Governance, Regulation and Management of Global Sport Organisations

Bayle, Emmanuel
Book
Go e nance, Regula ion and Managemen o Global Spo
O ganisa ions
Rou ledge Resea ch in Spo Business and Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bayle, Emmanuel (2025) : Go e nance, Regula ion and Managemen o
Global Spo O ganisa ions, Rou ledge Resea ch in Spo Business and Managemen , ISBN
978-1-040-16472-3, Rou ledge, Ox o d,
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Go e nance, Regula ion and
Managemen o Global Spo
O ganisa ions
This book is a bold and ambi ious analysis o he challenges acing global spo in
he 21s cen u y and how hose challenges can be me h ough good go e nance,
managemen and egula ion.
Connec ing he poli ical and manage ial dimensions o spo , om in e na ional
go e ning bodies such as he In e na ional Olympic Commi ee h ough o na ional
go e ning bodies, leagues and p o essional spo o ganisa ions, he book o e s
a new way o hinking abou he ajec o y o con empo a y spo . Adop ing an
inno a i e mul i- le el app oach – ac oss mac o, meso and mic o le els – he book
explo es he key challenges cu en ly acing spo , including he apid eme gence
o new spo s such as MMA and ad en u e spo s; he a i al o new ac o s in he
in e na ional spo ecosys em, such as he Gul s a es and p i a e equi y in es men ;
he g ow h o new echnologies, such as AI; and socio- poli ical and de elopmen al
issues such as in eg i y, sus ainabili y, demog aphic change and spo - o -
de elopmen . I conside s he in e ac ion o ac o s a di e en le els, om s a es
o a hle es and ac oss he public and p i a e sec o s, and explo es di e en models
o spo a ound he wo ld, including he dominan Eu opean and No h Ame ican
models. I s indings suppo he a gumen ha cu en and u u e in e na ional
spo s go e nance and egula ion equi e a mo e complex and nuanced me hod o
analysis.
O e ing a new ision o global spo , his is essen ial eading o ad anced
s uden s, esea che s, policymake s o p ac i ione s wo king in spo managemen ,
go e nance o policy, o wi h a gene al in e es in s a egy, go e nance o public
policy.
Emmanuel Bayle is P o esso o spo s managemen in he Ins i u e o Spo
Sciences a he Uni e si y o Lausanne, Swi ze land. He has published widely
on spo managemen , CSR and non- p o i managemen and is a specialis in he
go e nance, managemen and pe o mance o Olympic o ganisa ions and na ional
spo sys ems. He is cu en ly leading a new Swiss Na ional Resea ch Fund p ojec
on pe o mance managemen and measu emen in in e na ional spo ede a ions.
Rou ledge Resea ch in Spo Business and Managemen
Spo in he Ibe ian Peninsula
Managemen , Economics and Policy
Edi ed by Je ónimo Ga cía- Fe nández, Moisés G imaldi- Puyana and
Gonzalo A. B a o
EU An i us Law and Spo Go e nance
The Nex F on ie ?
Edi ed by Jacob Ko nbeck
Implemen ing Spo Policy
O ganisa ional Pe spec i es on he UK Spo Sys em
Edi ed by Ma c Keech, Iain Lindsey and John Hay on
Global Spo Managemen Educa ion
Policy, Cu iculum and Implemen a ion
Mike Rayne , Tom Webb, Ru h Sibson and Jacob K. Tingle
Equi y C owd unding in Spo s Clubs
Consume - O ien ed S a egic Ma ke ing
Szczepan Kościółek
Social Media in Spo
E idence- Based Pe spec i es
Edi ed by Gashaw Abeza and Jimmy Sande son
Go e nance, Regula ion and Managemen o Global Spo
O ganisa ions
Emmanuel Bayle
Fo mo e in o ma ion abou his se ies, please isi www. ou le dge.com/ Rou le dge- Resea ch- in- Spo -
Busin ess- and- Man agem en / book- se ies/ RRSBM
Go e nance, Regula ion and
Managemen o Global Spo
O ganisa ions
Emmanuel Bayle

Fi s published 2025
by Rou ledge
4 Pa k Squa e, Mil on Pa k, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Rou ledge
605 Thi d A enue, New Yo k, NY 10158
Rou ledge is an imp in o he Taylo & F ancis G oup, an in o ma business
© 2025 Emmanuel Bayle
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asse ed in acco dance wi h sec ions 77 and 78 o he Copy igh , Designs and
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B i ish Lib a y Ca aloguing- in- Publica ion Da a
