Beh inge , Jan; End es, Lukas; an T eeck, Till
Wo king Pape
Re isi ing posi ional choice: Su ey e idence om
Ge many
i so wo king pape , No. 33
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen, Ins i u e o Socioeconomics (i so)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Beh inge , Jan; End es, Lukas; an T eeck, Till (2024) : Re isi ing posi ional choice:
Su ey e idence om Ge many, i so wo king pape , No. 33, Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen, Ins i u e
o Socio-Economics (i so), Duisbu g
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i so wo king pape
Jan Beh inge
Lukas End es
Till an T eeck
Re isi ing Posi ional Choice:
Su ey E idence om
Ge many
2024 no.33
Re isi ing Posi ional Choice: Su ey
E idence om Ge many
*
Jan Beh inge Lukas End es Till an T eeck
Ma ch 11, 2024
Abs ac
We conduc a su ey o es o conce ns abou ela i e s anding based on a la ge
sample o he Ge man popula ion. Ou su ey app oach asks esponden s o choose
be ween wo hypo he ical s a es o he wo ld, in which hey ecei e ei he a la ge
ela i e endowmen o a la ge absolu e endowmen ha lea es hem wo se o in
compa ison o o he s. We ecei e he highes sha es o posi ional answe s o house-
hold income and one’s child en’s IQ. We show ha esponden s wi h a la ge social
compa ison o ien a ion a e signi ican ly mo e likely o indica e posi ional p e e -
ences. This inding is obus despi e some limi ed e idence ha unin ended al e -
na i e explana ions based on eelings o ma e ial dep i a ion, eeling o e wo ked,
esponden s’ wo k e hic and en i onmen al conce ns a ec esponden s’ choice.
JEL Classi ica ion: C90, D63
Keywo ds: Social Compa isons; Posi ionali y; Su ey Da a
*
Jan Beh inge , Mac oeconomic Policy Ins i u e (IMK), Geo g-Glock-S aße 18, 40474 D¨usseldo , Ge -
many. E-Mail: jan-beh inge @boeckle .de. Lukas End es, Mac oeconomic Policy Ins i u e (IMK),
Geo g-Glock-S aße 18, 40474 D¨usseldo , Ge many and he Ins i u e o Socio-Economics, Uni e si y
o Duisbu g-Essen. E-Mail: lukas-end es@boeckle .de. Till an T eeck, Ins i u e o Socio-Economics,
Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen, Lo ha s aße 65, 47057 Duisbu g, Ge many. E-Mail: ill. an eeck@uni-
due.de. We would like o hank pa icipan s a he 23 d FMM Con e ence in Be lin, he PK Con e ence
in Lille, and he PhD-Wo kshop in D¨usseldo o help ul commen s and sugges ions.
1 In oduc ion
S a us-o ien ed indi iduals a e a gued o e alua e hei own si ua ion in e e ence o hei
social en i onmen . A se ies o empi ical con ibu ions quan i ied he deg ee o which
conce ns abou ela i e s anding ma e ac oss di e en i ems, e e ed o as hei posi-
ionali y (F ank, 2005). This is ypically measu ed by means o a su ey app oach based
on p e e ences o an imp o ed ela i e s anding a he expense o absolu e endowmen s
(Alpiza e al., 2005; Ca lsson e al., 2007; Hillesheim and Mech el, 2013; Solnick and
Hemenway, 1998; Solnick and Hemenway, 2005; Solnick e al., 2007). In his pape , we
ollow up on his esea ch by conduc ing a su ey among a la ge sample o he Ge man
popula ion o es o conce ns abou ela i e s anding ega ding income, leisu e ime,
housing weal h, deb , own child en’s in elligence quo ien (IQ), and g ade poin a e age
(GPA). We in es iga e he beha iou al mechanism unde lying posi ional choice by com-
bining ou esul s wi h sel - epo ed in o ma ion on he impo ance o social compa isons
and o he sen imen a iables p oxying al e na i e explana ions.
