a e om men o women (O’Lea y e al., 2008).
The e o e, i is o u mos impo ance o de elop ac ions ha can help p e en hese ha m ul
dynamics in ela ionships om he beginning du ing he da ing pe iod in adolescence. Fo his, i
is necessa y o ecognize ha behind iolen ac ions in ela ionships, he e a e di e en d i e s
ha somewha ope a e in e dependen ly a di e en le els. A an indi idual le el, hose d i e s a e
lack o sel -es eem, anxie y and dep ession, subs ance abuse and/o impulsi i y, and lack o sel -
con ol and/o emo ional egula ion. A a communi y le el, ac o s such as social isola ion, lack o
suppo , o weak law en o cemen usually con ibu e. Finally, a a socie al le el, gende no ms and
oles may encou age male dominance and con ol o e women. Because o his mul i ace ed na u e
o GBV, in e en ions ha wo k a di e en le els a e mo e likely o be e ec i e.
Cogni i e beha io al he apy (CBT) is one such in e en ion. I can p omo e unde s anding
and egula ion o emo ions associa ed wi h si ua ions whe e gende belie s a e in ol ed. Fu he -
mo e, i encou ages c i ical analysis o hough dis o ions associa ed wi h gende s e eo ypes and
no ms. I also ains people in he use o skills and ools o sel -con ol and sel - egula ion, p ac-
icing al e na i e beha io s and iolence- ee ela ionships. The e is now subs an ial e idence ha
CBT g oup-based in e en ions a e e ec i e in add essing iolence, c ime and ecidi ism educ-
ion among young people a - isk (Helle e al. 2017; Bla man e al., 2017, 2022). Ne e heless,
3
CBT in e en ions aimed a add essing GBV ha e p edominan ly been eac i e, ocusing on su -
i o s (A che 2000; Babcock e al. 2004; Fede & Wilson 2008), and hei e ec i eness in low-
and middle-income coun ies has been in equen ly assessed (Gup a e al. 2017). In e ms o hei
esul s, hese s udies ail o be en i ely sa is ac o y in di e en dimensions, mos no ably, hey
a ely explo e he mechanisms h ough which CBT con ibu es o p e en GBV. One plausible
mechanism in ol es wha a e known in he li e a u e as “execu i e unc ions” (Ba kley 2012),
hose ha a e equi ed o main ain an app op ia e p oblem-sol ing se o a ainmen o a u u e
goal. Some s udies sugges , o example, ha agg essi e indi iduals lack elemen s o hese unc-
ions, such as cogni i e lexibili y o inhibi ion (Bu gess 2020).
This p ojec assessed whe he an in e en ion based on CBT is capable o changing gende
a i udes and beha io s in eenage s in an a ea o Mexico wi h high p e alence o GBV. B ie ly,
we ask whe he CBT can con ibu e o p e en GBV and whe he he he apy migh be a ec ing
execu i e unc ions. Fu he mo e, ou expe imen al design allows us o add ess i he in e en ion
gene a es spillo e s in subjec s no di ec ly ea ed, which would acili a e scalabili y.
2. Rela ed Li e a u e
2.1 CBT-based In e en ions
CBT is a ype o psycho he apy ha ocuses on he ela ionship be ween hough s, emo ions, and
beha io s. I posi s ha ou hough s, belie s, and a i udes in luence how we eel and beha e in
ce ain si ua ions. CBT conside s he si ua ions o e en s ha igge a pe son’s emo ional and
beha io al esponses. These can include ex e nal ac o s such as s ess ul e en s, social in e ac-
ions, o li e ansi ions and pos ula es ha a pe son’s hough s and belie s abou a si ua ion can
in luence hei emo ional and beha io al esponses. I a man, o example, belie es he should be
mo e in elligen han any woman, because men a e supe io o women, in a si ua ion whe e she
pe o ms be e , he may eel h ea ened by he woman’s in elligence, he may hink he is incompe-
en o wo hless, may eel anxious o dep essed abou i , o us a ed and ang y, and can ac
iolen ly agains he .
CBT-based in e en ions ha e shown o be e ec i e ools o iolence educ ion and p e-
en ion (Helle e al., 2017; Bla man e al., 2017, 2022). Al hough he e ha e been many CBT
g oup in e en ions, none has add essed GBV and da ing iolence p e en ion in olde adolescen
(high school) ages. In e en ions ha e only been eac i e o GBV (Mu phy e al., 2020; Be g
4
Nesse e al., 2021; Rome o-Ma ínez e al., 2016, 2021), al hough expe s ha e poin ed ou i s
po en ial as a p e en ion ool (C ooks e al., 2007). This could be pa icula ly impo an i ca ied
ou in adolescen s o young adul s i we conside he long adi ion in social psychology (e.g.,
Mannheim, 1952; K osnick & Awin, 1989) ha sugges s olde adolescen s and young adul s (up
o ci ca 25 yea s) a e in hei “imp essionable yea s”; belie s and a i udes in ha age ange a e
pa icula ly malleable and hence can ha e long- e m impac s.
2.2 The Execu i e Func ions Connec ion
CBT p og ams like he one we implemen ed aim o in luence and educe iolen beha io by he
iden i ica ion and challenging o nega i e sexis hough s and belie s, de eloping empa hy and
espec o o he s, wo king on emo ional awa eness and egula ion, building communica ion and
con lic esolu ion skills, and p ac icing non- iolen beha io s, using ange managemen ech-
niques, and coping skills o manage di icul emo ions. The e o e, he mechanisms h ough which
i is belie ed he in e en ion may be e ec i e o iolence p e en ion a e h ough sexis belie s
changes (cogni i e es uc u ing) and h ough he acquisi ion o se e al cogni i e skills o beha -
io egula ion.
I is well es ablished ha poo execu i e unc ions co ela e wi h inc eased iolence and
agg ession (B oomhall, 2005). The e a e a a ie y o de ini ions o execu i e unc ions, each high-
ligh ing di e en aspec s o hem (Ba kley, 2012: 4), bu mos schola s would ag ee ha hey a e
neu opsychological unc ions in ol ing he abili y o main ain an app op ia e p oblem-sol ing se
o a ainmen o a u u e goal (Welsh & Penning on, 1988: 201-202), and include quali ies such
as wo king memo y, p ocessing speed, inhibi ion, and cogni i e lexibili y. The e iew by Bu gess
(2020) sugges s ha agg essi e indi iduals lack cogni i e lexibili y and inhibi ion. In e en ions
in ol ing skills aining and beha io modi ica ion (i.e., p ac icing skills ha help o delay g a i-
ica ion, imp o ing e bal skills o deescala e si ua ions, easoning h ough u u e consequences,
and inhibi ing impulses) may be able o help hose who a e a a highe isk o u u e iolence o
agg ession.
The ques ion is whe he i is possible o exe cise an imp o emen in his ype o skills and
execu i e unc ions h ough a g oup in e en ion. The e a e al eady a ew examples o in e en-
ions o iolence educ ion showing success ul esul s in execu i e unc ions modi ica ion. Fo
5
example, he Con ex o P og am is a communi y-based in e en ion, un a he Uni e sidad de Va-
lencia, based on he ecological model amewo k ha aims o educe isk ac o s and inc ease
p o ec i e ac o s o in ima e pa ne iolence o ende s, p omo ing he change o belie s and
a i udes ha main ain gende iolence, o e ing al e na i es o he men who pa icipa e in he
p og am, wi h he aim ha hey can es ablish heal hy couple ela ionships based on espec and
ee o iolence. The e alua ion o po en ial neu opsychological changes (emo ional decoding,
pe spec i e aking, emo ional empa hy and cogni i e lexibili y) due o his p og am showed ha
inc eases we e obse ed in cogni i e empa hy (emo ional decoding and pe spec i e aking) and in
cogni i e lexibili y (Rome o-Ma ínez e al., 2016). Fu he esea ch (Rome o-Ma ínez e al.,
2021) poin ed ou ha when he p og am was complemen ed wi h speci ic cogni i e aining he
in ima e pa ne iolence (IPV) pe pe a o s imp o ed hei p ocessing speed and cogni i e lexi-
bili y, and ha hese pa icipan s p esen ed lowe isk o ecidi ism a e he in e en ion. In addi-
ion, Ron‑G ajales e al. (2021) showed ha mind ulness medi a ion aining imp o ed inhibi o y
con ol and, he e o e, may ha e a posi i e e ec on mi iga ing iolen beha io in young o end-
e s.
An e ec i e way o e alua e he impac o he in e en ion on gende and da ing iolence
p e en ion can be h ough he assessmen o changes in sexis belie s, as well as h ough changes
in execu i e unc ions ela ed o he con ol o iolen esponses.
2.3 In e en ions in Schools
The e a e se e al andomized con ol ials (RCTs) done in schools whe e CBT he apy is gi en
as a ea men bu only a ew cen e hei a en ion o GBV. Ola unbosun (2022) uses a CBT in e -
en ion o educe bullying, ha migh include gende - ela ed issues bu no as a main esul . Mille
e al. (2011) and Van S a enbu g e al. (2017) use CBT he apy in schools as a p e en i e in e -
en ion o child anxie y. In a simila di ec ion, Manassis e al. (2010), s udies he impac o CBT
he apy in schools o anxious o dep essi e symp oms. The e a e some RCTs ha ocus on gende
a i udes, hence no di ec ly on GBV (ye hey could ha e an impac on he p e en ion o GBV),
bu hey use ea men s o he han CBT. Dha e al. (2022), o example, e alua es an in e en ion
based on gende equali y discussions in he class oom ha aimed o educe he suppo o socie al
no ms ha es ic women’s and gi ls’ oppo uni ies, and ound ha he p og am made a i udes
12
Table 2. Analy ical Ins umen s o Wo kshop E alua ion
Risk ac o associa ed
wi h iolen beha io
In e en ion com-
ponen o add ess
isk ac o
Analy ical Ins umen o isk ac o
assessmen
Desc ip ion
Sel - epo ed ques-
ionnai e
Au oma ed neu o-
psychological es
Sexis Belie s C i ical Re iew o
Though s & Belie s
B ie Ambi alen
Sexis In en o y
(BASI)
12 i ems wi h wo subscales:
Hos ile Sexism (HS): 6 i ems (C onbach’s α = .85) subscale o measu e adi ional
sexism o ien ed owa d he pe cep ion o in e io i y o he o he sex.
Bene olen Sexism (BS): 6 i ems (C onbach’s α = .73) subscale o assess sexis a i-
udes wi h a posi i e a ec i e one ha allows men o beha e p o-socially, al hough
i helps jus i y and main ain gende inequali y.
Impulsi i y Mind ulness
S a e Impulsi i y
Scale (SIS)
20 i ems (C onbach’s α = .884) ha assess impulsi e beha io s and endencies ac oss
h ee subscales:
Mo o Impulsi i y o Au oma ism: measu es impulsi e ac ions and beha io s, such as
ac ing wi hou hinking, being es less, o ha ing di icul y si ing s ill.
A en ional Impulsi i y: assesses di icul ies in main aining ocus and a en ion, in-
cluding dis ac ibili y and di icul ies wi h concen a ion.
Non-planning Impulsi i y o G a i ica ion: e alua es impulsi e decision-making and
lack o u u e planning o conside a ion o consequences.
Emo ional S op Sig-
nal Tes (ESST)
Pa icipan s mus apidly indica e he sex (man o woman) o se ially p esen ed im-
ages (112 in o al) o human aces showing di e en emo ions on he same numbe o
occasions (joy, ea , ange , o neu al) by keyp ess, excep on ials wi h a isual
s op-signal ( ed ame).
I assesses inhibi o y esponse capaci y by es ablishing he esponden ’s abili y o e-
spond co ec ly o he s imulus and hei abili y o inhibi hei esponse when neces-
sa y. I is assessed by he p opo ion o success ul ials.