A ca alogue eco d o his book is a ailable om he B i ish Lib a y
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 61119- 8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 032- 61120- 4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 003- 46211- 8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/ 9781003462118
Typese in Times New Roman
by Newgen Publishing UK
Con en s
In oduc ion 1
I.1 Saudi Spo swashing 1
I.2 A Sys em Tha Is Di icul o Change 2
I.3 An Unp eceden ed S a egy o Dis up Wo ld Spo 2
I.4 Regula ing In e na ional Spo 4
I.5 Beyond he Con as be ween he Eu opean and Ame ican
Models o Spo 6
I.6 Con e gence be ween Non- P o i and Fo - P o i Spo
O ganisa ions 7
I.7 Compe i ion, bu also Coope a ion and Mimic y 9
I.8 A Two- Pa P esen a ion 10
PART I
Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems 13
1 Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 15
1.1 Mo e Asse i e Leade ship by he IOC 15
1.1.1 The Globalisa ion o Spo 15
1.1.2 Th ee In e connec ed Fo ms o Go e nance 19
1.1.3 Thomas Bach’s Realpoli ik App oach o Risk
Managemen 26
1.1.4 An Ins i u ional Balancing Ac 33
1.2 The IOC’s Co e Pa ne s 40
1.2.1 In e na ional Fede a ions 40
1.2.2 Na ional Olympic Commi ees 46
1.2.3 O ganising Commi ees o he Olympic Games 51
1.2.4 A hle es and NGOs 59
1.3 Conclusion 66
1.3.1 A Fou - Seasons Olympic Games? 67
i Con en s
2 Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 79
2.1 A Sys emic F amewo k o Analysing he Wo ldwide
Regula ion o Spo s 79
2.1.1 A Global Explana o y Model 79
2.1.2 Fou Types o Regula ion: Social, Economic, Legal
and Poli ical 81
2.1.3 P inciples Unde lying he Model 84
2.1.4 The Fou Key Va iables in a Spo ’s In e na ional
Ecosys em 85
2.1.5 Resou ces and Compe encies Needed o he Fou
Types o Regula ion 87
2.2 Fi e Regula ion Con igu a ions o In e na ional Spo 91
2.2.1 Regula ion Domina ed by an In e na ional
Fede a ion 91
2.2.2 Regula ion Coo dina ed by an In e na ional
Fede a ion 95
2.2.3 Pa allel Regula ion by an In e na ional Fede a ion
and Comme cial Body 97
2.2.4 Regula ion Domina ed by a Comme cial
Ope a o 98
2.2.5 To ally P i a e Regula ion by he Comme cial
Sec o 101
2.3 Conclusion 104
3 Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 109
3.1 The Main O ganisa ional Models o Spo 109
3.1.1 Th ee T adi ional Models: Ame ican, Eu opean,
S a e- Con olled 110
3.1.2 New Ac o s Focusing on ‘Spo Powe ’: China,
Russia, Gul S a es 114
3.1.3 F agili y and Ins abili y in Leas - De eloped
Coun ies 116
3.2 Na ional Spo Con igu a ions in Eu ope 118
3.2.1 The Cha ac e is ics o Na ional Spo
Con igu a ions 118
3.2.2 The Fou Mos Typical Con igu a ions in
Eu ope 119
3.2.3 Fou Examples: England, F ance, Li huania,
Swi ze land 123
Con en s ii
3.3 Widely Di e ing Models Ou side Eu ope 128
3.3.1 Aus alia and Canada: ‘Fede a ed’ Eu opean
Models 129
3.3.2 China: A S a e- Con olled and Au ho i a ian Model
Focused on Eli e Spo 131
3.3.3 Tunisia: A Bu eauc a ic Model Weakened by
C isis 133
3.3.4 Uganda: A Neglec ed bu E ol ing Spo s
Sys em 134
3.3.5 Sou h Ko ea: A Bu eauc a ic Model a he Se ice
o Na ion B anding 135
3.3.6 S i Lanka: A Non- In eg a ed and Failing Model in
an Eme ging Coun y 136
3.4 A Na ion’s Spo ing Success 138
3.4.1 The SPLISS Model 138
3.4.2 Coun ies’ S a egic Choices 143
3.5 Conclusion 148
PART II
New Challenges o he Go e nance o In e na ional
Spo O ganisa ions 153
4 Managing In e na ional Spo Fede a ion Pe o mance in a
Glocalised Wo ld 155
4.1 F om G owing Spo o O e all Pe o mance 155
4.1.1 Socie al Pe o mance a he Hea o O ganisa ional
Pe o mance 155
4.1.2 Towa ds New Repo ing and Accoun abili y
Tools 157
4.2 S a egic Capaci y 161
4.2.1 Powe S uc u es 161
4.2.2 The Quali y o he Fede al Ne wo k 165
4.2.3 Fede a ions’ Business Sec o s and Models 166
4.3 Ope a ional Capaci y 171
4.3.1 Key Success Fac o s 171
4.3.2 Failu e Fac o s 176
4.4 Conclusion 178
4 In oduc ion
P o essional Figh e s League. And in Oc obe 2023, Riyad hos ed a unique
‘Ba le o he Baddes ’ be ween WBC hea yweigh boxing champion Tyson
Fu y and o me MMA UFC champion F ancis Ngannou.