I has long been a gued ha indi idual sa is ac ion wi h he own cu en si ua ion
and hence he u ili y de i ed om indi idual endowmen s a e con ex dependen . Thus,
inequali y in endowmen s implies nega i e ex e nali ies o hose being wo se o in ela-
i e e ms a any gi en absolu e endowmen . Va ious empi ical con ibu ions ha e high-
ligh ed he ele ance o conce ns abou ela i e s anding o indi idual well-being (Lu me ,
2005) o sa is ac ion (Ca d e al., 2012) and economic beha iou , such as consump ion-
sa ing decisions o p i a e households (Beh inge , End es and an T eeck, 2023; Be and
and Mo se, 2016; Cha les e al., 2009; F ank e al., 2014), o labou supply (Beh inge ,
Gonzalez-G anda and an T eeck, 2023; Bowles and Pa k, 2005; Oh e al., 2012).
Ou iden i ica ion s a egy ollows he li e a u e ha measu es ela i e conce ns, by
asking su ey pa icipan s o choose be ween wo hypo he ical s a es o he wo ld in
which hey ei he ecei e a la ge ela i e endowmen o a highe absolu e endowmen
ha lea es hem wo se o in compa ison o o he s. Any gi en i em is a gued o be mo e
posi ional he la ge he sha e o indi iduals s a ing a p e e ence o a ela i e e sus
absolu e ad an age. P io su eys o his kind consis en ly ind ha indi iduals exp ess
1
p e e ences o an imp o ed ela i e s anding, e en a he cos o being wo se o in
absolu e e ms, ac oss a b oad ange o i ems.
We conduc he, o he bes o ou knowledge, i s la ge scale su ey o his kind based
on a sample o he Ge man popula ion comp ising 1,552 indi iduals. Excep o a su -
ey by Ca lsson e al. (2007) among 335 indi iduals om Sweden, all o he s udies a e
ei he based on small class oom su eys o con enience samples. Ou indings ega ding
he posi ionali y o indi idual i ems line up well wi h esul s om he p io li e a u e.
We ecei e he highes sha e o posi ional answe s o mon hly ne income and own chil-
d en’s IQ, ollowed by housing weal h and own child en’s GPA. Ou su ey esponden s
leas o en chose he posi ional s a e o he wo ld o leisu e ime and ou s anding deb ,
which in u n exhibi he highes sha es o esponses indica ing a p e e ence o a mo e
ad an ageous absolu e endowmen despi e a ela i e disad an age.
We nex in es iga e po en ial d i e s o posi ional choice. While ou su ey design has
been applied equen ly in he p io li e a u e, he unde lying beha iou al mechanism has
no been empi ically e i ied. We ill his gap by alida ing whe he posi ional p e e -
ences do indeed hinge on compa isons wi h o he s. Fo his pu pose, we use sel - epo ed
in o ma ion on he impo ance o compa isons wi h o he s o cons uc a Social Com-
pa ison Index (SCI). Applying his measu e in mul inomial logi eg essions, we show
ha esponden s who epo o pu a lo o emphasis on compa isons wi h o he s a e
signi ican ly mo e likely o choose he s a e o he wo ld wi h smalle absolu e, ye la ge
ela i e endowmen s, holding indi idual sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics cons an . The
magni ude o he e ec is closely aligned wi h he o e all sha e o posi ional answe s o
he espec i e i em. This inding is highly consis en wi h an explana ion o indi idual
p e e ences o highe ela i e endowmen s based on conce ns abou ela i e s anding,
he eby alida ing he applied su ey design.
