Yang, Runlin; Zhen, Feng
A icle
Sma ci y de elopmen models: A c oss-cul u al egional
analysis om heo y o p ac ice
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
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Sma ci y de elopmen Models: A c oss-cul u al egional analysis om
heo y o p ac ice
Runlin Yang , Feng Zhen
Nanjing Uni e si y, School o A chi ec u e And U ban Planning
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Sma ci y
In eg a ed de elopmen
Cul u al egional
IndiTeCul u al
ABSTRACT
Based on he mul iple de ini ions and cul u al in e p e a ions o sma ci ies, his s udy sys ema ically compiled
he componen s, s anda ds, and de elopmen modes o sma ci ies in a ious egions o he wo ld and p oposed
a new in eg a ion o sma ci y dimensions and ope a ional amewo k based on he de elopmen p ocess, aiming
o p o ide a heo e ical basis and p ac ical o ien a ion o he ansi ion o u u e de elopmen o sma ci ies and
he o mula ion o planning policies. The conclusions o s udy a e as ollows: (1) In he p ocess o building sma
ci ies, coun ies’ unde s anding o sma ci ies is guided by hei indigenous cul u es, p esen ing a ious pe -
cep ions o sma ci y de ini ions, componen s, and s anda ds in di e en geog aphic egions; (2) Schola s ha e
p oposed a ious dimensions and combina ions o he de elopmen o sma ci ies based on hei egional
cul u al, echnological condi ions, and empo al con ex s, aiming o explo e how ci ies can become ’sma ’. (3)
Wi h he accumula ion o expe ience in he cons uc ion o sma ci ies, he indi idual- echnology-cul u e
(IndiTeCul u al) dimension model, which is a combina ion o indi iduals, echnology, and cul u e, demon-
s a es be e alignmen wi h he equi emen s o sma ci y de elopmen a ound he wo ld. This es ablishes he
ounda ion o he ansi ion om heo y o p ac ice in c a ing a u u e ope a ional amewo k o sma ci ies.
(4) On he basis o c oss-cul u al geog aphical analysis, d awing on he p ac ical expe iences o sma ci y ini-
ia i es in a ious coun ies and he a ing le els o hei p og ess, his s udy analyses he challenges and op-
po uni ies aced by sma ci y de elopmen and p esen s he p oblems ha need o be sol ed u gen ly o mo e
e ec i e mechanisms o sma ci y de elopmen .
In oduc ion
Sma ci y de elopmen has become a c ucial opic as ci ies ace
ans o ma ion and inc eased needs o highe -quali y planning needs
o highe quali y decisions. Wi h he p essu e o g owing u ban pop-
ula ions and accele a ing u banisa ion (F ey & Zimme , 2001), go -
e nmen s and ci y adminis a o s u gen ly need o ind inno a i e ways
o imp o e he sus ainabili y o hei ci ies, p o ide highe quali y
public se ices, and mee he g owing needs o hei esiden s, as
exis ing u ban esou ces and po en ials ha e been ully exploi ed. To
help ci ies anscend he limi s o de elopmen unde exis ing echno-
logical condi ions (Eins ein & Kogan, 2016) and elimina e he nega i e
impac s o economic de elopmen such as en i onmen al pollu ion,
unequal dis ibu ion o esou ces, and ising c ime a es, he concep o
sma ci ies has been in oduced in o he ield o planning and has begun
o be p ac iced unde he impe us o echnological de elopmen in
andem wi h he wa e o mode nis ideas (Ba y, 2017). The eason why
academics seldom explici ly men ion he o igin o he concep o sma
ci y and he p ocess o cons uc ion and de elopmen is ha many
coun ies in e ene in he goals and s anda ds o sma ci y cons uc ion
based on hei egional cul u es and p ac ical needs (Yang, 2020), so
he e is an u gen need o sys ema ically explo e a ious ypes o sma
ci ies om a c oss-cul u al and geog aphical pe spec i e.. Some schola s
espouse he concep ion o he sma ci y, i s o igina ing om he
concep o digi al ci y (Halegoua, 2020). The digi al ci y in eg a es he
people and echnology o he ci y in o a socie y o in o ma ion exchange
(Couclelis, 2004); echnology b ings con enience o people and en-
hances he desi e o in o ma ion exchange; he concep o he in o -
ma i e ci y began o eme ge as an upg ade o digi al ci ies (Hepwo h,
1990). Compa ed wi h digi al echnology, in o ma isa ion has in o-
duced a dis inc i e h ee-dimensional economic and social pa adigm
(Cas ells, 2020; S ock, 2011). Howe e , i has also b ough o h
nume ous new economic and social issues o ci ies (Hepwo h, 1990),
such as a educ ion in job oppo uni ies and he exace ba ion o weal h
inequali y. To alle ia e hese p oblems, schola s and u ban planne s in
di e en ields ha e p oposed ideas such as sma ci ies (Komninos,
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (R. Yang), [email p o ec ed] (F. Zhen).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
jou nal homepage: www.sciencedi ec .com/jou nal/ esea ch-in-globaliza ion
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. esglo.2024.100221
Recei ed 28 No embe 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 7 Ma ch 2024; Accep ed 24 Ap il 2024
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100221
2
2007) and sus ainable ci ies (Jenks & Jones, 2009), which ha e e en-
ually been ha monises in o he widely used sma ci ies ha we e
widely accep ed and applied in social p ac ice.
Ano he mains eam pe spec i e conside s en i onmen al p o ec ion
as an impo an o ce d i ing he o igin o sma ci ies. Fi s , he eco-
nomic de elopmen o ci ies poses h ea s o he heal h o esiden s in
inne u ban en i onmen s, such as ai pollu ion caused by ans-
po a ion sys ems and ac o y p oduc ion (Sancini e al., 2012). Second,
pollu ion discha ged om u ban indus ies damages ag icul u al land
(Behe a & Reddy, 2002) and ecosys ems (Yuan e al., 2020) in he
ex e nal en i onmen o he ci y, and he ci y spends a la ge amoun o
i s annual budge on p e en ing and sol ing pollu ion p oblems (Shen,
1999; He ige e al., 2000). To add ess he complex en i onmen al
pollu ion p oblems inside and ou side he ci y, schola s ha e p oposed
he concep o he sma ci y wi h echnical suppo (Ghoneim & Hamed,
2019). Compa ed wi h indus ial ci ies and pos −indus ial ci ies
(B ons ein, 2009), sma ci ies a e mo e en i onmen ally iendly in
e ms o ai and wa e quali y imp o emen (Chu e al., 2021).