• Espo and ideo games: By ounding he Sa y Games G oup, which spen an
es ima ed $38 billion in 2023 o buy s akes in ideo games and espo s com-
panies a ound he wo ld.4 When Riyad hos ed he Game s8 ou namen , consid-
e ed he wo ld’s la ges espo es i al, in 2023, Saudi A abia ipled he p ize
pool o $45 million, a simila sum o a ennis G and Slam ou namen . The IOC
has chosen Saudi A abia o hos he i s espo s Olympic Games in 2025.
• C icke : By posi ioning he Saudi Tou ism Au ho i y as a main sponso o he
powe ul Indian P emie League (IPL) and by pu ing up $5 billion o buy a
16% s ake in he IPL’s holding company, which has an es ima ed wo h o $30
billion.5 Indian c icke ’s go e ning body, he Boa d o Con ol o C icke in
India, has, so a , u ned down he Saudi o e .
The Saudis some imes p esen hei ac ions as a way o bols e ing he in e na ional
spo and Olympic mo emen and some imes as a way o suppo ing he in e -
na ional spo mo emen ’s ad e sa y, ha is, he comme cial spo business. In
addi ion o ying o ake con ol o spec a o spo ’s g ea es asse s, hey ha e le
hanging he spec e o e en g ea e dis up ion in he u u e i wo ld spo and he
Olympic mo emen ’s leade s do no mee hei demands. No hing seems impos-
sible gi en ha iny Qa a , wi h a popula ion o jus 2.6 million, o whom only
300,000 a e ci izens, managed o s age he 2022 Foo ball Wo ld Cup on i s own,
a an unp eceden ed cos o $200 billion (Bayle, 2022), and o sh ug o Wes e n
conce ns o e co up ion, sus ainabili y and human igh s.
I.4 Regula ing In e na ional Spo
Saudi A abia’s spo s s a egy, along wi h o he s a egies de eloped by China,
Russia and Qa a on di e en bases,6 is a sign ha he Wes is losing i s hype -
dominance o e bo h he go e nance o in e na ional spo and i s majo e en s and
hei business model. In an in e na ional con ex i en by c isis (en i onmen al,
economic, wa s, e c.), Saudi A abia’s policy aises he ques ion o he (geo)poli -
ical, economic and e hical egula ion o in e na ional spo as i becomes domina ed
by spo business and an inc easingly globalised and consolida ed en e ainmen
indus y cen ed ound a complex and inancialised se o ac o s.
This book p o ides an o e iew o he go e nance, egula ion and managemen
o he in e na ional o ganisa ions ha un he wo ld’s main eam and indi idual
spo s. Regula ion is a e m wi h se e al possible meanings. In gene al use, i e e s
o he o mula ion, applica ion and in e p e a ion o ules and no ms o con ol an
ac i i y. In economics, i e e s o a emp s o achie e a pe manen balance be ween
he objec i es o he ac o s in a sys em and he co ec ions needed o ensu e he
sys em unc ions ‘no mally’. Such co ec ions a e pa icula ly necessa y in ee-
ma ke con ex s, whe e he p ime egula o y mechanisms a e ma ke o ces and

In oduc ion 5
compe i ion, which na ional go e nmen s/ sup ana ional bodies (e.g., he Eu opean
Union) may egula e o p e en abuses. In his book, I use egula ion in a wide
sense o desc ibe he poli ical, economic, legal and social unc ioning and adjus -
men s used o main ain an (eco)sys em in balance (Commaille and Jobe , 2019).