Lack o emo ional ecogni-
ion/empa hy
Emo ional ecogni-
ion skills
Reading he Mind
in he Eyes Tes
(RMET)
Pa icipan s mus choose ou o he se en wo ds o he p ima y emo ions (joy, ea ,
disgus , ange , sadness, su p ise, neu al) he one ha desc ibes how he pe son in
each o he 42 sequen ially p esen ed pic u es o he egion o he eyes - including
eyeb ows and pa o he nose - o men, women, and child en (sex equally ep e-
sen ed) is eeling. Highe sco es indica e be e abili y o ead and in e p e emo ions
and men al s a es om he eyes.
13
Table 2., con inued
Risk ac o associa ed
wi h iolen beha io
In e en ion com-
ponen o add ess
isk ac o
Analy ical Ins umen o isk ac o
assessmen
Desc ip ion
Sel - epo ed ques-
ionnai e
Au oma ed neu o-
psychological es
Lack o e
mo ional egula-
ion
Emo ional egula-
ion skills
Emo ional Regula-
ion Ques ionnai e
(ERQ-CA-9)
9 i ems (C onbach’s α = .830), ha assess wo main s a egies o emo ional egula-
ion sepa a ely:
Cogni i e Reapp aisal: This s a egy in ol es changing one's in e p e a ion o pe -
spec i e o a si ua ion o al e he emo ional esponse. I includes echniques such as
e aming, inding sil e linings, o ocusing on posi i e aspec s o a si ua ion.
Exp essi e Supp ession: This s a egy in ol es inhibi ing o supp essing he ou wa d
exp ession o emo ions. I may include e o s o hide o conceal emo ions om o h-
e s.
Emo ional S op Sig-
nal Tes (ESST)
Pa icipan s mus apidly indica e he sex (man o woman) o se ially p esen ed im-
ages (112 in o al) o human aces showing di e en emo ions on he same numbe o
occasions (joy, ea , ange , o neu al) by keyp ess, excep on ials wi h a isual
s op-signal ( ed ame).
I assesses emo ional egula ion capaci y by compa ing how he emo ion shown in
he es a ec s he esponden ’s abili y o ac co ec ly o he s imulus and hei abil-
i y o inhibi hei esponse when necessa y.
Lack o c
ogni i e lexibil-
i y/P oblem
-Sol ing
P oblem-Sol ing
Skills
In e pe sonal Con-
lic Resolu ion Scale
(ICRS)
22 i ems (C onbach’s α = .810) s uc u ed a ound h ee ac o s o con lic esolu ion:
Collabo a i e means: he endency o use coope a i e and cons uc i e s a egies in
esol ing con lic s (nego ia ion, open communica ion, inding solu ions ha sa is y
all pa ies in ol ed, eamwo k and mu ual p oblem-sol ing)
Passi e means: he inclina ion o a oid con lic o o gi e in o he demands o o h-
e s.
Agg essi e means: he use o con on a ional o o ce ul s a egies in dealing wi h
con lic ( h ea s, manipula ion, o asse i e beha io o domina e o win he con lic ,
o en dis ega ding he pe spec i es o needs o o he s)
Wisconsin Ca d
So ing Tes
(WCST)
Pa icipan s a e asked o ma ch ca ds based on di e en c i e ia (such as colo , shape,
o numbe ), bu he ma ching ule changes pe iodically wi hou wa ning. The pa ici-
pan mus use eedback o adjus hei s a egy and disco e he new ule. The es
measu es skills like p oblem-sol ing, adap abili y, and he abili y o lea n om mis-
akes.
14
Table 2., con inued
Risk ac o associa ed
wi h iolen beha io
In e en ion com-
ponen o add ess
isk ac o
Analy ical Ins umen o isk ac o
assessmen
Desc ip ion
Sel - epo ed ques-
ionnai e
Au oma ed neu o-
psychological es
Scale o Risk o
Violence Assess-
men o Adoles-
cen s (SRVAA)
25 i ems (C onbach’s α = .836) s uc u ed a ound six ac o s:
Nega i e Sel -concep : e alua es he adolescen 's sel -pe cep ion, including eelings
o wo hlessness, low sel -es eem, and nega i e a i udes owa ds onesel .
Lack o Sel -con ol: measu es he adolescen ’s di icul y in managing impulses and
emo ions.
T ai s o Sel -ha m: assesses endencies owa d sel -des uc i e beha io s, such as
sel -inju y o suicidal hough s.
P oac i e Violence: measu es calcula ed, goal-di ec ed iolen beha io .
Ve bal Violence: e alua es he use o agg essi e language, h ea s, o insul s as a
o m o iolence.
Reac i e Violence: measu es iolen beha io ha occu s in esponse o pe cei ed
h ea s o p o oca ions.
Social Desi abili y
Index (SDI)
13 i em sho o m o he Ma lowe-C owne Social Desi abili y Scale
(C onbach’s α = .764)
15
Table 2 summa izes he analy ical ins umen s used o measu e he impac on each o he
isk ac o s a ge ed by he componen s o he in e en ion. Fo a mo e de ailed desc ip ion o each
ins umen , see Annex 1. Annex 2 includes all he sel - epo ed ques ionnai es wi h all hei i ems
and he Like scale o each, bo h in Spanish, he language in which hey we e applied du ing he
in e en ion, and in English.
In addi ion o he ins umen s used o e alua e he ac o s a ge ed by he in e en ion, wo
addi ional sel - epo ques ionnai es we e adminis e ed o comple e he assessmen . These include
he Scale o Risk o Violence Assessmen o Adolescen s (SRVAA), which aims o de e mine i
he in e en ion can educe iolence isk, and a Social Desi abili y Index, which assesses he ex en
o which s uden s’ esponses may be suscep ible o bias o igina ing om hei belie s abou so-
cially desi able answe s. The SRVAA is based on WHO de ini ions o iolence isk ac o s and
includes six subscales: Nega i e Sel -concep , Lack o Sel -con ol, T ai s o Sel -ha m, P oac i e
Violence, Ve bal Violence, and Reac i e Violence. I e alua es he equency o hese iolen be-
ha io s. All sel - epo ed ques ionnai es, excep he S a e Impulsi i y Scale (SIS), ha e been al-
ida ed on Mexican adolescen popula ions p io o his in e en ion. The SIS has been alida ed
using a Spanish adolescen popula ion.
3.3 Taking he Baseline and Endline
Du ing he i s h ee weeks o Sep embe 2023, a g oup o e alua o s accessed each class oom o
i s -yea s uden s in all schools pa icipa ing in he s udy a u o ing ime and adminis e ed a base-
line su ey o all ou come a iables. Th ough a ba e y o modems, a secu e In e ne ne wo k was
sha ed wi h he s uden s, o which hey connec ed wi h hei mobile phones. Once connec ed, ac-
cess o he e alua ion was sha ed wi h hem h ough a QR code. Each subjec in oduced pe sonal
de ails, and hen he da a collec ion ook place, which las ed be ween 20 o 30 minu es. Be o e
ca ying ou he da a collec ion, schools we e p o ided wi h an in o med consen o m o send o
pa en s. Pa en s we e asked o e u n he signed shee i hey ag eed o hei child en o pa icipa e
in he e alua ion. Only s uden s o whom pa en al au ho iza ion was a ailable we e included in
he da a collec ion, ye he g ea majo i y o hem ecei ed he au ho iza ion (86.1 pe cen ).
Fo he endline da a collec ion, we ollowed he same p ocedu e as he baseline. Howe e ,
he schools unexpec edly concluded he semes e ea ly, unde he di ec i e o educa ional au ho -
i ies o o e addi ional suppo o s uggling s uden s. Consequen ly, i was no easible o assess
16
all s uden s who had ini ially p o ided in o med consen . Only 55.4 pe cen o he s uden s who
ook pa in he baseline comple ed he endline da a collec ion a he conclusion o he in e en ion.
3.4 Expe imen al Design
As p e iously men ioned, se en schools consen ed o pa icipa e in he expe imen . Among hese,
i e schools ope a e on bo h mo ning and a e noon shi s, while he emaining wo schools ha e
a single shi . Wi hin each shi , he numbe o cou ses o e ed by he schools anges om 3 o 8
(see Table 3 below). The wo kshops we e conduc ed a he cou se le el. Howe e , o e alua e
po en ial spillo e s in in o ma ion ansmission among s uden s, we chose he school-shi as he
uni o andomiza ion a he han he indi idual cou se. Consequen ly, ou clus e sample size is
N=12, ep esen ing he o al numbe o school-shi s included in he s udy.
The andomiza ion p ocess was conduc ed in wo s eps:
S ep 1: The ini ial phase in ol ed assigning 4 ou o he 12 school-shi s o he pu e con ol g oup.
None o he cou ses wi hin hese 4 school-shi s ecei ed he wo kshops du ing he in e -
en ion.
S ep 2: Fo he 8 school-shi s no assigned o he pu e con ol g oup, each cou se wi hin hese
shi s was andomly assigned o ei he he ea men o con ol g oup. To ensu e a balanced
dis ibu ion o cou ses be ween he wo g oups, we used p e-de e mined block sizes o
andomiza ion. Fo ins ance, in school-shi s wi h 6 cou ses, 3 we e andomly assigned o
he ea men g oup and 3 o he con ol g oup. Fo school-shi s wi h an odd numbe o
cou ses, he blocked andomiza ion was balanced ac oss bo h mo ning and a e noon shi s.
Fo example, in School 3, he mo ning shi had 4 ea ed cou ses, while he a e noon shi
had 3 ea ed cou ses.
This 2-s ep p ocedu e le us wi h 8 school-shi s ha con ained bo h ea ed and un ea ed
cou ses. The un ea ed cou ses wi hin hese 8 school-shi s o med he po en ially con amina ed
con ol g oup. Due o he a ia ion in he numbe o cou ses pe school-shi , he e was a isk o
ha ing unbalanced g oup sizes o he ea men , con amina ed con ol, and pu e con ol g oups.
I is impo an o no e ha he andomiza ion esul ed in 21 cou ses being assigned o he ea men
g oup, 22 cou ses o he con amina ed con ol g oup, and 20 cou ses o he pu e con ol g oup.
17
3.5 Po en ial Spillo e s
As men ioned ea lie , he andom assignmen assumed ha po en ial spillo e s occu a he school-
shi le el. I his assump ion holds, he ue e ec i eness o he CBT wo kshop is cap u ed by he
o al e ec o he ea men on bo h ea ed and non- ea ed indi iduals wi hin shi s ha ha e a
leas one ea ed cou se (Bai d e al., 2018). This means we mus conside bo h he di ec e ec s
on ea ed indi iduals and he indi ec e ec s on non- ea ed indi iduals. We e e o his combined
impac as he To al Causal E ec (TCE). Fo mally,
TCE = Di ec E ec o CBT wo kshop + Indi ec E ec o CBT wo kshop
I he ea men posi i ely in luences he ou comes o non- ea ed indi iduals in he same
shi , compa ing he a e age ou comes o he ea ed g oup o he con amina ed con ol g oup will
unde es ima e he TCE. To add ess his, we compa e he a e age ou comes o he con amina ed
con ol g oup o he pu e con ol g oup o isola e he Indi ec E ec o he CBT wo kshop. Simi-
la ly, we compa e he a e age ou comes o he ea ed g oup o he pu e con ol g oup o measu e
he Di ec E ec o he CBT wo kshop.
4. Resul s
4.1 Wo kshop A endance
A endance a he wo kshops was 77.5 pe cen o all sessions augh . Figu e 1 shows he pe cen age
o a endance a each o he wo kshop sessions o each o he eigh ea men school-shi s. Al -
hough he wo kshop was compulso y and held du ing school hou s, se e al ac o s a ec ed a -
endance. Fi s ly, he e was li le con ol o e a endance, especially in one shi -school. Secondly,
he wo kshop ended close o he win e holidays, and schools decided o end hei classes ea lie
han planned o p o ide ex a ins uc ion o s uden s who had allen behind. In he end, he e we e
ewe s uden s p esen in he las sessions o all g oups as a endance was no manda o y. Addi-
ionally, wo g oups had only 11 sessions and ano he g oup only had 9 sessions ou o 12. Finally,
in one school, only a small numbe o s uden s we e able o pa icipa e in he endline da a collec-
ion. Table 3 shows he numbe o s uden s pa icipa ing in he su ey a he baseline and he
endline, and he compa ison o he numbe o s uden s e alua ed by ea men a m speci ied by
sex a e p esen ed in Table 4.