We con ol o and in es iga e a se ies o al e na i e mechanisms ha migh explain
esponden s’ p e e ence o ei he s a e o he wo ld, i espec i e o conce ns abou ela-
i e s anding. Feelings o ma e ial dep i a ion migh d i e p e e ences o la ge absolu e
endowmen s ega ding ma e ial i ems o wo king hou s. In u n, eeling o e wo ked could
2
be e lec ed in a p e e ence o lowe absolu e, bu highe ela i e wo king hou s. A
esponden s’ wo k e hic and he associa ed belie in own agency in de e mining own ou -
comes could a ec indi idual p e e ences o e wo king hou s, while a esponden s’ s ance
owa ds he compa ibili y o economic g ow h wi h he en i onmen migh mo i a e p e -
e ences o s a es o he wo ld wi h absolu ely lowe income and weal h. We ind ha in
some cases ou p oxy a iables o he espec i e compe ing explana ions a e signi ican ly
ela ed o indi idual choice o endowmen s, likely biasing posi ionali y in e p e a ions o
obse ed esponse sha es. Howe e , as he es ima ed coe icien s on ou SCI a e la gely
una ec ed by he inclusion o any o hese measu es, we conclude ha a subs an ial pa o
he a ia ion in posi ional choice ac oss i ems and indi iduals can be asc ibed o conce ns
abou ela i e s anding.
The emainde o his pape is s uc u ed as ollows. In Sec ion 2, we desc ibe ou
su ey design and da a. Sec ion 3 p esen s he esul s om ou su ey and ou empi ical
analysis o posi ional choice. Sec ion 4 concludes.
2 Su ey Design and Da a
In Decembe 2022 we conduc ed an online su ey among a la ge sample o 1,552 indi-
iduals.1Su ey pa icipan s we e equi ed o eside in Ge many and be be ween 18
and 75 yea s old. Ou me hodological app oach o measu e he posi ionali y o a ious
i ems ollows he p e iously es ablished design ha asks esponden s o choose om wo
hypo he ical s a es o he wo ld (e.g., Solnick and Hemenway, 1998). One s a e o e s
su ey esponden s a lowe absolu e, ye highe ela i e endowmen o a gi en i em. In
he o he s a e he endowmen is highe in absolu e e ms, ye he esponden would be
wo se o ela i e o o he s. Su ey pa icipan s also ha e he op ion o indica e ha
hey do no ha e a p e e ence o ei he s a e. Ou su ey includes ques ions on income,
leisu e, housing weal h, deb , an own child’s IQ, and GPA. Using he income i em as an
example, he su ey ques ion eads as ollows:
1Ou ini ial sample included 1,608 indi iduals. To ensu e da a quali y we exclude 56 obse a ions o
su ey pa icipan s who spen less han hal o he median ime o comple e he ull su ey.
3
Imagine ha you can choose be ween wo possible wo lds (Wo ld A and Wo ld
B). Bo h wo lds a e he same excep o one di e ence, which is desc ibed
below. Which wo ld would you p e e o li e in?
In bo h wo lds, p ices o all goods a e he same and a he same le el as hey
a e oday. ”O he s” e e s o a e age o he pe sons in socie y.
(1) A: You mon hly ne income as a single pe son is 3,000 eu os; o he s
ecei e 2,000 eu os.
(2) B: You mon hly ne income as a single pe son is 4,000 eu os; o he s
ecei e 6,000 eu os.
(3) I do no ha e a p e e ence.
Full ex s o he o he su ey i ems a e p o ided in he Appendix. We chose hypo he ical
endowmen s o each su ey i em o mos closely e lec he eali y o an a e age pe son
li ing in Ge many, he eby p o iding ela able examples. Fo example, he o e ed alues
o i ems such as income o housing weal h a e wi hin close ange o , ye sligh ly abo e
he a e age in Ge many. This should also p e en ha su ey pa icipan s a oid picking
wo ld A due o loss a e sion.