The in oduc ion o he concep o sma ci y de elopmen has had a
p o ound impac on u ban de elopmen and planning. Fi s , sma ci ies
ep esen a new u ban de elopmen pa adigm ha encompasses a ious
c ucial objec i es and key elemen s o pas planning endea ou s
(Angelidou, 2014), he accumula ion o concep s and objec i es makes i
di icul o de elop a holis ic app oach o de elopmen . Second, p e i-
ous concep ualisa ions o he ci y as pos -indus ial ci y, digi al ci y o
in o ma ion ci y a e based on he analysis and summa y o he ci y’s
exis ing appea ance; he cu en e sion o de elopmen p oposed o
he sma ci y is no in ended o ci ies o acqui e he ‘sma ’ s a us, bu
o u he s imula e he ci y’s e ical po en ial; he exis ing ci y o
u ban agglome a ion de elopmen e icacy is wi nessing a sha p in-
c ease in he numbe o u ban esiden s (Toli & Mu agh, 2020), leading
o a misma ch be ween he demand and supply o u ban esou ces and
in as uc u e. The e o e, endea ou ing o u he enhance he ci y’s’
in as uc u e and e ical po en ial has become he s a ing poin o he
concep o he sma ci y. “Ve ical” e e s o he ac ha when ci ies
canno con inue o expand ho izon ally o inc ease hei u ban a ea,
hey can only imp o e he quali y and compe i i eness o hei economic
and social de elopmen by apping he po en ial o exis ing u ban e-
sou ces. Thi d, he co e mission o sma ci ies is o make ci ies ‘sma e ’
(Angelidou, 2015), p o iding hem wi h hei own hinking and cul u al
pa e ns, which is a new challenge o bo h he ci y’s s akeholde g oups
and he ci y’s own de elopmen . The e o e, sys ema ically so ing ou
he concep s, dimensions and p ac ice cases o sma ci ies a he p esen
s age can help o summa ize he expe ience o sma ci y explo a ion and
es ablish he di ec ion o u u e planning and cons uc ion.
E olu ion o he sma ci y pa adigm
The cons uc ion o a sma ci y is an explo a o y p ocess o
o mula ing a g and ision o he ci y o he u u e. I is an explo a o y
p ocess ha in ol es changes a many le els, including in as uc u e,
in o ma ion echnology, u ban go e nance, and social in e ac ion. To
scien i ically explo e his uncha ed e i o y, go e nmen s, in e na-
ional o ganisa ions, and academics ha e begun o o mula e a se ies o
discussions on he concep o sma ci ies o p o ide a clea e esea ch
pa adigm and de elopmen basis o subsequen esea ch and de elop-
men o sma ci ies.
De ini ion o sma ci ies
P esen ly, he de ini ion o a sma ci y emains ela i ely ambiguous
and polysemous (Hollands, 2008), lacking a uni e sally ag eed-upon
de ini ion. Di e se cul u al egions and esea ch domains exhibi
dis inc in e p e a ions and pe spec i es o his concep . Al hough
Eu ope was an ea ly s a e in he de elopmen o sma ci ies, he
de ini ion o a sma ci y has been di icul o ha monise among
coun ies wi h a ied di ec ions o u ban de elopmen . To assis Eu o-
pean coun ies in de ining a sma ci y, he Eu opean Commission (EC),
which plays a key ole in coo dina ing and p omo ing he sma ci y
ini ia i e in he Eu opean egion, p oposed wo de ini ions o sma
ci ies which inco po a e hese di e se di ec ions o de elopmen . One is
o de ine a sma ci y o communi y as one ha aims o imp o e he
quali y o li e h ough he p o ision o digi al se ices ha enhance he
well-being o esiden s, businesses, isi o s, o ganisa ions, and man-
age s o p o ide be e se ices o esiden s and mee he goals o he
Eu opean G een Deal (Eu opean Commission, 2023a); he second is he
de ini ion o a sma ci y as a place whe e adi ional ne wo ks and
se ices a e made mo e e icien h ough he use o digi al solu ions o
he bene i o esiden s and businesses, aligned wi h he de elopmen
needs o he Eu opean Single Ma ke (Eu opean Commission, 2023b).
These wo de ini ions mee he di e en sma ci y needs and goals o
many Eu opean ci ies and ex end o o he implemen able a eas as much
as possible.
The U.S. and Canada in No h Ame ica exhibi deep coope a ion
be ween ci ies, and while he wo coun ies ha e been able o uni y
many o hei ci ies in o mo e solid u ban agglome a ions h ough he
No h Ame ican T ade Ag eemen (NAFTA), he e a e di e ences in
hei unde s anding and concep ion o sma ci ies. The mul icul u al
in luenced Canadian go e nmen conside s a ci y o be ‘sma ’ in he
sense ha i collec s and analyses da a in e ac ions and usage o public
in as uc u e o imp o e se ices and enhance he expe ience o
cul u ally di e se use s (Canadian Secu i y In elligence Se ice, 2022),
while he U.S. go e nmen decons uc s sma ci y as a e m o a model
o a ci y’s ope a ional p og am, which gene ally e e s o he in eg a ion
o in o ma ion echnology (IT) wi h he managemen and ope a ion o
esiden ial unc ions (Cybe secu i y and In as uc u e Secu i y Agency,
2020).
The di e si y o in e na ional de ini ions o sma ci ies alida es, o
a ying deg ees ha he sma ci y concep is s ill in i s ea ly s ages o
explo a ion. While di e en de ini ions can enhance discussion and
compe i i eness among sma ci ies, hey also make i di icul o sma
ci ies o de elop apidly owing o hei di e si y and complexi y.
Analysis o sma ci y componen s and s uc u e
Al hough coun ies ha e di e en unde s andings o he de ini ion o
a sma ci y, hey all ag ee ha sma ci y componen s a e signi ican ly
di e se and mainly include six componen s: sma en i onmen , sma
economy, sma go e nance, sma people, sma li ing, and sma
mobili y (see Fig. 1), each o which can be u he de i ed om a
numbe o opic nodes. Schola s and en e p ises ha e conduc ed
esea ch and p ojec de elopmen on hese six componen s.