18
Figu e 1. Pe cen age o A endance a Each o he Wo kshop Sessions
o Each o he Eigh T ea men School-shi s
Table 3. Cou ses and S uden s Pa icipa ing in he S udy
School
Mo ning shi
A e noon shi
(1)
Cou se
s
(2)
To al
s uden s
(3)
S uden s a
baseline
(4)
S uden s a
endline
(5)
Cou ses
(6)
To al
s uden s
(7)
S uden s a
baseline
(8)
S uden s a
endline
1
0
0
0
0
6
286
212
35
2
5
244
229
93
5
246
192
94
3
7
295
253
166
7
364
298
157
4
5
174
161
101
5
215
190
139
5
8
286
248
146
0
0
0
0
6
3
100
97
63
3
73
69
45
7
5
115
104
75
4
86
85
70
To al
1214
1092
644
1270
1046
540
Table 4. Compa ison o S uden s by Sex and T ea men A m
Baseline. 2138 Endline: 1184
(55.4% o baseline)
Pu e con ol: 646 Con amina ed con-
ol: 804
T ea men : 688
(32.6%)
Pu e con ol: 422
(35.6%)
Con amina ed con-
ol: 373 (31.5%)
T ea men : 389
(32.9%)
Gi ls:
312
(48.3%)
Boys:
334
(51.7%)
Gi ls:
413
(51.4%)
Boys:
391
(48.6%)
Gi ls:
356
(51.7%)
Boys:
332
(48.3%)
Gi ls:
220
(52.1%)
Boys:
202
(47.9%)
Gi ls:
192
(51.5%)
Boys:
181
(48.5%)
Gi ls:
215
(55.3%)
Boys:
174
(44.7%)
19
4.2 Baseline Resul s
The numbe o s uden s pa icipa ing in baseline da a collec ion a each school is included in col-
umns 3 and 6 in Table 3. These s uden s a e hose whose pa en s signed he in o med consen shee
and who a ended class on he day o he e alua ion. The pe cen age o s uden s pa icipa ing co -
esponds o 87 pe cen o en olled s uden s. Table 5 shows esul s o all s uden s, and Table 6
sepa a es esul s o emale and male s uden s. Addi ional baseline in o ma ion is included in An-
nex 5. A s a is ical di e ence in baseline be ween he con ol and ea men g oups is only epo ed
o wo a iables: “Sco e BASI” and “Sco e Passi e Means.” Fo “Sco e BASI” his applies o
bo h males and emales, while o “Sco e Passi e Means,” he di e ence is only eco ded o
males. In addi ion, o “Sco e Agg essi e Means,” he e is a s a is ically signi ican di e ence o
males. Fo he o he a iables in he baseline, he e a e no signi ican di e ences.
Table 5. Baseline Compa isons o All Rele an Va iables: All S uden s
Va iables
T ea men
Pu e Con ol
Di e ence
p- alue
Age
15.301
15.312
-0.011
0.921
Sex
0.515
0.488
0.027
0.306
% Righ RMET
0.549
0.553
-0.004
0.606
% Righ ESST
0.638
0.635
0.003
0.704
Coun Co ec Go
57.136
56.385
0.751
0.420
Coun Co ec S op
14.669
15.500
-0.831
0.046
Sco e BASI
34.242
36.167
-1.925
0.001
Sco e SIS
20.275
20.140
0.135
0.823
Sco e A en ional
7.338
7.192
0.146
0.550
Sco e Au oma ism
6.132
6.192
-0.061
0.764
Sco e G a i ica ion
6.805
6.755
0.050
0.833
Sco e Ree alua ion
16.602
16.886
-0.283
0.282
Sco e Supp ession
12.444
12.488
-0.044
0.831
Sco e SRVAA
34.292
34.057
0.235
0.563
Sco e Nega i e Sel -concep
11.541
11.314
0.226
0.260
Sco e Lack o Sel -con ol
5.011
5.057
-0.046
0.577
Sco e T ai s o Sel -ha m
5.136
5.156
-0.020
0.811
Sco e P oac i e Violence
4.753
4.771
-0.018
0.803
Sco e Ve bal Violence
4.180
4.150
0.030
0.690
Sco e Reac i e Violence
3.672
3.609
0.062
0.334
Sco e SDI
7.889
7.963
-0.074
0.551
Sco e ICRS
36.965
35.710
1.255
0.104
Sco e Agg essi e Means
6.185
6.106
0.080
0.776
Sco e Collabo a i e Means
18.550
18.070
0.480
0.296
Sco e Passi e Means
12.230
11.534
0.696
0.042
20
Table 6. Baseline Compa isons o All Rele an Va iables by Gende
Female s uden s Male s uden s
Va iables
T ea -
men
Pu e
Con ol
Di p- alue
T ea -
men
Pu e
Con ol
Di p- alue
Age
15.239
15.249
-0.010
0.949
15.367
15.372
-0.006
0.972
% Righ RMET
0.564
0.566
-0.002
0.877
0.533
0.541
-0.008
0.464
% Righ ESST
0.634
0.619
0.015
0.172
0.643
0.651
-0.008
0.474
Coun Co ec Go
56.723
53.939
2.784
0.037
57.577
58.703
-1.126
0.382
Coun Co ec S op
14.909
15.684
-0.775
0.174
14.412
15.326
-0.914
0.133
Sco e BASI
32.375
34.040
-1.665
0.029
36.227
38.190
-1.963
0.022
Sco e SIS
19.819
20.635
-0.816
0.344
20.763
19.658
1.105
0.194
Sco e A en ional
7.153
7.274
-0.122
0.728
7.537
7.113
0.424
0.215
Sco e Au oma ism
5.901
6.423
-0.522
0.066
6.379
5.969
0.410
0.155
Sco e G a i ica ion
6.766
6.939
-0.173
0.608
6.847
6.577
0.271
0.421
Sco e Ree alua ion
17.383
17.628
-0.245
0.481
15.765
16.179
-0.413
0.288
Sco e Supp ession
12.975
13.059
-0.084
0.763
11.875
11.943
-0.069
0.816
Sco e SRVAA
34.998
35.111
-0.114
0.847
33.545
33.054
0.491
0.374
Sco e Nega i e Sel -concep
12.575
12.380
0.196
0.511
10.445
10.301
0.144
0.560
Sco e Lack o Sel -con ol
4.983
5.060
-0.077
0.507
5.041
5.054
-0.013
0.909
Sco e T ai s o Sel -ha m
5.231
5.289
-0.059
0.623
5.036
5.029
0.007
0.948
Sco e P oac i e Violence
4.534
4.663
-0.129
0.194
4.985
4.874
0.111
0.295
Sco e Ve bal Violence
4.211
4.235
-0.024
0.826
4.147
4.069
0.078
0.456
Sco e Reac i e Violence
3.464
3.485
-0.021
0.781
3.892
3.728
0.164
0.110
Sco e SDI
7.654
7.742
-0.088
0.611
8.138
8.172
-0.034
0.847
Sco e ICRS
37.364
36.563
0.801
0.456
36.533
34.887
1.645
0.140
Sco e Agg essi e Means
5.882
6.380
-0.498
0.214
6.514
5.841
0.672
0.088
Sco e Collabo a i e Means
19.161
18.358
0.803
0.205
17.889
17.793
0.096
0.885
Sco e Passi e Means
12.322
11.826
0.496
0.301
12.130
11.253
0.877
0.072
In addi ion o compa ing he con ol and ea men g oups, analyzes we e conduc ed based
on age and school shi . No signi ican di e ences we e ound in any o he measu ed a iables
conce ning hese ac o s. Di e ences we e indeed obse ed, howe e , be ween boys and gi ls
ac oss se e al a iables, as ou lined below.
In he baseline assessmen s, ou popula ion’s BASI ques ionnai e (sexis belie s) esponses
indica e simila le els o hose o o he La in Ame ican coun ies and align wi h he p e ailing
li e a u e, which sugges s ha men ypically exhibi signi ican ly highe le els o bo h ypes o
sexism compa ed o women (Rolle o e al., 2014; Ma ínez-Baque o & Vallejo-Medina, 2024).
21
Rega ding he SIS (impulsi i y ques ionnai e), ou popula ion’s sco es su pass hose o he popu-
la ion in which he scale was alida ed. No ably, he e a e no signi ican ini ial sco e di e ences
be ween males and emales ac oss he o al scale o i s measu ed dimensions. Analysis o ERQ-
CA-9 (emo ional egula ion ques ionnai e) baseline da a e eals ha male s uden s end o sco e
highe in emo ional egula ion h ough exp essi e supp ession, while emale s uden s sco e sig-
ni ican ly highe in cogni i e eapp aisal, sugges ing supe io emo ional egula ion s a egies
among emales, consis en wi h exis ing li e a u e (G oss & John, 2003). Findings om he base-
line ICRS (con lic esolu ion) assessmen indica e no ema kable dis inc ions in he use o agg es-
si e and passi e me hods o emo ional egula ion be ween boys and gi ls. Howe e , gi ls end o
employ collabo a i e app oaches o con lic esolu ion mo e equen ly, aligning wi h p io e-
sea ch by Shu e and Cha l on (2006). Con e sely, a s udy by Fa iña e al. (2021) showed no sig-
ni ican gende a ia ions in con lic esolu ion s yles. Ou popula ion’s sco es on he iolence isk
scale a e somewha lowe han hose ound in Muñoz’s scale alida ion wo k among Mexican
adolescen s. Gende di e en ia ion e eals signi ican ly highe o al sco es among gi ls. No ably,
gi ls sco e highe in nega i e sel -concep and sel -inju y ai s, while boys sco e highe in eac i e
and p oac i e iolence. The e we e no signi ican di e ences by sex o he lack o sel -con ol
and e bal iolence subscales.
The ela ionship be ween each o he e alua ed a iables and iolen beha io s, based on
indings om p e ious esea ch, is desc ibed in he In oduc ion and in g ea e de ail in Annex 1.
Bu he da a collec ed allows us o explo e whe he he e is a ela ionship be ween he a iables
measu ed a baseline, pa icula ly in ela ion o he isk o iolence and i s subscales. Table 7
p esen s Pea son co ela ion alues be ween pai s o s udy a iables, highligh ing posi i e co e-
la ions in blue and nega i e co ela ions in o ange, wi h mo e in ense colo s indica ing s onge
co ela ions. Na u ally, he subscales show s ong posi i e co ela ions wi h he o al impulsi i y
(SIS) and iolence (SVRAA) scales, as hese a e cons uc ed by summing he sco es o hei e-
spec i e subscales. Bu a no able inding is he nega i e co ela ion be ween sel - epo ed a iables
associa ed wi h nega i e concep s (all subscales o iolence isk assessmen , impulsi i y, and he
use o agg essi e means o esol e con lic s) and he Social Desi abili y Index. This sugges s ha
pa icipan s end o espond in a socially desi able manne , po en ially unde es ima ing he sco es
ob ained in hese a iables. A he same ime, he Social Desi abili y Index shows a posi i e co -
ela ion wi h cogni i e eapp aisal, indica ing a possible o e es ima ion in his dimension. These
28
4.3.4 Neu opsychological Tes s Resul s
Tables 10 and 11 p esen he esul s o he Au oma ed Neu opsychological Tes s. As s a ed in
Sec ion 3, an imp o emen in he pe o mance on any o hese es s is implied by he achie emen
o a highe sco e and coe icien s in his able should be in e p e ed as pe cen age poin s. The
indings indica e ha engagemen in he wo kshop has a posi i e e ec on he emo ional ecogni-
ion abili ies among pa icipan s.