Ou su ey addi ionally asks esponden s o indica e he ex en o which hey ag ee
wi h se e al s a emen s abou compa isons wi h o he s. We ely on ques ions ha we e
speci ically designed o measu e indi idual di e ences in social compa ison o ien a ion
(SCO) and ha e been shown o e ec i ely cap u e compa ison beha iou (Gibbons and
Buunk, 1999). In pa icula , we ask su ey pa icipan s abou he ex en o which hey
ag ee wi h he s a emen s ha hey equen ly compa e hei popula i y wi h o he s, ha
hey a ely compa e hemsel es wi h o he s and ha hey ne e e alua e hei si ua ion
in li e in compa ison o o he s.2Responden s can choose be ween answe s anging om
(1) Disag ee comple ely o (7) Ag ee comple ely. We a e age esponses o he h ee
2Ou ques ions on social compa isons a e ei he ansla ions o close adap a ions o hose designed by
Gibbons and Buunk (1999) and ead as ollows: (a) “I o en compa e my social ecogni ion and popu-
la i y wi h o he people.”; (b) “I am no he ype o pe son who compa es o en wi h o he s.”; (c) “I
ne e conside my si ua ion in li e ela i e o ha o o he people.”
4
ques ions o cons uc ou SCI.3We use his measu e o alida e he p oposed mechanism
o posi ional choice.
In addi ion, we include ques ions ha measu e esponden s’ sen imen and a i udes
owa ds a a ie y o opics, which migh be ele an o hei decision in he main su ey
i espec i e o conce ns abou ela i e s anding. I could pose a iola ion o he posi-
ionali y in e p e a ion o ou su ey esul s i esponden s’ choice is s ongly in luenced
by any o hese. In pa icula , we ask su ey pa icipan s abou hei sa is ac ion wi h
hei household income and leisu e ime, and hei s ance owa ds implica ions o eco-
nomic g ow h o he na u al en i onmen .4We also ask abou he ex en o which hey
pe cei e pe sonal economic success and income o be de e mined by ha d wo k o luck.5
The exac wo ding o and summa y s a is ics o ou sepa a e su ey ques ions on social
compa isons, wo k e hic, and en i onmen al conce ns a e p o ided in he Appendix.
We u ilise hese addi ional ques ions o measu e al e na i e explana ions ha could
in luence esponden s’ choice o hypo he ical endowmen s. Speci ically, ou measu e o
income sa is ac ion p oxies (pe cei ed) ma e ial dep i a ion. Pe cei ing he own income
as insu icien o mee (ma e ial) needs migh induce a non-posi ional esponse, as i
p o ides la ge absolu e endowmen s o i ems such as income o housing weal h. In
u n, sa is ac ion wi h leisu e ime is supposed o cap u e eelings o being o e wo ked,
which could ha e he opposi e e ec o income sa is ac ion. Besides he e ec on wo ld
choice ega ding wo king hou s, indi iduals migh o example p e e highe (absolu e)
ne weal h as a p e equisi e o wo king less. Answe s o he ques ions whe he ha d wo k
o luck de e mine pe sonal success e lec esponden s’ wo k e hic. S ongly belie ing in
own agency in achie ing desi ed ou comes migh go hand in hand wi h he desi e o wo k
3To main ain a consis en o de ing o he esponses, we use in e se alues o he la e wo s a emen s.
4We measu e en i onmen al a i udes by asking esponden s o s a e he deg ee o which hey ag ee
wi h he s a emen ”In o de o p o ec he en i onmen Ge many needs economic g ow h.” Ou su ey
addi ionally includes an al e na i e, an onymous s a emen . When using esponses o he al e na i e
ques ions o ou analysis we ob ain simila esul s (a ailable on eques ). These ques ions s em om
he In e na ional Social Su ey P og amme (ISSP) and ha e equen ly been applied in en i onmen al
esea ch o measu e en i onmen al conce ns and pe cep ions abou he compa ibili y o economic g ow h
and he en i onmen (e.g., F anzen and Vogl, 2013; D ews e al., 2018).
5Speci ically, we ask su ey pa icipan s abou he deg ee o which hey ag ee wi h he ollowing s a e-
men : ”One has o wo k ha d in o de o succeed.”. We ask abou an an onymous s a emen , as an
al e na i e measu e o wo k e hic, which yields simila esul s in ou empi ical analysis (a ailable on
eques ).