Sma en i onmen s a e ecosys ems o communica ion objec s,
including bo h use s and ci ies, wi h he goal o making ci ies ze o-
pollu ion and capable o sus ainable de elopmen . Sma en i on-
men s ha e he po en ial o allow use s o in e ac seamlessly wi h hei
su oundings (Nugen e al., 2014; Ba olini e al., 2012) and o
designing u ni u e in he home o become home assis an s o help build
g een ecosys ems (Tewell e al., 2019; Alie o e al., 2021). Fo ci ies,
sma en i onmen s can use machine- o-machine (M2M) sys ems such
as Radio F equency Iden i ica ion (RFID) and Wi eless Senso Ne wo ks
o help ci ies keep ack o ene gy da a in eal ime and ensu e ha
machines can dis ibu e ene gy e icien ly (Samal e al., 2022); sma
economy is he use o elemen s such as echnological inno a ion,
esou ce e iciency, sus ainabili y, and high social wel a e as engines o
economic success, wi h he goal o imp o ing he quali y o li e o all
ci izens (F ank & Fe n´
andez-Mon esinos, 2020); sma go e nance is he
use o echnology o se up online and o line pla o ms, so ha mo e
esiden s b eak h ough he physical limi a ions o pa icipa e in he
sys em o adminis a ion, and i s goal is o change he eliance on a
single adi ional adminis a i e managemen o mul i-dimensional
managemen (Hamble on, 2002); sma people en ails a equi emen
R. Yang and F. Zhen
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100221
3
o ci ies o p o ide good educa ion o equip he esiden s li ing in hem
wi h su icien knowledge and skills (Nam & Pa do, 2011), so ha hey
can o m a habi o lea ning (Plumb e al., 2007), and he goal is o
e e y indi idual in he ci y o be pa o he ci y’s in o ma ion collec ion
(Coe e al., 2001). Sma people equi e high e hical s anda ds, an open
mind, and a habi o pa icipa ing in public a ai s (Gup a e al., 2017),
and ci ies can only be made sma i bo h esiden s and go e nmen s a e
in ol ed (Rod íguez Bolí a , 2015a, 2015b); sma li ing in ol es
making i easie o esiden s o use in as uc u e and communica ion
echnologies, o in eg a e in o ma ion echnology wi h o he echnolo-
gies o c ea e economic oppo uni ies and imp o e he quali y o li e o
esiden s (Na ional Con e ence o S a e Legisla u es, 2021); Sma
mobili y has always been a p io i ised op ion o sma ci ies, including
sma in as uc u e, au oma ion, connec ed and elec ic ehicles,
combined mobili y se ices, and new o ms o sha ing based on pla o m
echnologies (Doche y e al., 2018). A he go e nmen al decision-
making le el, he goal is o u ilise In o ma ion and Communica ion
Technology (ICT) o eal- ime moni o ing o a ic condi ions,
ad anced con ol o a ic low, and educ ion in a ic acciden s
(Tomaszewska & Flo ea, 2018). A he popula ion le el, he goal is o
p o ide seamless, a o dable, and sus ainable anspo a ion ne wo ks
o people o a el o and om hei des ina ions (Bıyık e al., 2021) o
help hem expe ience con enien , sa e, ac i e, balanced, and secu e
li es yles (Ismagilo a e al., 2019).
Explo a ion o e alua ion s anda ds and speci ica ions o sma ci ies
Al hough de ini ions a e s ill in disag eemen , he cu en s anda ds
o sma ci ies play a i al ole in u ban planning and de elopmen .
While s anda ds can ensu e ha ci ies a e mo ing owa ds sma ci y
equi emen s in all aspec s, he exis ence o s anda ds also p o ides a
common ac ion amewo k o ci y manage s, policymake s, and ci y
esiden s o be e plan, implemen , and e alua e he sma ci y ans-
o ma ion p ocess.
A he na ional le el, he Na ional Ins i u e o S anda ds and Tech-
nology (NIST) conduc s a se ies o esea ch and de elopmen p og ams
on sma ci ies o p omo e he o ma ion o echnical s anda ds o sma
ci ies. NIST i s de eloped he Sma Ci y A chi ec u e o Consensus
F amewo k (s anda d) (F amewo k, 2018) and he Sma Ci ies and
Communi ies F amewo k (s anda d) (NIST, 2019a) wi h he goal o
p o iding ci ies wi h a se o sha ed me hodologies and e e ence
models, co e ing key elemen s such as da a, in e ope abili y, p i acy,
and secu i y, o assis ci ies in planning and implemen ing sma ci y
p ojec s. Unde his amewo k (s anda ds), NIST o ganises e en s such
as he Global Ci ies Team Challenge (GCTC) and he Sma , Sa e Ci ies,
and Communi ies Challenge (NIST, 2019b) o allow ci ies o p omo e
each o he ’s echnology and aise he s anda ds cap.
The Eu opean Council conside s se ing sma ci y s anda ds di e -
en ly om he Uni ed S a es. In con as o he Uni ed S a es, which
elies on global ci y compe i ion o d i e sma ci y s anda ds, he Eu-
opean Council ocuses mo e on he de elopmen o Eu opean ci ies
hemsel es, a emp ing o accomplish he goals o he Eu opean G een
Deal in Eu ope by making local communi ies ‘sma ’ and enabling hei
esiden s o li e be e li es (Eu opean Commission, 2023). The i s
s anda d in ol es he s anda d o li ing. The EU mo emen o Eu o-
peanise Sma Ci ies and Communi ies in ol es pu ing ci izens a he
cen e and es ablishing s anda ds o sha ing da a and ope a ions; he
second s anda d is he c ea ion o local da a pla o ms ha allow digi al
echnology sys ems o low wi hin and be ween ci ies o deli e sma
se ices h ough syn he ic da a s eams; he hi d s anda d is da a se-
cu i y, whe e da a a e sha ed be ween sma communi ies wi h ull
assu ance ha he da a a e ope a ed in a secu e en i onmen , and ha
local digi al wins ep esen ing he egion’s physical asse s, p ocesses,
and sys ems a e es ablished. These s anda ds a e in ended o enhance
he lea ning capabili ies o AI, allowing i o c ea e isualisa ion models
o ci ies, and pe o m eal- ime u ban managemen and long- e m
policy de elopmen .
In e na ional o ganisa ions a e also ac i ely in ol ed in he
Fig. 1. Componen s o a sma ci y.
R. Yang and F. Zhen
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100221
4
de elopmen o sma s anda ds, such as he In e na ional O ganisa ion
o S anda disa ion (ISO), which has de eloped a se ies o s anda ds
ela ed o sma ci ies ha co e a ious aspec s o u ban sus ainabili y
and esiden s’ quali y o li e. Indica o s o u ban sus ainabili y and he
quali y o li e o inhabi an s (ISO 37120) (In e na ional O ganiza ion o
S anda diza ion, 2018) a e used o measu e he social, economic,
en i onmen al, and cul u al dimensions o ci ies o be e unde s and
hei o e all pe o mance and es ablish oom o imp o emen .