Table 10. Neu opsychological Tes s Resul s: Main E ec s (Model 1)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Emo ional
ecogni ion (RMET)
Impulsi i y (ESST)
Cogni i e
lexibili y (WCST)
T ea men
0.040*
0.014
0.008
p- alue
(0.022)
(0.214)
(0.616)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.068]
[0.321]
[0.617]
Female
0.015
0.002
0.003
p- alue
(0.188)
(0.799)
(0.784)
Cons an
-0.063***
-0.010
0.586***
p- alue
(0.002)
(0.189)
(0.000)
N
816
844
927
In pa en hesis, p- alues co esponding o clus e ed SE a he school-shi le el, adjus ed by small numbe o
clus e s using eg_sandwich command in S a a. In b acke s, p- alues co ec ed o Mul iple Hypo hesis Tes ing
using Ande son’s sha pened q- alues.
*i Ande son’s q- alues<.1; ** i Ande son’s q- alues<.05; *** i Ande son’s q- alues<.01
Table 11. Neu opsychological Tes s Resul s: E ec s by Gende (Model 2)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Emo ional
ecogni ion (RMET) Impulsi i y (ESST)
Cogni i e
lexibili y (WCST)
T ea men
0.022
-0.005
-0.006
p- alue
(0.207)
(0.706)
(0.776)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.415]
[0.928]
[0.928]
Female
-0.001
-0.015
-0.011
p- alue
(0.928)
(0.286)
(0.559)
Female*T ea men
0.033
0.036
0.028
p- alue
(0.128)
(0.041)
(0.174)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.386]
[0.165]
[0.415]
Cons an
-0.055**
-0.001
0.593***
p- alue
(0.007)
(0.875)
(0.000)
N
816
844
927
In pa en hesis, p- alues co esponding o clus e ed SE a he school-shi le el, adjus ed by small numbe o
clus e s using eg_sandwich command in S a a. In b acke s, p- alues co ec ed o Mul iple Hypo hesis Tes ing
using Ande son’s sha pened q- alues.
*i Ande son’s q- alues<.1; ** i Ande son’s q- alues.<.05; *** i Ande son’s q- alues<.01
29
4.3.5 A Commen on Robus ness Checks
To ensu e he obus ness o ou indings, we in es iga e whe he social desi abili y bias may ha e
in luenced he ea men e ec s by inco po a ing in e ac ions wi h a social desi abili y index (SDI).
We es ima e bo h he main model and a ully in e ac ed model wi h SDI, es ing o any signi ican
impac on he ea men e ec s. As he esul s show no signi ican coe icien s o hese in e ac-
ions, he comple e ables a e p o ided in Annex 7 o e e ence. This app oach allows us o ad-
d ess he po en ial conce n o social desi abili y bias wi hou de ac ing om he main indings.
4.3.6 S a is ical Analysis Using a Less Res ic i e App oach
This sec ion p esen s a less es ic i e s a is ical analysis o u he explo e he po en ial e ec s o
ou in e en ion. Ini ially, ou expe imen al design andomized a he school shi le el while also
implemen ing class oom-le el andomiza ion. Wi hin ea ed school shi s, only a subse o class-
ooms was andomly assigned o he in e en ion g oup. Howe e , since no spillo e e ec s we e
de ec ed in he con ol class ooms wi hin ea ed school shi s, hese class ooms a e included in
he analysis, inc easing he numbe o obse a ions. Fu he mo e, he s udy popula ion consis s o
i s -semes e high school s uden s who ecen ly ansi ioned om a ious middle schools. Gi en
ha no signi ican baseline di e ences we e ound in he measu ed a iables ac oss di e en
school shi s, a less es ic i e analy ical app oach is jus i ied. In his analysis, s anda d e o s a e
clus e ed a he class oom le el, unde he assump ion ha obse a ions wi hin a class oom a e
co ela ed, while hose ac oss di e en school shi s a e no necessa ily so. Acco dingly, he ol-
lowing sec ion p esen s s a is ical esul s using he class oom as he uni o andomiza ion, wi h
all class ooms ha did no ecei e he wo kshop g ouped in o he con ol g oup. This app oach
assumes ha all school shi s a e equi alen and clus e s e o s a he class oom le el. Tables 12
and 13 p o ide ques ionnai e esul s, while Tables 14 and 15 p esen he esul s o he neu opsy-
chological es s unde hese e ised speci ica ions.
In his mo e comp ehensi e analysis, we ha e obse ed s a is ical imp o emen s in bo h
emo ional ecogni ion, as assessed by he RMET neu opsychological es , and inhibi o y con ol,
as measu ed by he ESST. Addi ionally, s uden s who pa icipa ed in iolence p e en ion wo k-
shops showed enhanced use o emo ional egula ion s a egies, acco ding o he ERQ-CA-9 ques-
ionnai e, compa ed o hose who did no a end hese wo kshops.
30
These esul s sugges ha he wo kshop ac i i ies posi i ely in luence key a iables asso-
cia ed wi h iolen beha io s. Consequen ly, hese wo kshops may ep esen an e ec i e, p ac i-
cal, and easily implemen able s a egy o p e en ing gende -based and da ing iolence wi hin his
popula ion.
31
Table 12. Ques ionnai es Resul s: Main E ec s (Model 1)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Sexis Belie s (BASI)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- All)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Cogni i e
Reapp aisal)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Exp essi e
Supp ession)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Agg essi e mea
ns)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
- Collabo a i e
means)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Passi e means)
Assessmen o isk o i-
olence (SVRAA
- All)
T ea men
2.065*
0.716
1.046*
0.672*
0.169
0.591
-0.549
0.515
p- alue
(0.011)
(0.444)
(0.021)
(0.029)
(0.723)
(0.365)
(0.228)
(0.472)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.077]
[0.540]
[0.077]
[0.077]
[0.724]
[0.540]
[0.457]
[0.540]
Female
-0.340
0.798
0.515
0.107
-0.095
0.546
0.140
-0.177
p- alue
(0.619)
(0.343)
(0.204)
(0.712)
(0.793)
(0.363)
(0.737)
(0.730)
Cons an
-2.120***
0.227
-1.986***
-1.117***
0.435
-2.270***
-0.646**
1.732***
p- alue
(0.000)
(0.725)
(0.000)
(0.000)
(0.201)
(0.000)
(0.040)
(0.002)
N
2.065*
0.716
1.046*
0.672*
0.169
0.591
-0.549
0.515
In pa en hesis, p- alues co esponding o clus e ed SE a he class oom le el, adjus ed by small numbe o clus e s using eg_sandwich command in S a a. In
b acke s, p- alues co ec ed o Mul iple Hypo hesis Tes ing using Ande son’s sha pened q- alues.
*i Ande son’s q- alues<.1; ** i Ande son’s q- alues<.05; *** i Ande son’s q- alues<.01
32
Table 13. Ques ionnai es Resul s: E ec s by Gende (Model 2)
(1)
(2)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
Sexis Belie s
(BASI)
Impulsi i y (SIS
-
All)
Emo ional Regu-
la ion (ERQ
-CA-
9 -
Cogni i e Re-
app aisal)
Emo ional Regu-
la ion (ERQ
-CA-
9 -
Exp essi e
Supp ession)
Cogni i e lexi-
bili y (ICRS
-
Agg essi e
means)
Cogni i e lexi-
bili y (ICRS
-
Collabo a i e
means)
Cogni i e lexi-
bili y (ICRS
-
Passi e means)
Assessmen o
isk o iolence
(SVRAA
- All)
T ea men
2.648
0.169
1.081
0.416
0.053
-0.005
-0.590
1.105
p- alue
(0.026)
(0.859)
(0.106)
(0.378)
(0.930)
(0.995)
(0.423)
(0.268)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.424]
[0.996]
[0.825]
[0.825]
[0.996]
[0.996]
[0.825]
[0.825]
Female
0.020
0.452
0.536
-0.055
-0.169
0.170
0.114
0.179
p- alue
(0.980)
(0.695)
(0.271)
(0.876)
(0.686)
(0.815)
(0.803)
(0.789)
Female*T ea men
-1.082
1.017
-0.065
0.481
0.214
1.097
0.075
-1.087
p- alue
(0.481)
(0.515)
(0.942)
(0.435)
(0.797)
(0.396)
(0.939)
(0.298)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.825]
[0.825]
[0.996]
[0.825]
[0.996]
[0.825]
[0.996]
[0.825]
Cons an
-2.306***
0.410
-1.997***
-1.033***
0.474
-2.071***
-0.632**
1.547***
p- alue
(0.000)
(0.573)
(0.000)
(0.001)
(0.188)
(0.000)
(0.050)
(0.009)
N
2.648
0.169
1.081
0.416
0.053
-0.005
-0.590
1.105
In pa en hesis, p- alues co esponding o clus e ed SE a he class oom le el, adjus ed by small numbe o clus e s using eg_sandwich command
in S a a. In b acke s, p- alues co ec ed o Mul iple Hypo hesis Tes ing using Ande son’s sha pened q- alues.
*i Ande son’s q- alues<.1; ** i Ande son’s q- alues<.05; *** i Ande son’s q- alues<.01
33
Table 14. Neu opsychological Tes s Resul s: Main E ec s (Model 1)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Emo ional
ecogni ion (RMET)
Impulsi i y (ESST)
Cogni i e
lexibili y (WCST)
T ea men
0.046**
0.017*
0.015
p- alue
(0.004)
(0.066)
(0.167)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.014]
[0.099]
[0.167]
Female
0.009
-0.009
0.006
p- alue
(0.268)
(0.210)
(0.385)
Cons an
-0.066***
-0.006
0.578***
p- alue
(0.000)
(0.338)
(0.000)
N
0.046**
0.017*
0.015
In pa en hesis, p- alues co esponding o clus e ed SE a he class oom le el, adjus ed by small numbe o clus e s
using eg_sandwich command in S a a. In b acke s, p- alues co ec ed o Mul iple Hypo hesis Tes ing using
Ande son’s sha pened q- alues.
*i Ande son’s q- alues<.1; ** i Ande son’s q- alues<.05; *** i Ande son’s q- alues<.01
Table 15. Neu opsychological Tes s Resul s: E ec s by Gende (Model 2)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Emo ional
ecogni ion (RMET)
Impulsi i y (ESST)
Cogni i e
lexibili y (WCST)
T ea men
0.027
-0.007
0.006
p- alue
(0.194)
(0.542)
(0.680)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.305]
[0.650]
[0.680]
Female
-0.002
-0.024***
0.000
p- alue
(0.793)
(0.008)
(0.981)
Female*T ea men
0.034
0.045***
0.017
p- alue
(0.065)
(0.001)
(0.203)
Adjus ed p- alue o MHT
[0.195]
[0.008]
[0.305]
Cons an
-0.060***
0.001
0.581***
p- alue
(0.000)
(0.824)
(0.000)
N
0.027
-0.007
0.006
In pa en hesis, p- alues co esponding o clus e ed SE a he class oom le el, adjus ed by small numbe o
clus e s using eg_sandwich command in S a a. In b acke s, p- alues co ec ed o Mul iple Hypo hesis Tes ing
using Ande son’s sha pened q- alues.
*i Ande son’s q- alues<.1; ** i Ande son’s q- alues<.05; *** i Ande son’s q- alues<.01
4.3.7 Possible Impac o he In e en ion on G ades
To e alua e he po en ial impac o he in e en ion on s uden academic pe o mance, we e-
ques ed he g ades o each subjec aken by s uden s in bo h he con ol and ea men g oups om
he schools a he end o he semes e . I was no possible o ob ain di e en ial g ade da a, meaning
we could no compa e indi idual di e ences be o e and a e he in e en ion, which would ha e
p o ided g ea e s a is ical powe . This is because he e a e no p io g ades a ailable o hese
g oups, as hey a e i s -semes e high school s uden s. A e analyzing he g ades, we did no
de ec any signi ican di e ences be ween he con ol and ea men g oups, no we e he e any
di e ences in pe o mance be ween male and emale s uden s.