5
longe hou s i espec i e o how long o he s wo k. We also conside su ey pa icipan s’
s ance owa ds ecological implica ions o economic g ow h, as pe cei ing economic g ow h
as ha m ul o he na u al en i onmen could be associa ed wi h p e e ences o absolu ely
lowe ma e ial endowmen s.6Summa y s a is ics o he inal measu es applied in ou
analysis and he SCI a e p o ided in Panel A o Table 1.
Las ly, ou su ey includes ques ions abou sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics. Speci i-
cally, we ask pa icipan s abou hei gende , age, employmen s a us, highes educa ional
a ainmen , numbe o child en, ne household income, and poli ical pa y p e e ences.
Panel B o Table 1 p esen s summa y s a is ics o ou sample.
3 Resul s
Figu e 1 shows esponse sha es by su ey i em. Ac oss i ems a subs an ial sha e o
esponden s indica ed p e e ences o he posi ional s a e o he wo ld. The ac ion o
posi ional answe s anges om 32.8% (ne income) o 16.4% (deb ). While he posi ional
s a e was chosen mos o en o ne income endowmen s, i is also a he op wi h espec
o non-posi ional answe s, making i one o he mos pola ising i ems. Pa icula ly o
lowe income indi iduals he choice migh be go e ned by eelings o ma e ial dep i a ion,
d i ing up non-posi ional esponses. Conce ning he sha e o posi ional answe s, ne
income is closely ollowed by he own child’s IQ, a child’s g ades a school and housing
weal h. Howe e , hese i ems ecei ed subs an ially lowe sha es o non-posi ional answe s
han he income scena io, p ima ily esul ing om a la ge sha e o esponden s indica ing
indi e ence. Child en’s IQ is he only su ey i em wi h a la ge sha e o posi ional han
non-posi ional answe s. Leisu e and especially ou s anding deb ha e a subs an ially lowe
sha e o posi ional answe s (25.3% and 16.4%) and he highes sha es o non-posi ional
answe s (50.5% and 45.9%).
In Table 2 we explo e he beha iou al mechanisms unde lying posi ional choice. The
p io li e a u e has asc ibed p e e ences o he posi ional s a e o he wo ld o conce ns
6While we ask esponden s o indica e hei p e e ence unde a ce e is pa ibus assump ion, i is unlikely
ha hey can comple ely dis ega d hei own ci cums ances and belie s when making hei decision.
6
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Income Leisu e Weal h Deb IQ GPA
Wo ld A Wo ld B
F ac ion
Figu e 1: Response F ac ions by Su ey I em
13
Table 1: Summa y S a is ics
Mean S d. De . Min Max N
Panel A: Sen imen Va iables
SCI 3.04 1.37 1 7 1,542
Sa is ied wi h income 4.39 1.69 1 7 1,549
Sa is ied wi h leisu e 5.07 1.55 1 7 1,543
Wo k e hic 5.57 1.33 1 7 1,537
G ow h en i onmen 4.39 1.68 1 7 1,494
Panel B: Sociodemog aphic Cha ac e is ics
Male 0.52 0.50 0 1 1,552
Age 52.41 14.00 18 75 1,552
High educa ion 0.28 0.45 0 1 1,552
Employed 0.62 0.48 0 1 1,552
Child en 0.30 0.71 0 5 1,535
Ne household income
Less han e2,000 0.26 0.44 0 1 1,552
e2,000-e2,999 0.24 0.43 0 1 1,552
e3,000-e3,999 0.19 0.39 0 1 1,552
e4,000-e4,999 0.18 0.38 0 1 1,552
e5,000 and mo e 0.13 0.34 0 1 1,552
Poli ical pa y p e e ence
No p e e ence 0.36 0.48 0 1 1,447
Le Pa y 0.05 0.22 0 1 1,447
SPD 0.16 0.36 0 1 1,447
G een Pa y 0.15 0.35 0 1 1,447
CDU/CSU 0.18 0.38 0 1 1,447
FDP 0.04 0.20 0 1 1,447
A D 0.06 0.24 0 1 1,447
O he 0.01 0.09 0 1 1,447
14
Table 2: D i e s o Posi ional Choice
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Panel A: Income
SCI 0.037*** 0.038*** 0.036*** 0.036*** 0.040*** 0.040***
(0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.010)
Sa is ied wi h income 0.015 0.019*
(0.009) (0.010)
Sa is ied wi h leisu e -0.007 -0.014
(0.008) (0.009)
Wo k e hic 0.012 0.012
(0.010) (0.010)
G ow h en i onmen 0.001 0.002
(0.008) (0.008)