In he p esen case, hese sys ems a e he Olympic sys em (Chappele , 1991, 2016)
and each spo ’s in e na ional ecosys em. Regula ion can be analysed on h ee le -
els. Mac o- le el analyses examine an (eco)sys em’s in e ac ions wi h i s global
en i onmen (poli ical, economic, social, echnological, en i onmen al). Meso-
le el analyses in ol e si ua ing an o ganisa ion’s ac ions and ela ions wi hin a
business sec o (speci ic ecosys em o each spo ) by examining hem om a pe -
spec i e economis s call indus ial economics and sociologis s call o ganisa ional
ields7 (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983). Spo ’s speci ici ies (e.g., monopoly posi ion
o some o ganisa ions, he ac ha he pa ies in ol ed in a spo compe i ion
a e bo h i als o ic o y and economic pa ne s in p oducing he spo ing spec-
acle) mean ha g ea a en ion mus be paid o his le el o analysis and o he
necessa y egula o y p inciples and ools. Mic o- le el analyses ocus on a speci ic
ac o (o ganisa ion o pe son, e.g., spo s execu i e o s a a hle e) and hei ole in
mac o- and/ o meso- le el egula ion.
Go e nance, ha is, an o ganisa ion’s ins i u ional amewo k and decision-
making mechanisms, plays a cen al ole in egula ion. Hen y and Lee (2004)
iden i ied h ee ypes o go e nance: Sys emic go e nance desc ibes an o ganisa-
ion’s e o s o con ol he a ious ac o s wi hin i s sys em; poli ical go e nance
in ol es an o ganisa ion’s ela ions wi h public bodies; and o ganisa ional go -
e nance conce ns an o ganisa ion’s in e nal leade ship, adminis a ion and con ol
amewo k. Managemen is he p ocess o implemen ing p ac ical policies wi hin
he amewo k se by an o ganisa ion’s go e nance and egula ion (s a egy, eco-
nomic models, p o essionalisa ion, communica ion and ma ke ing, social espon-
sibili y). Mic o- le el analyses o an o ganisa ion’s managemen ocus on he
beha iou s o indi idual execu i es and manage s. The ollowing discussion o
he unc ioning o in e na ional spo o ganisa ions combines analyses on all h ee
le els.
An in e na ional spo o ganisa ion is any en i y in ol ed di ec ly in unning
sup ana ional spo s e en s and/ o de eloping spo in e na ionally. These o gani-
sa ions include he In e na ional Olympic Commi ee (IOC), in e na ional spo
ede a ions (IFs), con inen al spo ede a ions, in e na ional compe i ion ci cui
owne s and o ganise s o in e na ional spo s e en s. Spo s media companies,
spo s equipmen b ands and spo s ma ke ing agencies a e pa o he spo and
en e ainmen indus y and a e no , he e o e, conside ed in e na ional spo o gani-
sa ions. Ne e heless, hey a e key s akeholde s in in e na ional spo . Indeed, he
s a egies and in es men s o majo subsc ip ion- based en e ainmen companies
(e.g., Canal+ , ESPN, Eu ospo , BeIn Spo s, e c.), s eaming pla o ms (Apple
TV, Amazon P ime Video, Ne lix, Disney Plus, DAZN, e c.) and social media
companies (Facebook, X, Ins ag am, YouTube, e c.) a e se e ely dis up ing he
wo ld o spec a o spo and spo s e en s. These companies also exe subs an ial
6 In oduc ion
con ol (Min zbe g, 1986) o e spo o ganisa ions, ei he di ec ly (by buying
s akes in hem) o indi ec ly ( ia he esou ces hey in es and hei in luence ne -
wo ks). Consequen ly, I examine how hese o ganisa ions’ s a egies impac hose
o in e na ional spo o ganisa ions. The ollowing chap e s also co e na ional and
local spo o ganisa ions, including p o essional clubs and spo e en s, as hese
o ganisa ions a e inc easingly in e na ionalising hei ac i i ies by ec ui ing o -
eign playe s, adop ing in e na ional s a egies o ma ke ing hei b ands, icke s,
media igh s, sponso ship and playe s, selling sha es o in e na ional in es o s and
a ac ing o eign ans, who ollow a club emo ely ia he In e ne , social media
and phone apps.
In e na ional spo o ganisa ions a y g ea ly in e ms o hei legal o m (non-
p o i o ganisa ions e sus comme cial companies), hei size ( om 1,000 s a o
jus a ew employees), hei p o essionalisa ion, hei enown and hei epu a ion.