34
4.4 Discussion
4.4.1 Analysis o he Resul s: Impac o he CBT-Based In e en ion
The indings o his esea ch sugges cogni i e-beha io al he apy (CBT)-based in e en ion can
po en ially imp o e emo ional ecogni ion, inhibi o y con ol, and emo ional egula ion among
high school s uden s. While o he assessed dimensions—such as gende belie s, isk o iolence,
and cogni i e lexibili y—did no show s a is ically signi ican imp o emen s, he coe icien s ob-
ained bea he expec ed signs and consis en magni udes. This consis ency sugges s a possible
posi i e di ec ional e ec ha could become mo e appa en wi h a la ge sample size.
I is impo an o highligh ha p og ess was obse ed in wo o he h ee dimensions o
execu i e unc ions assessed h ough neu opsychological es s, which ely on objec i e measu es
o s uden pe o mance a he han subjec i e sel - epo s. Because o his, he e a e easons o
belie e ha in e en ions o his so ha e he po en ial o gene a e objec i e imp o emen s in
c i ical dimensions associa ed wi h iolen beha io s such as inhibi o y con ol, impulsi i y, and
emo ional ecogni ion. As he e is a close ela ionship be ween execu i e unc ions and iolen
beha io s, an imp o emen in s uden s’' sel -con ol capaci y could ansla e in o a signi ican e-
duc ion in such beha io s. The signi ican imp o emen in emo ional ecogni ion is a key ad ance-
men , gi en ha his skill is essen ial o os e ing empa hy and emo ional awa eness. Emo ional
ecogni ion allows s uden s o be e iden i y and unde s and he emo ions o o he s, which, in u n,
con ibu es o g ea e empa hy, social unde s anding, and po en ially mo e posi i e in e pe sonal
ela ionships. Simila ly, he epo ed imp o emen in emo ional egula ion, measu ed h ough
ques ionnai es, indica es ha s uden s pe cei e g ea e con ol and managemen o hei emo ions
a e pa icipa ing in he wo kshop. This aspec is undamen al, as app op ia e emo ional egula ion
is a de e mining ac o in p e en ing agg essi e and iolen beha io s.
In summa y, hese esul s a e encou aging, as hey sugges ha he CBT-based in e en ion
has a posi i e impac on he de elopmen o essen ial skills ela ed o sel -con ol, empa hy, and
emo ional egula ion. These skills a e no only linked o a educ ion in iolen beha io s bu also
p omo e a heal hie and mo e cons uc i e social en i onmen .
35
5. Some Lessons om he In e en ion, beyond Impac s
5.1 Wo kshop A endance
Pe haps he bigges di icul y encoun e ed was ine ec i e communica ion wi h schools, which
esul ed in incomple e in e en ions o p oblems collec ing in o ma ion. As poin ed ou ea lie , he
in e en ion consis ed o 12 50-minu e sessions, wi h he possibili y o ou addi ional sessions i
ime allowed du ing he e m. The o iginal plan was o all g oups in all schools o ha e ime o
14-16 sessions. Howe e , due o a ious school- ela ed ci cums ances, such as holidays alling on
speci ic days o he week, school ac i i ies leading o class suspensions, and un o eseen school
closu es, he numbe o weeks was educed. Some imes, o example, schools did no no i y i
classes we e cancelled. Two g oups did ha e su icien ime o addi ional sessions, bu hey we e
no conduc ed o main ain in e en ion homogenei y.
5.2 Posi i e Feedback om Facili a o s and S uden s
This la ge-scale expe ience o conduc ing he wo kshop in se e al educa ional ins i u ions simul-
aneously wi h mo e han 900 child en allowed us o es he p og am. One impo an aspec is he
eedback we ecei ed om hose who ook pa in he expe ience.
On he one hand, we ha e he imp ession o acili a o s. Fi s , hey all ag eed ha he
wo kshop was good (60 pe cen ) o e y good (40 pe cen ) and el i had a posi i e impac on he
s uden s as well as ha ing a heo e ical and me hodological amewo k, wi h a s uc u ed session
design, add essing he opics wi h di e se ac i i ies, and being based on e idence-based he apies.
Second, e en hough he g oups consis ed o 30 o 50 s uden s, an a mosphe e o us and a sa e
space was c ea ed in all wo kshops. Facili a o s we e able o e i y ha he con en and examples
esona ed wi h hei expe ience, so ha a he end o he implemen a ion, signi ican changes in
he dynamics o he g oups we e pe cei ed on a gene al le el and, in some cases, i was possible
o see how he con en was ma e ialized in ac ions. Thi d, mos o he s uden s we e engaged du ing
he sessions and, as he sessions p og essed, acili a o s no iced changes such as a highe le el o
unde s anding in hei discou se ega ding he impo ance o paying a en ion o he p esen mo-
men , emo ional iden i ica ion/ egula ion, social issues ela ed o gende , and isualizing he con-
sequences o hei ac ions in he long un. In addi ion, s uden s who we e in e es ed in he wo k-
shop men ioned hey sha ed i wi h hei amily. Fou h, acili a o s ag eed ha he e was good
o ganiza ion and suppo and ha he weekly sessions wi h he whole eam o acili a o s we e
36
use ul o e iew oge he he con en o each session and o sha e he di icul ies and incidences
hey encoun e ed.
In addi ion, eedback om s uden s was also qui e encou aging. In he las session o he
in e en ion, a link o a sa is ac ion su ey abou he wo kshop was sha ed wi h he pa icipan s in
a Google Fo m. A o al o 383 esponses we e eco ded, and 87 pe cen o he pa icipan s who
esponded conside ed ha he wo kshop hey had jus ecei ed was excellen (47 pe cen ) o good
(40 pe cen ), while 11 pe cen hough i was medioc e and 2 pe cen conside ed i poo . Nine y-
h ee pe cen comple ely ag eed (31 pe cen ) o ag eed (62 pe cen ) ha he wo kshop me hei
expec a ions, and he emaining 7 pe cen conside ed ha i did no mee hei expec a ions.
Eigh y-eigh pe cen esponded ha hey we e e y likely (34 pe cen ) o likely (54 pe cen ) o pu
in o p ac ice wha hey had lea ned in he wo kshop. Nine y pe cen o hose su eyed conside ed
ha he wo kshop ac i i ies we e un and engaging. Nine y-six pe cen ound he con en o he
wo kshop easy o unde s and and el com o able, and app oxima ely he same pe cen age con-
side ed ha hey we e able o e lec on wha hey had seen in he wo kshop h ough he expe i-
ences o hei daily li es, and ha i helped hem. Fo he pa icipan s, he main lessons ob ained
in he wo kshop we e ela ed o he knowledge, con ol, and egula ion o hei emo ions, o hei
abili y o ealize wha is happening o hem and o hei p oblem-sol ing abili ies. Finally, 93 pe -
cen o hose su eyed would ecommend he wo kshop. These esponses a e posi i e eedback
om s uden s, bu because nea ly 50 pe cen o he s uden s did no comple e he eedback su ey,
i is necessa y o conside ha pa icipa ion in he su ey is endogenous and esponses may be
biased.
5.3 Lessons and Challenges
This i s expe ience in schools has allowed us o unde s and many impo an elemen s in he im-
plemen a ion o he wo kshop. One is ha he in e en ion can be de eloped on a la ge scale and
implemen ed (wi h app op ia e adap a ions) in e y di e en con ex s h oughou he coun y. This
was in pa possible because da a collec ion was pe o med using a pla o m ha could be used on
any de ice such as desk op, able o mobile o seamlessly comple e each e alua ion s ep was easy
and wo ked e y well, and ha i has been possible o ca y ou neu opsychological es s in he
ield, ou side he labo a o y en i onmen .
37
We we e also able o iden i y, howe e , a se ies o challenges. Fi s , he expe ience in he
schools allowed us o iden i y some ways o imp o e he way he wo kshops we e conduc ed.
On he one hand, some ac i i ies seem o be oo heo e ical and became a bi bo ing o he s uden s,
so i migh be use ul in he u u e o gi e sessions a mo e p ac ical app oach, using examples
ele an o he s uden s’ social con ex . In addi ion, some games o mo e in e ac i e ac i i ies can
be added o he sessions o be e cap u e s uden s’ a en ion. On he o he hand, he wo kshop
co e ed a lo o opics in a e y sho ime. Facili a o s el ha he e we e oo many ac i i ies
planned o one session ha could no be ca ied ou due o lack o ime. I migh be desi able o
de ine which con en s should be p io i ized and which a e less impo an . The lack o ime made
i impossible o e iew and sha e he con en o p e ious sessions. Fo all hese easons, some
opics should be sho ened o mo e sessions should be added o he in e en ion.
Second, he e we e p oblems ega ding s uden pa icipa ion and managing s uden
ac i i ies. Two main p oblems we e men ioned by he acili a o s. Fi s , since a endance was
manda o y, some s uden s e used o pa icipa e in he ac i i ies, which had a nega i e impac on
he cou se a mosphe e. Second, ha ing such la ge g oups was de imen al o pa icipa ion and
eedom o exp ession. In pa icula , he la ge numbe o s uden s in he class oom made he mind-
ulness exe cises di icul . Al hough ha ing cou ses o 30 o 50 s uden s acili a es wo kshops and
educes he cos o conduc ing hem, i seems o be e y cos ly in e ms o class oom expe ience.
Pe haps i would be con enien o educe he numbe o s uden s in o de o ha e mo e pe sonal-
ized a en ion, o mo i a e hose who a e no so in e es ed in he p og am, and o ha e mo e en-
iching discussions.
Las ly, he e we e p oblems coo dina ing wi h schools. We conside ha he e was a lack
o coo dina ion and communica ion wi h he schools o ma k imes and places, as well as a o mal
p esen a ion o he acili a o s wi h he counsello s in on o he g oup. This lack o a o mal
p esen a ion by an educa ional au ho i y may ha e diminished he impo ance o he wo kshop,
and he lack o communica ion wi h he school counsello s educed he suppo om he academic
and adminis a i e s a o he schools.
5.4 Some Ideas o Imp o emen
F om he expe ience s udied, he e a e a leas i e modi ica ions ha can easily be made o im-
p o e he in e en ion:
44
Ve sions: p oblems, solu ions, and conside a ions”. Anales de Psicología/Annals o Psy-
chology, 39(2), 304-313.
Kazemi, N., Nema i, L., Yadega i, S. L., & Abdous, F. (2023); P edic ing social cogni ion based
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49
Annex 1. Violence- ela ed Fac o s and Technical Desc ip ion o Measu ed
Va iables
Violence- ela ed Fac o s
Gende belie s. Among he ac o s ha a e s ongly associa ed wi h GBV is sexism, o gende
belie s and s e eo ypes (Ba eke & Fiske, 2023; Mad ona-Bonas e e al., 2023). This ela ionship
has appea ed wi h di e en o ms o iolence: physical, psychological, sexual iolence, sexual
ha assmen (Pe sson & Dhing a, 2021; Rome o-Sánchez e al., 2017, 2021; Sánchez-He nández
e al., 2020; O e all e al., 2021; Russell & Oswald, 2016). Mo eo e , sexism is ela ed o he
di icul y o ecogni ion o iolence bo h o ic ims and pe pe a o s. Sexism can be ela ed o
GBV also indi ec ly, such as he in luence on s e eo ypes ha a ec oles ha place men in a
posi ion o powe o e women. None heless, he e a e some s udies ha demons a e ha his ac-
o only accoun s o a small a iance o iolence (Ibabe e al., 2016). We ha e chosen he BASI
ques ionnai e o e alua e possible changes in sexis belie s due o ou in e en ion, because i can
be used e ec i ely wi hin he Mexican con ex (Co és-Ayala e al., 2015; see also Rolle o e al.,
2014; Ma ínez-Baque o & Vallejo-Medina, 2024). I is a sho ened e sion o he ASI ques ion-
nai e, which is he mos widely used ool o assessing sexism (Ba eke & Fiske, 2023; León-
Ramí ez & Fe ando, 2013). I has accep ed heo e ical ounda ion ( heo y o ambi alen sexism)
and a b oad ange o empi ical e idence o i s s ong c oss-cul u al alidi y, wi h a consis en ac o
s uc u e, good eliabili y, and p edic i e alidi y (Glick e al., 2000; see also Fiske & No h, 2014;
Glick e al., 2004). I has also been alida ed in he Mexican adolescen popula ion. Glick and
Fiske’s (Glick & Fiske, 1996) heo y o ambi alen sexism conside s sexism as a p ejudice ma ked
by deep ambi alence and mul idimensionali y, deno ing a mix u e o hos ile and bene olen a i-
udes. Hos ile Sexism (HS) is adi ional sexism o ien ed owa d he pe cep ion o in e io i y o
he o he sex. Bene olen Sexism (BS) p esen s sexis a i udes wi h a posi i e a ec i e one ha
allows men o beha e p o-socially. Howe e , i helps jus i y and main ain gende inequali y (Glick
e al., 2000). The BASI ques ionnai e can assess bo h o ms o sexism. Some s udies demons a es
ha HS is ela ed o a pe cep ion o he wo ld as a compe i i e place and o a pe sonali y disposi-
ion high in ough-mindedness, and BS is ela ed o a pe cep ion o he wo ld as a dange ous and
h ea ening place and o a pe sonali y disposi ion owa ds social con o mi y.