Dimensions and ope a ional a chi ec u e o sma ci ies
Based on he compila ion o sma ci y componen s and s anda ds, a
mul idimensional analysis o sma ci ies is equi ed o p o ide all
s akeholde s wi h a comp ehensi e unde s anding o u ban de elop-
men and a be e g asp o he di e si y and complexi y o ci ies, o
cons uc an app op ia e ope a ional amewo k o guide u ban plan-
ning, and o o mula e u ban de elopmen policies o p o ide a basis o
decision-making. The ope a ional amewo k is an impo an pa o a
sma ci y’s ansi ion om heo y o eal-wo ld ope abili y. Choosing
he igh dimensions ensu es he easibili y o he amewo k’s ope a-
ion, while he igh amewo k e i ies whe he he dimensions a e
accu a e.
Dimensional de elopmen o sma ci ies
Academics ha e di e en unde s andings o he combina ion o di-
mensions o sma ci ies and con inue o imp o e hem, and each
dimensional combina ion symbolizes a deepe unde s anding o he co e
essence o di e en cul u es and egions and sma ci ies, which p o-
ides a mo e accu a e and comp ehensi e heo e ical sys em o adap o
he needs o di e en imes, cul u es, and egions.
The h ee dimensions o echnology –human –ins i u ional we e he
i s men ioned combina ion o sma ci y dimensions (Nam & Pa do,
2011) and ha e also been conside ed as an impo an cons i uen
dimension o he sma ci y amewo k (Sha i i, 2019). In he echno-
logical dimension, amids he wa e o he echnological e olu ion,
he e has been a con e gence o concep s such as he i ual ci y
(enabling u ban unc ions o be ealised in cybe space) (Boul on e al.,
2011), he hyb id ci y (allowing ci ies o make hei own choices ac oss
di e en modes) (An oniadis & Apos ol, 2014), and he ubiqui ous ci y
(U-ci y, ensu ing he pe asi e accessibili y o u ban in as uc u e)
(An hopoulos & Fi silis, 2010). In he human dimension, sma ci ies
enhance he labou ma ke and d i e economic de elopmen h ough
alen ed and c ea i e indi iduals (Flo ida, 2002). To ensu e sus ained
c ea i i y, wo ke s a e equi ed o ely on con inuous lea ning o
become sma e (Campbell, 2009). Simul aneously, ci ies encou age
knowledge exchange among indi iduals, acili a ing he acquisi ion o
mo e knowledge and g ea e unde s anding o u ban de elopmen . This
ans o ms social ne wo ks in o he social capi al o he ci y (Ed insson,
2006). In he ins i u ional dimension, go e nmen agencies in a sma
ci y need o help he ci y build a sma socie y and de elop in a ‘sma ’
manne (U ban Land Ins i u e, 1998), while mi iga ing he une en dis-
ibu ion o esou ces in he ci y and o he p oblems (Ing am e al.,
2009; Po e , 2002).
Wi h changing imes, he use o echnology is g adually shi ing om
go e nmen ins i u ions o he b oade public. (Duan e al., 2019), in
hei a icle ‘Sma ci y concep s and dimensions’, ha e e ined he
p e ious dimension combina ion and p oposed a new dimension com-
bina ion o echnology, people, and socie y. The key imp o emen in he
e ined dimension combina ion lies in he ans o ma ion o ins i u ions
in o socie ies. This in ol es expanding he concep o ins i u ions om a
singula poin in space o a socie al plane, making ins i u ions a pa
o —and engaging wi h—socie y a he han leading planning e o s
(Ka amizadeha e al., 2015). This can be achie ed by inco po a ing
echnology use s h ough sma o ums (Bib i & K ogs ie, 2021),
os e ing a pla o m o ins i u ions, a ious communi ies, and s ee s o
engage in sha ed echnological discussions.
Wi h he inc ease in p ac ical expe ience in sma ci y planning and
he enhancemen o sma echnology, o u he e lec he di e si y and
complexi y o sma ci ies, schola s ha e also analysed he combina ion
o sma ci y dimensions by di iding hem in o h ee la i udes:
echnology-human-space, whose goal is o make he ci y an in elligen
o ganism (Zhen & Kong, 2021). This dimensional upda e is om he
pe spec i e o human-land ela ions and aims o add ess and p omo e
he needs and syne gies be ween people and space in he ci y h ough
sma echnologies (Zhen e al., 2019). In his upda e, he spa ial
dimension is iewed as an expansion o he social dimension, ac ing as
i s ca ie . In he con ex o u ban planning, space is de ined as u ban
a eas wi h di e en hemes, such as adminis a i e dis ic s, business
dis ic s, and esiden ial a eas. The goal o a sma ci y is o no only
p o ide se ices o he inhabi an s o a socie y bu also o help people
b eak he limi a ions o spa ial concep ual bounda ies se by socie y
while inc easing he esilience o u ban space. The ole o echnology in
he dimensional combina ion is o help link spaces and people, and
cu ing-edge echnologies such as he IoT), A i icial In elligence (AI)
chips, and Big Da a analy ics a e no only ans o ming he way ci ies
ope a e bu also p o iding u ban planne s and decision make s wi h
powe ul ools o e icien , sus ainable, and in elligen ci y manage-
men . Wi h he ma u i y o echnologies such as GPT, he di icul y o
he a e age esiden o mas e he ope a ion o he echnology will be
u he educed in he u u e, and he public will be able o ob ain in-
o ma ion and con enience in space h ough his echnology. In he
de elopmen o sma ci ies in many egions, he human dimension is
usually o e looked by he o he wo dimensions. The de elopmen o
sma ci ies allows all membe s o socie y o adap o he e e -changing
i e a ions o echnology, which has led o a apid ise in he cos o
echnological equipmen in u ban planning; o example, he phenom-
enon o employee- ee supe ma ke s is p oo ha echnology is begin-
ning o domina e people’s li es. A e he COVID-19 pandemic in 2020,
majo ci ies wo ldwide ell in o a s a e o closu e, and all coun ies
in oduced in o ma ion echnology in la ge numbe s o help people look
up in o ma ion, while a ious companies de eloped i ual eali y and
me a-uni e ses o help people adap o li ing in isola ion. Howe e , his
echnological inno a ion did no win he gene al accep ance o he in-
habi an s, and he ensuing need o human in e ac ion among people
igge ed he impe us o sma ci y planning.
Dimensional in eg a ion o sma ci ies: The Indi idual-Technology-Cul u e
(IndiTeCul u al) dimension
As sma ci ies de elop on all con inen s o he wo ld, he exis ing
combina ion o dimensions and he manne in which hey a e cons i-
u ed ha e been subjec o some con o e sy and con usion. The i s
ques ion is whe he he dimensions a e connec ed by coupling, which
ypically e e s o he in e ela ionship o in e dependence be ween wo
o mo e independen sys ems. Es ablished dimensional analyses ypi-
cally spli hese h ee dimensions sepa a ely o in e p e a ion and ocus
on examining how o s eng hen he in e coupling ela ionships be-
ween hem. A he conc e e le el, sma ci y dimensions and compo-
nen s a e in e wined, wi h each componen including all h ee
dimensions, and each dimension comp ising all componen s. I each
dimension is s ill conside ed au onomous and he a chi ec u e is in a
segmen ed dimension ela ionship model, di icul ies may a ise in he
sma ci y’s sel -ope a ion. The e o e, he coupled dimension iewpoin
needs o be g adually eplaced by he in eg a ed dimension iewpoin .