Responden con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 1425 1424 1419 1416 1382 1371
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.034 0.040 0.035 0.036 0.036 0.045
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Panel B: Leisu e
SCI 0.017* 0.017 0.017 0.016 0.013 0.013
(0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009)
Sa is ied wi h income -0.004 -0.005
(0.008) (0.009)
Sa is ied wi h leisu e 0.002 0.001
(0.008) (0.009)
Wo k e hic 0.023* 0.024*
(0.010) (0.010)
G ow h en i onmen -0.001 0.003
(0.007) (0.007)
Responden con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 1425 1424 1419 1416 1382 1371
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.042 0.042 0.043 0.045 0.044 0.047
No es: All columns epo a e age ma ginal e ec s om mul inomial logi eg essions o he co-
a ia es on he likelihood ha an indi idual chooses he posi ional ou come (i.e. Wo ld A). ***
p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05.
15
Table 2: Con inued
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Panel C: Weal h
SCI 0.025** 0.025** 0.025** 0.025** 0.025** 0.026**
(0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009)
Sa is ied wi h income 0.008 0.007
(0.008) (0.009)
Sa is ied wi h leisu e -0.001 -0.000
(0.008) (0.009)
Wo k e hic 0.002 0.002
(0.009) (0.010)
G ow h en i onmen 0.006 0.006
(0.007) (0.008)
Responden con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 1425 1424 1419 1416 1382 1371
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.041 0.042 0.042
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Panel D: Deb
SCI 0.013 0.013 0.010 0.014 0.012 0.009
(0.007) (0.007) (0.008) (0.007) (0.008) (0.008)
Sa is ied wi h income -0.002 0.009
(0.007) (0.008)
Sa is ied wi h leisu e -0.016* -0.019*
(0.007) (0.008)
Wo k e hic -0.001 -0.001
(0.008) (0.008)
G ow h en i onmen 0.005 0.004
(0.006) (0.006)
Responden con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 1425 1424 1419 1416 1382 1371
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.048 0.049 0.051 0.049 0.053 0.056
No es: All columns epo a e age ma ginal e ec s om mul inomial logi eg essions o he co-
a ia es on he likelihood ha an indi idual chooses he posi ional ou come (i.e. Wo ld A). ***
p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05.
16
Table 2: Con inued
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Panel E: IQ
SCI 0.040*** 0.039*** 0.038*** 0.040*** 0.035*** 0.035***
(0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.010)
Sa is ied wi h income -0.001 0.001
(0.009) (0.010)
Sa is ied wi h leisu e -0.010 -0.009
(0.008) (0.009)
Wo k e hic 0.013 0.013
(0.010) (0.010)
G ow h en i onmen 0.006 0.008
(0.008) (0.008)
Responden con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 1425 1424 1419 1416 1382 1371
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.047 0.048 0.048 0.048 0.048 0.052
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Panel F: GPA
SCI 0.028** 0.028** 0.027** 0.027** 0.026** 0.025**
(0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009)
Sa is ied wi h income -0.001 0.002
(0.009) (0.009)
Sa is ied wi h leisu e -0.006 -0.007
(0.008) (0.009)
Wo k e hic 0.012 0.007
(0.009) (0.010)
G ow h en i onmen -0.003 -0.002
(0.007) (0.008)
Responden con ols Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obse a ions 1425 1424 1419 1416 1382 1371
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.043 0.044 0.045
No es: All columns epo a e age ma ginal e ec s om mul inomial logi eg essions o he co-
a ia es on he likelihood ha an indi idual chooses he posi ional ou come (i.e. Wo ld A). ***
p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05.