50
Impulsi i y. The e is a conside able li e a u e documen ing a ela ionship be ween impulsi i y
and iolence, bo h o male and emale (Fehon e al., 2005; Bu gess, 2020; Leone e al., 2016;
Sho ey e al., 2011; Dodaj e al., 2020). The link be ween impulsi i y and iolen beha io may
s em om indi iduals wi h high impulsi i y le els engaging in impulsi e ac ions as a means o
alle ia e nega i e emo ions, o en wi hou conside ing he epe cussions o hei ac ions. Impul-
si i y is pa icula ly conce ning because indi iduals p one o impulsi i y end o eso o eadily
a ailable coping mechanisms o immedia e elie om dis essing si ua ions, dis ega ding po en-
ial long- e m nega i e consequences. Addi ionally, a ious s udies ha e indica ed ha impulsi i y
and ina en i e symp oms may impai undamen al p ocesses such as emo ional decoding and se -
shi ing abili ies, which a e c ucial o emo ional and beha io al egula ion (Rome o-Ma ínez e
al., 2019). To assess he po en ial impac o he wo kshop on pa icipan s’ impulsi i y, wo ins u-
men s ha e been used: he Emo ional S op Signal Tes (ESST) and he S a e Impulsi i y Scale
(SIS). The ESST is a neu opsychological ask designed o assess he abili y o inhibi emo ional
esponses. The SIS is an impulsi e beha io assessmen ins umen alida ed in he Spanish pop-
ula ion.
Emo ional ecogni ion/Empa hy. S udies ha e sugges ed ha misin e p e a ion o social cues
can lead o inapp op ia e social esponses, such as eac ing agg essi ely o iolen ly o ambiguous
social si ua ions (Akh a & B adley, 1991; Dodge e al., 2002). Pa icula ly, esea ch indica es ha
di icul ies in in e p e ing acial exp essions o emo ion a e associa ed wi h iolen beha io
(Hoaken e al., 2007; Babcock e al., 2008). Mo eo e , de ici s in emo ional decoding a e common
in a conside able numbe o IPV pe pe a o s (Babcock e al., 2008, Rome o-Ma inez e al., 2016).
The e a e some examples in he li e a u e ha shows ha IPV in e en ion p og ams o IPV pe -
pe a o s can imp o e emo ional decoding abili ies (Rome o-Ma inez e al., 2016). Ou p og am
aims o enhance hese abili ies, and o e alua e he po en ial impac , we use a specially de eloped
Reading he Mind in he Eyes Tes (RMET).
Emo ional egula ion. De ici s in emo ion egula ion a e also an impo an ac o associa ed wi h
GBV (Neilson e al., 2023). Emo ion egula ion is mul idimensional and includes one’s awa eness
o emo ion (an abili y o a end o and acknowledge emo ions), unde s anding and cla i y o wha
emo ion one is eeling, and accep ance o emo ions ( he abili y o expe ience emo ions wi hou a
51
seconda y nega i e emo ional esponse o he emo ions (G a z & Roeme , 2004). Emo ion egula-
ion also includes one’s abili y o ac acco ding o one’s goals (e.g., goal-di ec ed beha io ), a he
han ac ing impulsi ely, when expe iencing an emo ion (G a z & Roeme , 2004). The h ee ace s
o emo ion egula ion ha a e mos consis en ly associa ed wi h IPV pe pe a ion a e impulse con-
ol, goal di ec ed beha io , and access o emo ion egula ion s a egies. The ER ace o impulse
con ol e e s o one’s abili y o con ol one’s beha io when emo ionally dis essed. Some s udies
ha e shown he possibili y o educing iolen beha io h ough aining in emo ional egula ion
echniques (Maldonado e al., 2015; Bi kley & Eckha d , 2019). To measu e he po en ial impac
o ou in e en ion on he emo ional egula ion abili y o ou pa icipan s, we ha e used he Emo-
ional Regula ion Ques ionnai e ERQ-CA-9 and he Emo ional S op Signal Tes (ESST), which is
also used o measu e inhibi o y con ol capaci y.
Cogni i e lexibili y/Sol ing P oblems. Cogni i e lexibili y e e s o he abili y o adap and
swi ch be ween di e en cogni i e s a egies o men al se s in esponse o changing en i onmen al
demands. While cogni i e lexibili y i sel is no di ec ly associa ed wi h iolence, i can in luence
a ious ac o s ha con ibu e o iolen beha io (Vila-Ballo e al., 2015):
● P oblem-sol ing and Con lic Resolu ion: Indi iduals wi h g ea e cogni i e
lexibili y may be be e equipped o na iga e and esol e con lic s peace ully,
as hey can conside mul iple pe spec i es and gene a e al e na i e solu ions.
Con e sely, indi iduals wi h limi ed cogni i e lexibili y may s uggle o adap
hei hinking and may eso o agg essi e o iolen esponses when aced wi h
challenges o con lic s (Ri e a e al., 2021).
● Emo ional Regula ion: Cogni i e lexibili y is closely linked o emo ional eg-
ula ion, as i allows indi iduals o shi a en ion away om dis essing s imuli
and adop mo e adap i e coping s a egies. Poo cogni i e lexibili y may con-
ibu e o di icul ies in egula ing emo ions, inc easing he likelihood o impul-
si e o agg essi e beha io in esponse o emo ional a ousal (Ghosh & Halde ,
2020).
● A ibu ion Bias: Cogni i e in lexibili y can lead o igid hinking pa e ns and
biased in e p e a ions o social cues. Fo example, indi iduals wi h limi ed cog-
ni i e lexibili y may be mo e p one o nega i e a ibu ion biases, pe cei ing
52
ambiguous o neu al in e ac ions as h ea ening o hos ile. This can con ibu e
o a heigh ened sensi i i y o pe cei ed h ea s and a p opensi y o eac i e
agg ession (Ku & Gündüz, 2020).
● Social In o ma ion P ocessing: Cogni i e lexibili y plays a c ucial ole in p o-
cessing and in e p e ing social in o ma ion, such as acial exp essions, ges u es,
and e bal cues. Di icul ies in accu a ely pe cei ing and in e p e ing social
cues may lead o miscommunica ion, social misunde s andings, and in e pe -
sonal con lic s, which can escala e in o iolen beha io in some cases (Kazemi
e al., 2023).
The e a e some expe iences ha ha e shown an imp o emen in cogni i e lexibili y in
pe pe a o s o in ima e iolence who ha e pa icipa ed in ecidi ism p e en ion p og ams
(Rome o-Ma ínez e al., 2016, 2022). Ou p og am add esses a ious aspec s o cogni i e lexi-
bili y, and o assess he po en ial impac on his ac o , wo ins umen s a e p oposed: a neu opsy-
chological es o e alua e cogni i e lexibili y (WCST) and a ques ionnai e o assess con lic es-
olu ion s yle (ICRS).
Assessmen o isk o iolence. Being able o assess he di ec impac ha he p oposed in e en-
ion has on educing iolence in he popula ion se ed is a majo challenge. I is e y di icul o
ha e a eliable eco d o iolen beha io s be o e and a e he in e en ion o in con ol and ea -
men g oups. Schools keep eco ds o inciden s among hei s uden s, bu hey lack he necessa y
sys ema ici y o conside hem eliable da a o s a is ical compa ison. Fo his eason, he Adoles-
cen Violence Risk Assessmen Scale (SVRAA) has been chosen.
Technical Desc ip ion o he Analy ical Ins umen s: Sel - epo ed Ques ionnai es
Impulsi i y (SIS) (I iba en e al., 2011). This is a psychological assessmen ool designed o
measu e impulsi i y as a s a e o empo a y cha ac e is ic, a he han a s able ai . I consis s o
20 i ems (C onbach’s α = .884) ha assess impulsi e beha io s and endencies ac oss h ee sub-
scales:
53
● Mo o Impulsi i y o Au oma ism: Which measu es impulsi e ac ions and be-
ha io s, such as ac ing wi hou hinking, being es less, o ha ing di icul y si -
ing s ill.
● A en ional Impulsi i y: Which assesses di icul ies in main aining ocus and
a en ion, including dis ac ibili y and di icul ies wi h concen a ion.
● Non-planning Impulsi i y o G a i ica ion: Which e alua es impulsi e deci-
sion-making and lack o u u e planning o conside a ion o consequences.
Scale o Violence Risk Assessmen in Adolescen s (SVRAA) (Muñoz, 2019). This has p o en
o be an e ec i e ool o iden i y subjec s who a e a isk o exe cising iolence. I is a scale com-
posed by 25 i ems (C onbach’s α = .836), which is g ouped in o six ac o s ha e e o a nega i e
sel -concep , p oac i e o ins umen al iolence, lack o sel -con ol, eac i e iolence, e bal i-
olence and ai s o sel -ha m, ha in ends o p edic he beha io by ecognizing he isk o io-
lence (Muñoz, 2019).
In e pe sonal Con lic Resolu ion Scale (ICRS) (Ri e a e al., 2021). This is a ool designed o
assess con lic esolu ion skills among adolescen s. I aims o measu e how adolescen s handle and
esol e in e pe sonal con lic s in a ious con ex s, such as pee in e ac ions, amily dynamics, and
oman ic ela ionships. The scale is based on he p inciples o cogni i e-beha io al he apy and
ocuses on iden i ying cons uc i e con lic esolu ion s a egies while also ecognizing maladap-
i e pa e ns. I p o ides a o al sco e ep esen ing o e all con lic esolu ion compe ency, as well
as sco es o indi idual subscales co esponding o h ee di e en means o con lic esolu ion:
agg essi e means, collabo a i e means, and passi e means. The use o collabo a i e means is as-
socia ed wi h good men al heal h, secu e a achmen and wi h he ex a e sion, ag eeableness, and
esponsibili y pe sonali y ai s, while agg essi e means a e linked o socio-emo ional de iciencies
and low pe sonal adjus men , and passi e means a e associa ed wi h clinical symp oms, a oidan
a achmen , and social and cogni i e incompe ence (Ri e a e al., 2021). In p ac ical e ms, i is a
scale composed o 22 i ems (C onbach’s α = .810), which is s uc u ed a ound h ee ac o s: col-
labo a i e, passi e and agg essi e means o con lic esolu ion, ac o s ha a e ela ed o iolen
beha io .