In sma ci ies, in eg a ion ypically e e s o he in eg a ion o di e en
dimensions, such as echnology, people, socie y and space, o ealise
sma ci y managemen and ope a ions. To in eg a e, pas dimensional
combina ions ha e all been compa men alised o a ying deg ees. In
he i s dimension, he ole o science and echnology is limi ed o
assis ing human ac i i ies h ough pa ial ins i u ions, wi h limi ed
b ead h and cul u e inclusi eness o he dimensions; in he second
R. Yang and F. Zhen
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100221
5
dimension, he social s uc u e is subdi ided in o disc e e geog aphic
uni s by echnological in e en ions, and science and echnology a e
only able o es ablish in e pe sonal links be ween hese disc e e
geog aphic uni s, bu ha e no ye been able o ealise he ull in eg a-
ion o he social s uc u e. The p ocess om he i s ela i ely closed
communi ies o he mode n connec ed socie y can be seen in he g adual
segmen a ion o he s uc u e o socie y and i s uni ica ion h ough
echnology; howe e , he e a e ye some localised and incomple ely
in eg a ed ea u es equi ing in eg a ion. The hi d dimensional com-
bina ion emphasises— based on he i s wo combina ions— he
s eng hening o he coupling be ween o he dimensions in he spa ial
dimension o make i a sys em. Howe e , i s ill igno es he uniqueness
o indi idual beha iou and he in luence o cul u al plu alism, owing o
which, he spa ial dimension does no achie e ue in eg a ion.
The second aspec unde conside a ion is whe he he exis ing
dimensional combina ions a e sui able o he u u e sma ci y s uc-
u e; he dimensional ela ionship de e mines he de elopmen ame-
wo k o he sma ci y, and he accu a e cons uc ion o he dimensional
ela ionship helps easonably cons uc he ci y sys em (Zhen e al.,
2019). The eason why sma ci ies ha e s a ed o become ‘sma ’
compa ed o o he ypes o ci ies depends la gely on he dep h o
dimension in eg a ion. In esponse o he need o dimensional in e-
g a ion in sma ci ies and based on he his o y o he de elopmen o
p e ious dimensions and he expe ience o egional de elopmen , his
pape p oposes a new combina ion o dimensions, o indi idual-
echnology-cul u e. Exis ing dimensional analyses ha e looked a he
g oup o people as a whole, explo ing he la ge amoun o knowledge
and cul u e ha people a e equi ed o know wi h ega d o he use o
echnology and how i can b ing con enience o people in he space.
Howe e , he dis inc ion be ween wisdom and in elligence lies in he
abili y o se e e e yone as a whole. Unde he sma ci y sys em, people
and echnology a e no coupled bu a e in eg a ed in he de elopmen
p ocess. The echnology in he sma ci y mus p o ide ‘cus omised’
in o ma ion se ices o each indi idual in he ci y h ough a se ies o
echnologies such as algo i hms. Each indi idual in he ci y is a unique
space and da abase, echnology in he sma ci y he e o e, can
acco dingly c ea e coun less ‘cus omised’ spaces, esul ing in he
con inuous in eg a ion o hese spaces so ha people a e su ounded by
echnology bu also enabled by i , o ob ain g ea e eedom. Sma ci ies
a e in luenced by “cus omized” spaces, bo h in e ms o hei concep ion
and cons uc ion in di e en cul u al egions, and hese “cus omized”
spaces o m a mul icul u alism in sma ci ies. A he same ime, o
indi iduals and echnology o in eg a e mo e seamlessly, sma ci ies
mus unde s and hei own cul u e, which pe mea es all ypes and sizes
o space in human socie y, including he habi s o i s inhabi an s, u ban
planning, esou ces, and ou is a ac ions. Only cul u ally-awa e
echnology can empa hise wi h an indi idual’s beha iou and make
he mos ‘humane’ decisions, no jus he mos a ional one.
Indi idual- echnology-cul u e dimensions a e highly in eg a ed in
Sma Ci ies, o ming an IndiTeCul u al amewo k. Unde he ame-
wo k o in eg a ed dimensions, Sma Ci ies do no need o ocus on
so ing ou he in e ela ionships among he dimensions when dealing
wi h p oblems bu a he ha e he abili y o coo dina e he ele an
esou ces o sol e p oblems in an all- ounded, immedia e, and au o-
ma ic manne . This allows he ci y i sel o ope a e mo e like a “b ain”
wi h in elligence o hink, a he han a s a ic amewo k s uc u e and
passi e implemen a ion p og am. This in eg a ed and sel -coo dina ing
quali y enables ci ies o e ec i ely espond o inc easingly complex
challenges, he eby imp o ed sus ainabili y o esou ces wi hin he ci y
and adap abili y wi h ci izens. Such an IndiTeCul u al sys em connec s
he componen s and nodes o o m a sma ope a ional s uc u e unique
o sma ci ies, which helps imp o e he o e all planning and esou ce
alloca ion o he ci y, hus imp o ing he quali y o li e o each indi-
idual wi h he needs o he cul u al con ex and c ea ing he mos aci
balance be ween he indi idual and he whole.
Ope a ional amewo k o sma ci ies
The Indi ecul u al heo y o Sma Ci ies allows o he cons uc ion
o a highly complex and sophis ica ed b ain-like ope a ional amewo k
ha p o ides he basis o mo ing om heo y o p ac ice. Ope a ion
amewo k (Indi ecul u al) by he indi idual − echnology −cul u al
h ee-dimensional in eg a ed o ma ion, he co e o he sma ci y
ope a ion amewo k wi h he na u e o he exis ing ci y has unde gone
an essen ial me amo phosis, b eaking he exis ing ci y ope a ion
amewo k in he hie a chy, coupling and o he ela ionships in he
cumbe some logic and unnecessa y p ocesses, cons uc ed he co e o
he sma ci y, “wisdom” mechanism and become he b ain s em o he
sma ci y b ain o con ol he li e o he en i e ci y. I cons uc s he co e
“wisdom” mechanism o he sma ci y and becomes he b ain s em o
he sma ci y b ain, con olling he i ali y o he whole ci y. A he
same ime, IndiTeCul u e’s ex e nal s uc u e co e s six key compo-
nen s, which oge he ou line he pe iphe al amewo k o he sma ci y
and become i s b ains em, allowing o a balanced de elopmen o he
sma ci y. These nodes se e as he co ex o he sma ci y b ain and
con inuously ecei e new cogni ion. This allowed o he in e wining
and g adual expansion o he wo co e componen s, dimensions, and
componen s h ough in e media e nodes, ul ima ely gi ing ise o a
highly in elligen ope a ional amewo k o he ci y (Fig. 2). This
amewo k in eg a es componen s ha ha e been ela i ely dispe sed o
neglec ed in he coupling ela ionship and builds a huge and in ica e
u ban ne wo k simila o he in e connec ion o coun less neu ons in he
b ain, which enables sma ci ies o quickly de ec p oblems, collec
di e se in o ma ion, analyse da a, and make a ional and e icien
decisions.