In his book, I iew hem as ins i u ions, ha is, as li ing o ganisms which deploy
adap a ion and su i al s a egies in esponse o changes in hei ecosys em and in
socie y. In ac , e en he mos i mly es ablished in e na ional spo o ganisa ions
mus con inually p o ec hei s a us by ensu ing hey emain in s ep wi h socie y.
This iew is in line wi h neo- ins i u ional heo y, which concei es an ins i u ion as
a dynamic and changing social p oduc ion whose bounda ies mo e acco ding o i s
s akeholde ’s in e es s, ela ionships (compe i ion/ pa ne ship), con lic s and c ises
(Tou nay, 2011).
I.5 Beyond he Con as be ween he Eu opean and
Ame ican Models o Spo
His o ically, wo con as ing models ha e domina ed wo ld spo : he Olympic and
ede a ed model (IOC and IFs) and he comme cial, o - p o i model epi omised
by No h Ame ica’s powe ul p o essional leagues and ce ain in e na ional ci -
cui s (ATP/ WTA in ennis, PGA/ LPGA in gol , boxing p omo e s, UFC in MMA,
Fo mula 1, e c.). These wo models e lec he e y di e en iden i ies, mo i es
and goals o he cul u es in which hey a ose. Expe s e e o he spo - ede a ion/
IOC- domina ed model o spo as he Eu opean model8 and o he model domina ed
by comme cial in e es s as he No h Ame ican model. In he Eu opean model,
ede a ions main ain o ganic ies and solida i y be ween high- pe o mance spo
(na ional eams) and g ass oo s spo (spo o all). Howe e , hey mus also adap
o Eu opean Union law. Fo example, a Eu opean Cou o Jus ice uling on he
Eu opean Supe League, handed down on 21 Decembe 2023, allowed o he pos-
sibili y o o ganisa ions o he han UEFA unning compe i ions in ol ing Eu opean
oo ball clubs, i hey include a solida i y- like edis ibu ion o he p o i s. This uni-
a y model con as s wi h he comme cial/ libe al bu agmen ed Ame ican model,
in which he e is a clea sepa a ion be ween p o essional spo and spo ede a-
ions. These wo models also di e undamen ally in hei app oach o money and
business, as he Eu opean model is unde lain by non- p o i p inciples in which ed-
e a ions einjec any su pluses back in o hei spo , whe eas he Ame ican model
In oduc ion 7
sees spo as a ehicle o making money o sha eholde s, independen ly o g ow-
ing g ass oo s spo .
The p i a e, comme cial model has also expanded wi hin leisu e spo ( i ness,
wa e spo s, gol , ho se iding, e c.) and now compe es wi h, o e en domina es, he
non- p o i , ede a ion- un model. In addi ion, he g owing ‘Ube - isa ion’ o spo
h ough digi al echnologies (in e ne , social ne wo ks, in luence s, i ual aining
apps such as Zwi , Mycoach, e c.) may also gi e ise o al e na i e o ganisa ional
models o spo ha will eclipse he adi ional club/ ede a ion- based model.
A emp s by new geopoli ical ac o s (especially China, Russia and he Gul
S a es) o use in e na ional spo o p ojec hei so powe ha e impac ed bo h
models since he 2000s. These au ho i a ian s a es ha e c ea ed a hi d model o
spo based on spo ing so powe , in e na ional diplomacy and la ge- scale in es -
men in spo ing asse s by he s a e, so e eign weal h unds and la ge public com-
panies. This hi d model is bo h in e meshed wi h (pa ne ships/ in es men s) and
impac s (con o e sies, al e na i e compe i ion models) he wo p e ious models.
I has he powe o se iously dis up o e en o e u n he poli ical, economic and
social balances in e na ional spo cons uc ed du ing he wen ie h cen u y. Since
i s in asion o Uk aine, Pu in’s Russia also appea s o wan o es ablish a new model
o wo ld spo and o e h ow he adi ional Olympic sys em, some o whose
membe s (no ably Wo ld A hle ics) ha e openly c i icised Russia and opposed i s
pa icipa ion in he Pa is 2024 Olympic and Pa alympic Games and some majo
compe i ions owned by IFs. Russia ipos ed by c ea ing h ee new in e na ional
e en s in 2024, in i ing a hle es di ec ly and p o iding ample appea ance/ p ize
money (in con as o he Olympic/ Pa alympic Games). In i a ions will be chan-
nelled h ough he go e nmen s o coun ies which ha e no aligned hemsel es
wi h he wes e n na ions suppo ing Uk aine agains Russia. Russia’s poli ical
ins umen alisa ion o spo could sound he dea h knell o Olympic uni e salism
and exis ing in e na ional compe i ions by es ablishing a new, go e nmen - di ec ed
model ha bypasses IFs and na ional Olympic commi ees.