60
PAS2 17. Si c eo que el pun o de is a de la o a pe sona es muy impo an e pa a ella, a o de
cumpli sus deseos
PAS3 18. Cuando hay si uaciones ensas, p e ie o no me e me
PAS4 19. Si c eo que la o a pe sona se ía in eliz si pe diese, la dejo gana
PAS5 20. Doy p io idad a lo que desean los demás
PAS6 21. Siemp e cedo pa a no he i los sen imien os de la o a pe sona
PAS7 22. In en o que sus amigos me espalden
Pun uación di ec a/Di ec sco e: in e p e ación/in e p e a ion
Medios ag esi os/Agg essi e means
≥ 0 y < 7: es imp obable el ecu so a medios ag esi os en el a on amien o del con lic o/ eso ing
o agg essi e means in con on ing he con lic is unlikely
≥ 7 y < 14: es p obable el ecu so a medios ag esi os en el a on amien o del con lic o/ eso ing
o agg essi e means in coping wi h he con lic is likely
> 14 y < 21: p obabilidad mode adamen e al a de ecu so a medios ag esi os en el a on amien o
del con lic o/ mode a ely high p obabili y o eso ing o agg essi e means in coping wi h he
con lic
≥ 21: p obabilidad muy ele ada de ecu so a medios ag esi os en el a on amien o del con lic o/
e y high p obabili y o eso ing o agg essi e means in coping wi h he con lic
Medios colabo a i os/collabo a i e means
≥ 0 y < 8: es imp obable el ecu so a medios colabo a i os en el a on amien o del con lic o/
eso ing o collabo a i e means in con on ing he con lic is unlikely
≥ 8 y < 16: es p obable el ecu so a medios colabo a i os en el a on amien o del con lic o/ eso
o collabo a i e means is likely o con on he con lic
> 16 y < 24: p obabilidad mode adamen e al a de ecu so a medios colabo a i os en el a on a-
mien o del con lic o/mode a ely high p obabili y o eso ing o collabo a i e means in coping wi h
con lic
≥ 24: p obabilidad muy ele ada de ecu so a medios colabo a i os en el a on amien o del con-
lic o/ e y high p obabili y o eso ing o collabo a i e means in coping wi h he con lic
Medios pasi os/passi e means
≥ 0 y < 7: es imp obable el ecu so a medios pasi os en el a on amien o del con lic o/ eso ing
o passi e means in coping wi h con lic is unlikely
≥ 7 y < 14: es p obable el ecu so a medios pasi os en el a on amien o del con lic o/ eso ing o
passi e means in coping wi h he con lic is likely
> 14 y < 21: p obabilidad mode adamen e al a de ecu so a medios pasi os en el a on amien o del
con lic o/mode a ely high p obabili y o eso ing o passi e means in coping wi h con lic
≥ 21: p obabilidad muy ele ada de ecu so a medios pasi os en el a on amien o del con lic o/
e y high p obabili y o eso ing o passi e means in coping wi h he con lic
STATE IMPULSIVITY SCALE (SIS)/
ESCALA DE IMPULSIVIDAD DE ESTADO
1. Busco ac i idades en las que ob engo un place ápido, aunque sé que me pueden ocasiona
algún p oblema o daño ísico/I look o ac i i ies in which I ge quick pleasu e, e en hough I
know hey may cause me some p oblems o physical ha m
61
2. Suelo cae en en aciones que me di icul an cumpli con un comp omiso/I end o all in o emp-
a ions ha make i di icul o me o keep a commi men
3. Busco consegui bene icios inmedia os, en ez de espe a algo mejo más a de/ I seek immedi-
a e bene i s, a he han hoping o some hing be e la e
4. Con inúo haciendo de e minadas ac i idades placen e as a pesa de que los demás me ad ie en
que me pe judican/I con inue doing ce ain pleasu able ac i i ies e en hough o he s wa n me ha
hey ha m me
5. Cuando aigo ganas de hace algo o se me an oja algo, su ge un impulso en mí que quie e
hace lo sin pode espe a /When I eel like doing some hing o I c a e some hing, an impulse a ises
in me ha wan s o do i wi hou being able o wai
6. Ob engo más place dejándome lle a que con olando mis acciones/I ge mo e pleasu e om
le ing mysel go han om con olling my ac ions
7. Me cues a con ola mis eacciones cuando no consigo lo que deseo/I ind i di icul o con ol
my eac ions when I don' ge wha I wan
8. Me cues a pa a de hace algo, aunque ea que me es oy equi ocando/I 's ha d o me o s op
doing some hing, e en i I see ha I'm making a mis ake
9. Tengo eacciones au omá icas que no puedo e i a /I ha e au oma ic eac ions ha I can' a oid
10. Si hago algo y no ob engo los esul ados que espe o, me cues a abajo cambia de es a egia/
I I do some hing and I don' ge he esul s I expec , i 's ha d o me o change my s a egy
11. Siemp e ac úo de la misma o ma (soy como soy) aunque no sea el momen o o el si io ap op-
iado/I always ac he same way (I am who I am) e en i i is no he igh ime o place
12. No pongo eno a mis eacciones po más que alguien me diga que pa e/I don' s op my eac-
ions no ma e how much someone ells me o s op
13. Repi o muchas eces la misma o ma de ac ua , aunque no consiga lo que busco/I epea he
same way o ac ing many imes, e en i I don' ge wha I'm looking o
14. Suelo equi oca me po que eacciono an ápido que no p es o su icien e a ención a los
de alles/I usually make mis akes because I eac so quickly ha I don' pay enough a en ion o he
de ails
15. An e un imp e is o, ac úo sin pensa en las consecuencias/When aced wi h an un o eseen
e en , I ac wi hou hinking abou he consequences
16. Me suelo equi oca po anda de ap esu ado (no espe a el iempo adecuado)/I usually make
mis akes by ushing (no wai ing o he igh ime)
17. Hay ocasiones en las que dejo de p es a a ención a las consecuencias de mis ac os/The e a e
imes when I s op paying a en ion o he consequences o my ac ions
18. Respondo an es de que hayan e minado de o mula una p egun a/I answe be o e hey ha e
inished asking a ques ion
19. En algunas si uaciones, no espe o lo su icien e y ac úo an es de iempo/In some si ua ions, I
do no wai long enough and ac p ema u ely
20. Ac úo sin pensa que o as pe sonas pod ían enoja se po lo que hago/I ac wi hou hinking
ha o he people migh be ang y abou wha I do
SCALE:
Casi nunca/Almos ne e = 0
Algunas eces/Some imes = 1
Bas an es eces/Qui e a ew imes = 2
Casi siemp e/Almos always = 3
62
Los p ime os 7 í ems del es co esponden a la dimensión de G a i icación
Las p egun as 8 a la 13 a la dimensión Au oma ismo
Y las p egun as 14 a 20 con o man la dimensión A encional/
The i s 7 i ems o he es co espond o he G a i ica ion dimension
Ques ions 8 o 13 o he Au oma ion dimension
And ques ions 14 o 20 make up he A en ional dimension
El pun o de co e pa a la pun uación o al (la suma de odos los í ems) se si úa en:
> de 19. Pun uaciones iguales o meno es a 19 es a ían indicando ni eles bajos de impulsi idad.
The cu -o poin o he o al sco e ( he sum o all i ems) is loca ed a :
> 19. Sco es equal o o less han 19 would indica e low le els o impulsi eness.
SCALE OF RISK OF VIOLENCE ASSESSMENT SCALE (SRVAA)/
ESCALA DE VALORACIÓN DEL RIESGO DE VIOLENCIA EN ADOLESCENTES
(EVRVA)
1. Me he ep ochado po que no soy como los demás jó enes/I ha e ep oached mysel because I
am no like o he young people
2. Me a e güenzo po que sien o que mis he manos son mejo es/I am ashamed because I eel ha
my b o he s o sis e s a e be e
3. Se ía ácil humilla me po mi baja au oes ima/I would be easy o humilia e mysel o my low
sel -es eem
4. Dudo de mis capacidades po la descon ianza de mi amilia/I doub my abili ies because o my
amily's dis us
5. Me he ep imido po mi mal manejo de la us ación/I ha e ep essed mysel because o my
poo handling o us a ion
6. He desp eciado los cuidados de mis pad es po se an es ic os conmigo/I ha e despised my
pa en s' ca e o being so s ic wi h me
7. Quisie a i me de casa de mis pad es po que no me pe mi en oma mis decisiones/I would like
o lea e my pa en s' house because hey don' allow me o make my own decisions
8. Realiza ía b omas pesadas a los demás pa a pasa el a o po que la escuela me as idia/I would
play p ac ical jokes on o he s o pass he ime because school bo he s me
9. Uso de la ecnología pa a moles a a mis amigos/I use echnology o annoy my iends
10. G a i ea ía pa edes de mi colonia pa a exp esa mi pe enencia hacia ella/I would g a i i he
walls o my neighbo hood o exp ess my belonging o i
11. Pod ía lesiona mi cue po pa a no i a clase/I could inju e my body o no go o class
12. Amenazo a los demás cuando es oy moles o/I h ea en o he s when I am upse
13. Des uí pe enencias ajenas po no con ola mis emociones/I des oyed o he people's be-
longings o no con olling my emo ions
14. In imido a los o os po que cambio de humo b uscamen e/I bully o he s because I suddenly
change my mood
15. Come í ac os iolen os a los que me odean po la in luencia de los medios de comuni-
cación/I commi ed iolen ac s o hose a ound me due o he in luence o he media
16. Se ía capaz de oba a alguien po el bienes a amilia /I would be capable o obbing some-
one o he sake o amily well-being
63
17. Vende ía d oga ilegal a o os pa a soluciona los p oblemas económicos de mi amilia/I
would sell illegal d ugs o o he s o sol e my amily's inancial p oblems
18. Me gus a ía ene un a ma pa a pode de ende me de los demás/I would like o ha e a
weapon so I can de end mysel om o he s
19. Callo a los demás po que c eo ene la azón odo el iempo/I keep quie abou o he s because
I hink I'm igh all he ime
20. Hice comen a ios hi ien es a o os po cae me mal/I made hu ul commen s o o he s be-
cause I didn' like hem
21. Uso malas palab as con a los que me odean po que me iene de amilia/I use bad wo ds
agains hose a ound me because i uns in my amily
22. Se ía menos ag esi o con mis palab as hacia los demás si mi amilia me cuida a mejo /I
would be less agg essi e wi h my wo ds owa d o he s i my amily ook be e ca e o me
23. He su ido acciden es a p opósi o pa a llama la a ención de mis pad es/I ha e had acciden s
on pu pose o ge my pa en s' a en ion
24. Pod ía di ama me con al de consegui lo que quie o/I could slande mysel o ge wha I
wan
25. Me cas igo ísicamen e cuando las cosas no suceden como quie o/I physically punish mysel
when hings don' happen he way I wan
SCALE:
1 = Nunca/Ne e
2 = Ra amen e/Ra ely
3 = F ecuen emen e/F equen ly
4 =Siemp e/Always
Pun uación o al/To al sco e: se suman odos los alo es/all alues a e added
Pun uaciones pa ciales po Fac o es de Violencia (Suma pa cial de cada ac o )/Pa ial sco es o
Violence Fac o s (Pa ial sum o each ac o )
Au oconcep o nega i o/Nega i e sel -concep : P egun as/Ques ions 1-7
Violencia p oac i a/P oac i e iolence: P egun as/Ques ions 8-11
Ca encia de au ocon ol/Lack o sel -con ol: P egun as/Ques ions 12-15
Violencia eac i a/Reac i e iolence: P egun as/Ques ions 16-18
Violencia e bal/Ve bal iolence: P egun as/Ques ions 19-21
Rasgos de au olesión/Sel -ha m ai s: P egun as/Ques ions 22-25
Pun uación mínima/Minimum sco e: 25
Pun uación máxima/Maximum sco e: 100
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY INDEX /
ÍNDICE DE DESEABILIDAD SOCIAL
1. A eces se me hace di ícil pone me a abaja sin que me pidan que lo haga (Re e -
ido)/Some imes i is di icul o me o ge o wo k wi hou being asked o do so (Re e -
sed)
● Sí/Yes
● No/No
64
2. A eces me sien o us ado(a) o is e po que las cosas no salen como yo quie o (Re-
e ido)/Some imes I eel us a ed o sad because hings don' go he way I wan (Re-
e sed)
● Sí
● No
3. En algunas ocasiones, he dejado de in en a hace algo po que he pensado que soy poco
capaz de hace lo (Re e ido)/On some occasions, I ha e s opped ying o do some hing
because I ha e hough ha I am no capable o doing i (Re e sed)
● Sí
● No
4. En ocasiones quie o lle a le la con a ia a la gen e con au o idad, aunque sepa que ienen
azón (Re e ido)/Some imes I wan o con adic people in au ho i y, e en i I know hey
a e igh (Re e sed)
● Sí
● No
5. Sin impo a con quien es é hablando, siemp e escucho con a ención/No ma e who I am
alking o, I always lis en ca e ully
● Sí
● No
6. Ha habido ocasiones en que me he ap o echado de alguna pe sona (Re e ido)/The e
ha e been imes when I ha e aken ad an age o someone (Re e sed)
● Sí
● No
7. Siemp e es oy dispues o/a a acep a cuando come o un e o /I am always willing o ac-
cep when I make a mis ake
● Sí
● No
8. En ocasiones a o de desqui a me o enga me en luga de pe dona u ol ida (Re-
e ido)/Some imes I y o ge e en o ake e enge ins ead o o gi ing o o ge ing
(Re e ed)
● Sí
● No
9. Siemp e soy amable, aun con la gen e que no es an ag adable/I am always nice, e en o
people who a e no so nice
● Sí
● No
10. Nunca me moles o cuando la gen e iene ideas que son muy dis in as a las mías/I ne e
ge upse when people ha e ideas ha a e e y di e en om mine
● Sí
● No
11. A eces he sen ido muchos celos de la buena sue e de o as pe sonas (Re e ido)/I ha e
some imes el e y jealous o o he people's good luck (Re e sed)
● Sí
● No
12. Algunas eces me i i o po que la gen e me pida a o es (Re e ido)/Some imes I ge i -
i a ed because people ask me o a o s (Re e sed)
65
● Sí
● No
13. De o ma conscien e he dicho cosas que han he ido los sen imien os de o a pe sona (Re-
e ido)/I ha e knowingly said hings ha ha e hu ano he pe son's eelings (Re e sed)
● Sí
● No
El esul ado es la suma de odas las espues as posi i as/The esul is he sum o all posi i e es-
ponses.