One o he dis inc i e ea u es o a sma ci y is i s sel -e ol ing
na u e; ha is, he numbe o nodes in he sma ci y g adually in-
c ease o dec ease acco ding o he cha ac e is ics o he ci y i sel o he
ac ual demand du ing he ope a ion o he amewo k o be e adap o
he ci y’s needs and changes. The changes in node addi ions a e in en-
ded o con inually consolida e amewo k in eg a ion o be e mee he
e ol ing equi emen s o he ci y. The connec ing lines in he ope a-
ional block diag am do no simply ep esen s a ic ela ionships be-
ween nodes, bu a e me ely a igu a i e ep esen a ion o he close
in eg a ion and in e ac ions be ween indi idual nodes.
This dynamism p o ides ci ies wi h g ea lexibili y and a high de-
g ee o adap abili y, so ha bo h p o essional ci y planne s and esiden s
can coo dina e wi h he sma ci y a any ime acco ding o changes in
di e en cul u al egions o indi idual needs and sa is y he expec a-
ions o e e y indi idual li ing in he ci y o main ain i s e ec i eness
and adap abili y. A he same ime, main aining he in elligence o he
ope a ional amewo k o he ‘b ain’ o he sma ci y equi es ac i e
mul idisciplina y collabo a ion o unde s and he need o mul icul u -
alism in o de o achie e sus ainable u ban p ospe i y and o be able o
espond o he challenges o a ci y ha is cons an ly changing a he le el
o he eali ies o he wo ld.
Cul u al- egional models o sma ci y p ac ices
In ecen decades, an inc easing numbe o coun ies ha e begun o
a emp o es ablish sma ci ies ha a e deeply a ec ed by he poli ical,
social, and cul u al in luences o hei own egions, hus o ming sma
ci ies wi h di e en de elopmen di ec ions. Based on cu en de el-
opmen esul s, analysing he di e en s yles o sma ci ies in each
cul u al egion can accele a e he ansi ion o sma ci ies om heo y
o p ac ice.
Ci y-based sma ci ies
In he ace o ela i ely ma u e and solid u ban sys em, he de el-
opmen o sma ci ies in Eu ope in he eali y o he le el o di icul o
eshape he exis ing u ban sys em in all aspec s, how o e ec i ely and
R. Yang and F. Zhen
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100221
6
“na u ally” in eg a e echnology in o e e y co ne o he ci y o make i
s a o “sma ” is he ocus o he EU’s explo a ion o his a ea. Sma
en i onmen and sma mobili y a e key b eak h oughs in Eu ope, wi h
ci ies choosing o s a wi h nodes such as anspo a ion, and mee ing
he s anda ds o he ele an a eas be o e building o he dimensions.
Copenhagen has been one o Eu ope’s mos dis inc i e examples o a
sma ci y, whe e he ci y has combined wo componen s, sma
go e nance and sma people, o c ea e a public–p i a e pa ne ship
wi h in o ma ion anspa ency. The go e nmen es ablished he
Copenhagen Solu ions Lab in collabo a ion wi h companies such as
Google. This collabo a ion in ol es in eg a ing da a om people’s mo-
bile de ices, GPS signals om public and p i a e anspo a ion, and
senso s in public anspo . This in eg a ion enables bo h he go e n-
men and esiden s o moni o a ic condi ions in eal- ime, p e en ing
he eme gence o a ic ho spo s and mi iga ing conges ion and en i-
onmen al pollu ion. In ecen yea s, he Eu opean Union has used sma
ci y echnologies o imp o e he e iciency o public anspo a ion,
based on a s ong push o new ene gy ehicles. S ockholm is known o
i s sma anspo a ion sys em, wi h 800,000 people choosing ca bon-
ee and en i onmen ally iendly a el op ions e e y day, and he
ci y plans o ha e ossil uel- ee anspo a ion by sea by 2030 (Sma
Ci y Sweden, 2023). Eu opean ci ies a e inc easingly using sma ech-
nologies o unde s and hei “cul u al” si ua ion and ein eg a e hei
ci ies and inhabi an s in o he na u al sys em by achie ing ze o
pollu ion.
Go e nmen -led sma ci ies
The ansi ion o sma ci ies is no only cha ac e ised by se ious
challenges a he ope a ional le el bu also by he in luence o local
sys emic cul u e. In he Eu opean Union, i ook mo e han en yea s o
all go e nmen s o each sma ci y s anda ds in one o wo a eas.
Consequen ly, new sma ci ies ha e become an ac i ely explo ed and
p omo ed goal o Eu opean go e nmen s and planne s. In he Eas
Asian egion, because o he apid ans o ma ion om an independen
coun y o an economic powe house in a ela i ely sho pe iod o ime,
each coun y is acing he p oblem o o e concen a ion o esou ces in
he co e ci y, which o en esul s in he go e nmen aking cha ge o he
de elopmen o sma ci ies in he Asian egion. Unlike he indus ial
and pos -indus ial ci y pe iod when go e nmen in es men was
massi ely in o in as uc u e, go e nmen in es men in he sma ci y
building pe iod was mainly in high- ech companies.
The Sou h Ko ean go e nmen made an impo an decision o
es ablish a new sma ci y, Songdo, in 2005 o ease he p essu e on
Seoul. The di e ence in Eu ope is ha i does no cu om one node bu
builds six componen s holis ically in h ee dimensions. O e ime,
Songdo’s cons uc ion schedule and in es men inc eased, while he
esiden popula ion emained a app oxima ely 100,000 be o e he
epidemic, which is a huge di e ence om he expec a ions o he in-
e na ional me opolis ha he Ko ean go e nmen wan s o c ea e. The
p ima y cause o his signi ican dispa i y is he subs an ial in eg a ion
o cu ing-edge echnological sys ems in he cons uc ion p ocess o
Song Island. Howe e , sus aining he ope a ion o hese ex ensi e sys-
ems inc eases he cos o li ing. The wo king-class popula ion, aced
wi h high housing p ices, p e e s commu ing o mo e han one hou
a he han esiding in apa men s wi h exo bi an en s. Second, many
sma -ci y unc ions ely hea ily on au oma ed sys ems, esul ing in a
minimal numbe o ci y pe sonnel. Fo example, he en i e ci y’s
Fig. 2. Sma Ci y Dimension S uc u e and Ope a ional F amewo k.