17
Appendix: Su ey Ques ions
The appendix shows English ansla ions o ou key su ey ques ions ega ding he su ey
on posi ional choice and addi ional sen imen ques ions which we elied on o cons uc
a iables o ou empi ical analysis in Sec ion 3 in he pape .
1 Posi ional Choice
Imagine ha you can choose be ween wo possible wo lds (Wo ld A and Wo ld B). Bo h
wo lds a e he same excep o one di e ence, which is desc ibed below. Which wo ld
would you p e e o li e in?
In bo h wo lds, p ices o all goods a e he same and a he same le el as hey a e oday.
”o he s” e e s o a e age o he pe sons in socie y.
(a) Income
(1) A: You mon hly ne income as a single pe son is 3,000 eu os; o he s ecei e
2,000 eu os.
(2) B: You mon hly ne income as a single pe son is 4,000 eu os; o he s ecei e
6,000 eu os.
(3) I do no ha e a p e e ence.
(b) Leisu e
(1) A: You weekly wo king ime is 38 hou s; he weekly wo king ime o o he s is
41 hou s.
(2) B: You weekly wo king ime is 35 hou s; he weekly wo king ime o o he s is
32 hou s.
(3) I do no ha e a p e e ence.
18
(c) Weal h
(1) A: You li e in a p ope y ha , like all o he p ope ies in you neighbou hood,
is wo h 300,000 eu os; in o he neighbou hoods, p ope ies a e wo h 200,000
eu os.
(2) B: You li e in a p ope y ha , like all o he p ope ies in you neighbou hood,
is wo h 400,000 eu os; in o he neighbou hoods, p ope ies a e wo h 600,000
eu os.
(3) I do no ha e a p e e ence.
(d) Deb
(1) A: You le el o deb is 400,000 eu os; o he s a e 600,000 eu os in deb .
(2) B: You le el o deb is 300,000 eu os; o he s a e 200,000 eu os in deb .
(3) I do no ha e a p e e ence.
(e) IQ
(1) A: You child’s in elligence quo ien (IQ) is 100; he a e age o o he pa en s’
child en is 90.
(2) B: You child’s in elligence quo ien (IQ) is 110; he a e age o o he pa en s’
child en is 120.
(3) I do no ha e a p e e ence.
( ) GPA
(1) A: You child has a g ade poin a e age o 2.0 in school; o he pa en s’ child en
ha e a g ade poin a e age o 2.5.
(2) B: You child has a g ade poin a e age o 1.7 in school; o he pa en s’ child en
ha e a g ade poin a e age o 1.2.
(3) I do no ha e a p e e ence.
19
2 Sen imen Ques ions
Social Compa ison O ien a ion
Mos people compa e hemsel es wi h o he s om ime o ime. The e is no hing pa -
icula ly ”good” o ”bad” abou his kind o compa ison, and some people do i mo e
o en han o he s. Wha abou you: To which deg ee do you ag ee wi h he indi idual
s a emen s?
(a) I o en compa e how I am doing socially (e.g., social ecogni ion, popula i y) wi h
o he people.
(b) I am no he ype o pe son who compa es o en wi h o he s.
(c) I ne e conside my si ua ion in li e ela i e o ha o o he people.
Wo k E hic
To which deg ee do you ag ee wi h he indi idual s a emen s?
(a) Wha a pe son achie es in li e is abo e all a ques ion o a e o luck.
(b) One has o wo k ha d in o de o succeed.
G ow h En i onmen
The ollowing s a emen s desc ibe di e en a i udes owa ds he en i onmen . To which
deg ee do you ag ee wi h he indi idual s a emen s?
(a) In o de o p o ec he en i onmen Ge many needs economic g ow h.
(b) Economic g ow h always ha ms he en i onmen .