66
Annex 3. Add essing Spillo e s
He e we show he di e en ial e ec o he ea men be ween he Pu e Con ol g oup and he
Con amina ed Con ol g oup o ou 20 ou come a iables, in Tables A1 and A2. Each able con-
ains one o he wo di e en econome ic speci ica ions. The speci ica ions a e:
(1) 𝑌𝑌
𝑖𝑖=𝛽𝛽0+𝛽𝛽1𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 +𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖
(2) 𝑌𝑌
𝑖𝑖=𝛿𝛿0+𝛿𝛿1𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 + 𝛿𝛿2𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐹𝐹 ∗𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 +𝛿𝛿3𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇 +𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖
We see no signi ican di e en ial e ec s o 18 o ou a iables. A p io i, we canno be
su e i hese esul s a e d i en by he lack o powe o de ec spillo e s o he inexis ence o spill-
o e s.
67
Table A3.1. Model: Di e en ial E ec o he T ea men be ween he Pu e Con ol G oup
and he Con amina ed Con ol (main e ec )
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
Ques ionnai es esul s
Neu opsychological es s e-
sul s
Sexis Belie s (BASI)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- All)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- A en-
ional)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- Au om-
a ism)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- G a i i-
ca ion)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Cogni i e
Reapp aisal)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Exp essi e
Supp ession)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
- Agg essi e
means)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Collabo a i e
means)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Passi e means)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence
(SVRAA - All)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Nega i e
sel -assessmen )
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Lack o
sel -con ol)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Sel -
ha m)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- P oac i e
Violence)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Reac i e
Violence)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Ve bal
Violence)
Impulsi i y (ESST)
Emo ional ecogni ion
(RMET)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(WCST)
Con-
ami-
na ed
Con-
ol
1.628**
-0.197
0.031
3
-0.137
-
0.091
4
-0.132
-0.206
0.107
-1.006*
-0.0934
0.0591
0.102
-
0.0678
0.0145
0.112
-0.0691
-0.0318
-
0.00514
-0.0121
-0.0140
(0.702)
(0.912
)
(0.376
)
(0.252
)
(0.441
)
(0.326)
(0.293)
(0.549
)
(0.553)
(0.301)
(0.812)
(0.193)
(0.189)
(0.180)
(0.165)
(0.136)
(0.134)
(0.0092
6)
(0.0241)
(0.0146)
Con-
s an
-
3.064**
*
0.740
-
0.024
9
0.362
*
0.403
-
1.657**
*
-
0.966**
*
0.333
-
1.504**
*
-
0.528**
*
1.611**
*
-
0.0084
0
0.338*
*
0.233*
*
0.420**
*
0.405**
*
0.223**
*
-
0.00850
-
0.0554**
*
0.587**
*
(0.344)
(0.780
)
(0.285
)
(0.197
)
(0.360
)
(0.224)
(0.191)
(0.326
)
(0.304)
(0.103)
(0.285)
(0.073
1)
(0.112)
(0.103)
(0.0907
)
(0.0769
)
(0.0437
)
(0.0052
5)
(0.00611
)
(0.0092
7)
Obse -
a-
ions
826
673
673
673
673
763
763
724
724
724
916
916
916
916
916
916
916
814
786
903
R-
squa e
d
0.005
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.003
SE clus e ed by school-shi
*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001
68
Table A3.2. Model 2: Di e en ial E ec o he T ea men be ween he Pu e Con ol G oup
and he Con amina ed Con ol (e ec by gende )
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
Ques ionnai es esul s
Neu opsychological es s e-
sul s
Sexis Belie s (BASI)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- All)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- A en-
ional)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- Au om-
a ism)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- G a i i-
ca ion)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Cogni i e
Reapp aisal)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Exp essi e
Supp ession)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
- Agg essi e
means)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Collabo a i e
means)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Passi e means)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- All)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Nega i e
sel assessmen )
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Lack o
sel -con ol)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Sel -
ha m)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- P oac i e
Violence)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Reac i e
Violence)
Assessmen o isk o io-
lence (SVRAA
- Ve bal
Violence)
Impulsi i y (ESST)
Emo ional ecogni ion
(RMET)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(WCST)
Con-
ami-
na ed
Con-
ol
1.500
0.250
0.608
0.088
7
-
0.446
-0.837
-0.528
0.357
-
1.689
-
0.416
-0.501
0.289
-0.178
-
0.131
-0.137
-
0.246*
-
0.097
3
0.0045
2
-0.0105
-
0.0264
-1.179
-
1.376
(0.49
6)
(0.37
0)
(0.68
6)
(0.576
)
(0.454
)
(0.74
7)
(0.96
9)
(0.68
2)
-1.136
(0.37
2)
(0.234
)
(0.21
7)
(0.139
)
(0.129
)
(0.24
2)
(0.010
3)
(0.0288
)
(0.019
6)
Con C
on-
ol*Fe
male
0.249
-
0.843
-
1.089
-
0.427
0.673
1.386
0.619
-
0.478
1.295
0.612
1.077
-
0.358
0.212
0.278
0.479*
0.340
0.126
-
0.0184
-
0.00312
0.0240
-1.503
-
2.067
(0.86
1)
(0.65
2)
(0.80
8)
(0.879
)
(0.557
)
(0.81
3)
-
1.179
-
1.043
-1.399
(0.46
5)
(0.234
)
(0.22
6)
(0.265
)
(0.255
)
(0.32
8)
(0.014
5)
(0.0169
)
(0.021
0)
Female
-
0.0768
0.841
0.663
*
0.106
0.072
8
-0.113
-0.349
0.059
8
-
0.461
-
0.178
-0.339
0.338
-0.145
-
0.228
-0.199
-0.101
-
0.003
79
-
0.0151
-
0.00112
-
0.0108
-1.194
(0.47
7)
(0.32
7)
(0.23
4)
(0.32
8)
(0.326
)
(0.204
)
(0.45
3)
(0.35
2)
(0.78
4)
-1.068
(0.26
4)
(0.160
)
(0.19
7)
(0.203
)
(0.175
)
(0.27
2)
(0.010
6)
(0.0093
6)
(0.013
9)
Con-
s an
-
3.024*
**
0.294
-
0.376
*
0.306
**
0.365
-
1.597*
**
-
0.780*
**
0.301
-
1.256
**
-
0.432
1.789*
**
-
0.185
0.414*
**
0.352
**
0.524*
**
0.458*
**
0.225
-
0.0006
47
-
0.0548*
**
0.593*
**
(0.921
)
(0.52
6)
(0.17
2)
(0.10
5)
(0.41
1)
(0.239
)
(0.188
)
(0.42
6)
(0.46
5)
(0.36
1)
(0.442
)
(0.18
2)
(0.105
)
(0.12
7)
(0.035
8)
(0.059
2)
(0.13
9)
(0.003
40)
(0.0061
9)
(0.015
1)
Obse -
a ions
826
673
673
673
673
763
763
724
724
724
916
916
916
916
916
916
916
814
786
903
R-
squa e
d
0.005
0.001
0.003
0.001
0.002
0.006
0.002
0.001
0.005
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.005
0.003
0.001
0.009
0.001
0.005
SE clus e ed by school-shi
*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001
69
Annex 4. Desc ip i e Analysis o Ou Resul s
In his sec ion we compa e he dis ibu ion o ou comes o he T ea men and Pu e Con ol g oups.
Table A4.1. Compa ing T ea men and Con ol
76
Table A7.2. Ques ionnai es Resul s: Gende E ec s In e ac ed wi h Social Desi abili y Index (Model 2)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Sexis Belie s (BASI)
Impulsi i y (SIS
- All)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Cogni i e
Reapp aisal)
Emo ional Regula ion
(ERQ
-CA-9 - Exp essi e
Supp ession)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Agg essi e mea
ns)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
- Collabo a i e
means)
Cogni i e lexibili y
(ICRS
-
Passi e means)
Assessmen o isk o i-
olence (SVRAA
- All)
T ea men
6.285
3.868
4.393***
3.366***
1.900
0.818
3.675**
5.711**
(5.594)
(2.572)
(1.029)
(1.160)
(1.782)
(1.890)
(1.804)
(2.835)
Female
-0.513
0.926*
0.00623
-0.337
-0.166
-0.129
0.0246
-0.609
(1.138)
(0.511)
(0.357)
(0.233)
(0.580)
(0.488)
(0.855)
(1.255)
SDI
0.381
-1.087***
-0.0373
-0.0294
-0.477***
0.659***
0.0955
-0.313
(0.299)
(0.234)
(0.0852)
(0.0713)
(0.0920)
(0.239)
(0.212)
(0.245)
T ea men *Female
-1.103
-1.353
-3.449
-2.558**
-1.683
0.394
-3.408
-3.484
(4.770)
(3.186)
(2.322)
(1.294)
(2.107)
(3.444)
(2.376)
(3.765)
SDI*Female
-0.759**
0.595
0.183
0.0570
-0.148
0.234
0.262*
-0.471
(0.299)
(0.407)
(0.160)
(0.152)
(0.196)
(0.301)
(0.144)
(0.373)
T ea men *SDI
-0.354
-0.457
-0.449***
-0.393***
-0.213
-0.188
-0.544***
-0.622**
(0.603)
(0.327)
(0.161)
(0.142)
(0.172)
(0.264)
(0.173)
(0.267)
T ea men *Female*SDI
-0.0224
0.269
0.487
0.409**
0.237
0.113
0.438**
0.361
(0.540)
(0.424)
(0.336)
(0.164)
(0.184)
(0.365)
(0.214)
(0.384)
Cons an
-2.832***
-0.182
-1.623***
-0.778***
0.103
-0.982*
-0.392
1.775***
(0.827)
(0.482)
(0.277)
(0.201)
(0.479)
(0.520)
(0.460)
(0.510)
N
850
707
792
792
761
761
761
850
In pa en hesis, clus e ed SE a he school-shi le el, adjus ed by small numbe o clus e s using eg_sandwich command in S a a
*i p- alue<.1; ** i p- alue<.05; *** i p- alue<.01