R. Yang and F. Zhen
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100221
7
cleaning sys em equi es only se en indi iduals o managemen pu -
poses. The sca ci y o ci y managemen pe sonnel, coupled wi h esi-
den s’ eluc ance o inhabi he a ea, ende s he en i e ci y unusually
desola e. This discou ages la ge co po a e g oups om es ablishing
p esences.
Ma ke -o ien ed sma ci ies
The use o echnology in sma ci ies equi es ma ke condi ions, and
he ma ke condi ions he e a e di e en om hose in p e ious ci ies;
ins ead o companies o businesses looking o a ma ke based on he
amoun o demand om cus ome s, echnology companies a e u ning
he en i e ci y in o hei own expe imen al ma ke o es hei own
p oduc s. Silicon Valley is a he o e on o IT indus y de elopmen in
he Uni ed S a es, whe e many in o ma ion indus y companies a e
clus e ed and neighbou ing ci ies ha e become he i s choice o he
de elopmen o sma ci ies.
Since he U.S. is a ma ke -go e nmen pa ne ship o build new
sma ci ies, he ci ies chosen a e much smalle han hose in Sou h
Ko ea; he ci y o Palo Al o had a popula ion o me ely o e 50,000 when
i launched i s sma ci y p og am in 2016, which ende ed i easy o i
begin o ‘sma en’ up he ci y. As one o he mo e success ul sma ci ies
in i s cu en phase o de elopmen , he ci y suppo s inno a ion and
s a ups h ough he de elopmen o p og ams such as sma ans-
po a ion, sus ainable ene gy and g een buildings, open da a and digi al
se ices, and pa icipa o y planning o sma ci ies. A ma ke -demand-
o ien ed app oach o building a sma ci y can a oid di icul ies simila
o hose encoun e ed when Songdo was buil a oo g ea a pace.
Al hough Palo Al o’s sma ci y de elopmen is p og essing
ela i ely well as o 2023, his case has limi a ions. A ci y wi h 70,000
people is no a case s udy in a coun y wi h a la ge popula ion such as
China, India, o Japan, and he ci y is oo homogenous. The ques ion o
whe he o no he ci y’s de elopmen model can be eplica ed has also
been discussed.
Cul u al egional analysis o sma ci ies
Acco ding o he Sma Ci ies Expo 2023, mo e han 800 ci ies
wo ldwide ha e shown in e es in he de elopmen o sma ci ies, and
nea ly 100 ha e begun explo ing hem o a ying deg ees. As sma ci y
explo a ion has gained expe ience, ci ies on all con inen s ha e
disco e ed he mos app op ia e a eas and sui able en y poin s o
de elopmen (Table 1). This s udy selec s 31 ela i ely ypical ci ies as
samples, based on i e c i e ia: (1) he ci y has de ailed plans o his
ield in i s Sma Ci y De elopmen Repo ; (2) he ci y has ongoing
implemen a ions o Sma Ci y p ojec s; (3) he sma ci y de elopmen
in ol es pa icipa ion om bo h go e nmen and local businesses in he
ci y; (4) he sma ci y p ojec s ha e made some p og ess; and (5)
eedback o moni o ing om hi d-pa y o ganisa ions has been
ecei ed o sma ci y p ojec s. All 31 sample ci ies ha e public docu-
men s and esul s in he ield o sma ci y de elopmen and se e as case
s udies o ci ies in o he egions when hey de elop sma ci ies. The
es o he ci ies de eloping sma ci ies ha e oo low a deg ee o design,
making i di icul o o m a sys ema ic e alua ion o hem.
The e a e i e le els o sma ci y de elopmen di ec ions, 5 o co e
a ea de elopmen , 4 o impo an de elopmen , 3 o ocused de el-
opmen , 2 o ini ial de elopmen , and 1 o planned de elopmen , and
he a ings o each ci y in Table 1 depend on he deg ee o ul ilmen o
Table 1
Names o sma ci ies and di ec ion o de elopmen a ings.
Region Ci y Sma En i onmen Sma Economy Sma People Sma Go e nance Sma Mobili y Sma Li ing
Asia Singapo e 5 5 5 5 5 5
Songdo 5 5 5 5 5 5
Hongkong 4 5 3 5 2 1
Tokyo 3 5 2 2 4 1
Beijing 3 5 1 1 5 1
Seoul 3 3 3 1 5 1
Shenzhen 2 5 1 1 1 1
Shanghai 3 5 2 1 1 2
Taipei 3 1 1 1 2 3
Middle Eas Dubai 5 5 5 5 5 3
Neom 3 5 1 1 5 4
Eu ope London 5 5 2 2 4 4
Ba celona 5 2 5 1 3 5
Copenhagen 5 1 5 3 5 2
Ams e dam 5 2 5 3 5 2
Pa is 5 2 2 3 4 4
S ockholm 5 2 3 3 5 5
Helsinki 5 1 3 1 5 1
Be lin 5 2 5 3 5 1
Mad id 5 2 2 3 2 1
Olso 5 5 5 5 5 1
Zu ich 5 3 4 2 3 1
Vienna 5 2 3 1 2 1
Tallinn 5 2 1 1 1 2
Milan 5 1 1 2 5 3
No h Ame ica Palo Al o 5 4 3 4 5 5
Ri e side 3 5 2 1 5 2
To on o 3 3 2 2 5 2
Mon eal 3 4 1 2 5 2
New Yo k 2 5 2 1 4 2
O he s B isbane 5 3 2 2 4 2
*No e: 5 =co e de elopmen ; 4 =impo an de elopmen ; 3 = ocused de elopmen ; 2 =p elimina y de elopmen ; 1 =planned de elopmen .
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Resea ch in Globaliza ion 8 (2024) 100221
8
he c i e ia by he ci y. The cul u es o he geog aphic egions lis ed in
Table 1 in luence he le el o de elopmen in each sma ci y di ec ion.
O he 31 ma u e sma ci ies wo ldwide, Eu asia accoun s o 81 %,
No h Ame ica 16 %, and o he egions 3 %. In he as majo i y o
ci ies, he co e emphasis o de elopmen is on sma en i onmen , sma
economy, and sma mobili y, hese h ee can be quickly applied o he
daily li es o esiden s o p oduce angible bene i s. Many ci ies igno e
sma people, sma go e nance, and sma communi ies because hey
ocus on aining ele an go e nmen pe sonnel and esiden s in hu-
manis ic li e acy.