Responden s we e asked o answe all sen imen ques ions acco ding o he ollowing scale:
(1) 1 = Disag ee comple ely
(2) 2 - 6
(3) 7 = Ag ee comple ely
20
Table A1: Summa y S a is ics o he Sen imen Ques ions
Mean S d. De . Min Max N
Social Compa ison O ien a ion
Popula i y 2.68 1.66 1 7 1,533
Type o pe son 4.99 1.77 1 7 1,536
Si ua ion in li e 4.58 1.76 1 7 1,532
Wo k E hic
Achie emen s a e o luck 3.53 1.62 1 7 1,531
Wo k ha d o succeed 5.57 1.33 1 7 1,537
G ow h En i onmen
G ow h p o ec s en i onmen 4.39 1.68 1 7 1,494
G ow h ha ms en i onmen 3.70 1.72 1 7 1,525
21
Table A2: Posi ional Choice and Responden Cha ac e is ics
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Income Leisu e Weal h Deb IQ GPA
SCI 0.037*** 0.017* 0.025** 0.013 0.040*** 0.028**
(0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.007) (0.009) (0.009)
Male -0.025 -0.028 -0.044 -0.035 0.015 -0.004
(0.025) (0.023) (0.024) (0.020) (0.025) (0.024)
Age >49 -0.020 0.003 -0.067* -0.044 -0.043 -0.089**
(0.029) (0.027) (0.029) (0.024) (0.029) (0.029)
High educa ion -0.010 -0.022 -0.055* -0.024 -0.033 0.009
(0.028) (0.026) (0.027) (0.022) (0.028) (0.027)
Employed 0.034 0.071** -0.025 0.012 -0.015 -0.010
(0.028) (0.026) (0.028) (0.023) (0.028) (0.028)
Child en -0.002 0.024 0.009 0.007 0.046** 0.009
(0.019) (0.017) (0.017) (0.014) (0.018) (0.017)
Ne household income (Base = Less han e2,000)
e2,000-e2,999 -0.013 -0.020 0.015 0.013 -0.011 -0.013
(0.037) (0.033) (0.034) (0.028) (0.035) (0.034)
e3,000-e3,999 -0.030 0.017 -0.008 0.010 0.041 0.020
(0.040) (0.038) (0.036) (0.030) (0.039) (0.038)
e4,000-e4,999 -0.043 -0.007 0.086* 0.051 0.033 0.031
(0.040) (0.037) (0.039) (0.033) (0.040) (0.039)
e5,000 and mo e -0.083 -0.016 0.046 0.023 0.013 0.019
(0.044) (0.040) (0.044) (0.035) (0.044) (0.043)
Poli ical pa y p e e ence (Base = No p e e ence)
Le Pa y -0.085 0.001 -0.141** -0.029 -0.115* -0.117*
(0.053) (0.054) (0.046) (0.044) (0.050) (0.048)
SPD 0.042 0.017 -0.009 -0.002 -0.009 0.053
(0.038) (0.036) (0.037) (0.031) (0.038) (0.038)
G een Pa y -0.009 -0.048 -0.000 -0.048 -0.075* -0.045
(0.038) (0.033) (0.038) (0.029) (0.037) (0.036)
CDU/CSU 0.124** 0.073* 0.057 0.031 0.102** 0.084*
(0.038) (0.036) (0.037) (0.031) (0.038) (0.037)
FDP 0.014 0.048 -0.049 -0.036 0.112 0.028
(0.065) (0.064) (0.060) (0.048) (0.068) (0.062)
A D 0.108 0.041 0.023 0.008 0.049 0.004
(0.056) (0.051) (0.052) (0.045) (0.056) (0.052)
O he 0.062 0.130 -0.106 0.008 -0.063 -0.023
(0.139) (0.143) (0.114) (0.114) (0.137) (0.121)
Obse a ions 1425 1425 1425 1425 1425 1425
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.034 0.042 0.041 0.048 0.047 0.043
No es: All columns epo a e age ma ginal e ec s om mul inomial logi eg essions o he
co a ia es on he likelihood ha an indi idual chooses he posi ional ou come (i.e. Wo ld A). ***
p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05.
22