The de elopmen o sma ci ies is mo e common in coun ies and
egions wi h mo e de eloped economies and ela i ely mo e mode n-
ised ci ies, which a e mo e likely o a o d he high cos and complexi y
o he challenges ha sma ci y p ojec s equi e. Cu en ly, he concep
o sma ci ies is d i en by mode n concep s and cu ing-edge echnol-
ogies, such as en i onmen al p o ec ion and a i icial in elligence, and is
g adually gaining widesp ead accep ance wo ldwide. F om a cul u al
egional pe spec i e, No h Ame ica has—in ecen yea s—de eloped
echnologies such as d ones, na iga ion echnology, oadside sensing
de ices, and a ic managemen , all o which a e pushing ci ies close o
sma mobili y. Compa ed o sma mobili y, No h Ame ica has been
behind Eu asia in esea ch and de elopmen in a eas such as sma
en i onmen s. Asia, on he o he hand, has ocused on sma economy,
wi h Sou heas Asia ocusing on how echnology can be used o p edic
da a, such as GDP, mo e accu a ely. The Eu opean egion s ill ocuses on
sma en i onmen s, bu i is wo h no ing ha Eu ope has also in es ed
conside able ene gy in he di ec ion o sma people, aking in o ull
conside a ion hei impo ance in sma ci ies. Ci ies in he Middle Eas
ocus on economic sus ainabili y, employing echnology o de elop a
di e si ied economy and educe dependency on ene gy esou ces.
Al hough he e a e be e de eloped a eas o sma ci ies in each egion,
he weak componen s s ill exis . Weak componen s such as sma go -
e nmen and sma people ha e al eady begun o de elop in many ci ies,
as e idenced by he g ow h in he numbe o people ob aining ad anced
deg ees in a ious ci ies. Howe e , i is di icul o ha e co esponding
da a, documen s, o s anda ds o p o e his end. In he u u e, hese
weak componen s will apidly imp o e and o m a s able sys em d i en
by he s ong componen s (Fig .3)
Despi e he apid g ow h in he ecogni ion o sma ci y concep s,
he a e o implemen a ion o hese concep s and building sma ci ies
has no inc eased a he same pace. The p ima y eason o his is ha
de eloped coun ies end o ace slowe p og ess in he de elopmen o
sma ci ies, and hey a e usually only able o de elop in dep h in a
pa icula a ea o aspec , which may be due o ac o s such as di icul ies
in coo dina ion among a ious s akeholde s, limi ed esou ces, o con-
s ain s in policies and egula ions. Second, he de elopmen o sma
ci ies is s ill accompanied by ela i ely high echnology cos s. While
many de eloping coun ies a e willing o adop he sma ci y concep ,
he ac ual cos o cons uc ion may exceed wha is needed and
a o dable.
Re ela ions and discussions
Sma ci ies ac oss cul u al egions ha e b ough many unknown and
unexpec ed su p ises and challenges o he planning, geog aphy, engi-
nee ing, and in o ma ion p o essions in he i s 20 yea s o hei
de elopmen . By ho izon ally compa ing he de elopmen ends o
sma ci ies in di e en cul u es and egions, his ini ial phase o
explo a ion is no only an impo an inspi a ion o cu en esea ch bu
also lays a solid ounda ion o u u e esea ch in geog aphy.
Dilemmas and oppo uni ies
This s udy conside s bo h cul u al (mac o) and indi idual (mic o)
pe spec i es o de e mine he u u e dilemmas and oppo uni ies o
sma ci ies. The cul u al pe spec i e conside s he en i e sma ci y
ecosys em, including ci y size, go e nmen policies, and global ends,
while he indi idual pe spec i e ocuses on speci ic people in e ac ing
wi h p ojec s, echnology, and socie y, allowing o a mo e nuanced
unde s anding o localised issues and challenges. Fig. 4 shows he po-
en ial h ea s and oppo uni ies o he u u e de elopmen o sma
ci ies om wo pe spec i es, wi h all he elemen s un olding along he
ho izon al and e ical lines, and he ci y’s s eng hs being u ilised
h ough di e en pe spec i es o compensa e o i s weaknesses o be e
p omo e he de elopmen o sma ci ies.
The u u e de elopmen o sma ci ies is accompanied by se e al
challenges. Fi s , issues o pe sonal p i acy and da a secu i y may aise
conce ns among some esiden s abou li ing in a sma ci y. The ope -
a ion o sma ci ies will ely on he collec ion and analysis o la ge-scale
pe sonal da a, which will p o ide mo e con enien se ices o each
esiden , bu will also cause some esiden s o ques ion he sys em o
how o manage and p o ec hei p i acy and da a secu i y. Second, in
he p ocess o building a sma ci y, he speed o echnology i e a ion
will be u he accele a ed, and in his p ocess he digi al di ide phe-
nomenon may inc easingly appea in di e en popula ion g oups,
esul ing in some esiden s who do no ha e access o, o a e un amilia
wi h, he la es digi al echnology no being able o ob ain equal o
imely in o ma ion esou ces, and g adually being excluded om he
ci y’s sma se ice sys em, agg a a ing he inequali y o he socie y in
e ms o weal h and igh s and in e es s. Simul aneously, sma ci ies
ace he challenge o isola ion caused by he digi al di ide. Unique and
complex u ban sys ems make i mo e di icul o ou side g oups o
ga he in o ma ion abou hei use, and he esul ing cul u al di ide can
lead o a lack o ou side i ali y in he ci y. Thi d, sma ci ies ace high
cos s and in es men needs. The cons uc ion and main enance o ci ies
equi e signi ican capi al in es men , which may pu inancial p essu e
on ci y go e nmen s. Finally, echnology s anda ds and in e ope abili y
issues need o be aken se iously. The a ious echnologies used in sma
ci ies o en ha e di e en s anda ds and in e ope abili y issues, which
ha e hinde ed he de elopmen o sma ci ies om hei aims and
pu pose.
Howe e , despi e he many challenges o u u e de elopmen , sma
ci y de elopmen is s ill wo h imagining. Fi s , sma ci ies can imp o e
he quali y o li e o all i s esiden s, and h ough he implemen a ion o
ad anced echnologies, ci y dwelle s can enjoy a sa e , mo e con enien ,
and heal hie li e. Second, sma ci ies a e commi ed o sus ainable
de elopmen . Th ough sma ci y ini ia i es, ci ies can a ge audiences
Fig. 3. Di ec ion o sma ci y de elopmen in he wo ld’s con inen s.
R. Yang and F. Zhen