Hence, in e na ional spo , whose e en s p o ide a unique blend o exci emen
and pa io ism, is e ol ing in ways ha a e much mo e complex and sub le han
a simple ace- o be ween non- p o i and o - p o i , p i a e and public, indi idual
in e es and public good. The e a e wo main easons o his. Fi s , spo o ganisa-
ions a e becoming inc easingly simila due o a hyb idisa ion p ocess in which
non- p o i o ganisa ions a e aking on cha ac e is ics o o - p o i companies and
ice e sa. Second, he phenomenon o ‘coope i ion’, ha is, he need o coope a e
wi h one’s compe i o s, is homogenising spo o ganisa ions’ business models and
managemen p ac ices.
I.6 Con e gence be ween Non- P o i and Fo - P o i
Spo O ganisa ions
On one side o he spec um lie spo ’s non- p o i ede a ions and Olympic bodies;
on he o he side lie comme cial, o - p o i companies. Howe e , many non- p o i
8 In oduc ion
spo o ganisa ions ha e begun implemen ing comme cial s a egies, some imes o
he de imen o hei o iginal iden i ies, alues and objec i es. And ha ing non-
p o i s a us does no necessa ily mean ha an o ganisa ion will be exempla y in
e ms o e hics (poli ical scheming and ine ia, co up ion, mis ea men and ha -
assmen o young a hle es, ailu e o p o ec human igh s) o social esponsibili y
( acism, gende equali y, inclusi i y, sus ainabili y, clima e change). Non- p o i
spo o ganisa ions also ace c i icism o no being p o essional enough o pu sue
hei e y ambi ious socie al missions and aims, no ably he IOC’s objec i e o
‘building a be e wo ld h ough spo ’. On he o he hand, since he 2000’s p i-
a e comme cial o ganisa ions (e.g., NBA, NHL, ATP/ WTA, PGA/ LPGA) and
hei key s akeholde s ( anchises, s a playe s, sponso s, public bodies, e c.) ha e
de eloped mo e in eg a ed and mo e p o essional social esponsibili y s a egies in
esponse o socie y’s expec a ions conce ning spo ’s posi i e social impac (soli-
da i y, inclusion, educa ion).
All la ge o ganisa ions in bo h models o spo ha e become hyb id, ei he non-
p o i associa ions con olling one o mo e comme cial companies and/ o oun-
da ions o comme cial o ganisa ions con olling one o mo e ounda ions and/
o non- p o i bodies. Hence, hey now combine o - p o i and non- p o i s uc-
u es and objec i es, which cu ac oss, o a ying deg ees, h ee sphe es o legi -
imacy: associa i e (p omo ing and de ending alues and an ‘e hic’ in and h ough
spo ), public (se e he common good, a communi y, a e i o y) and comme cial
(posi ion and g ow a business wi hin a ma ke ). The c edibili y o hei ac ions has
become he key di iding line be ween non- p o i and o - p o i spo o ganisa ions
and a cen al ac o in hei success.
Acco ding o Bayle (2007), he e a e ou aspec s o his hyb idisa ion p ocess:
• The pu sui o non- inancial, socie al goals whose ocus is no o gene a e
p o i and pay di idends o sha eholde s. Such goals allow some comme -
cial spo o ganisa ions (clubs/ p o essional e en s) o egis e as social en e -
p ises, mission- led companies, o communi y en e p ises se ing hei egion
o communi y.
• The adop ion o a mixed- economy unding model combining comme cial and
non- comme cial unding, including dona ions, membe ship ees and di ec and
indi ec public subsidies.
• The combina ion o p o essional manage s and unpaid execu i es (and, in some
cases, s a p o ided by he public au ho i ies).
• Membe ship o na ional and sup ana ional egula o y sys ems (na ional spo s
con igu a ion, con inen al spo s bodies, IFs, IOC), while demanding au onomy
om na ional and sup ana ional go e nmen s (e.g., Eu opean Union).
Hyb idisa ion esul s in spo o ganisa ions’ manage ial objec i es ( o - p o i s.
non- p o i , public s. p i a e, social s. comme cial, common good s. indi idual
in e es , au onomy s. ou side in e e ence, e c.) being bo h con adic o y and, pa a-
doxically, complemen a y o ensu ing an o ganisa ion’s con inued unc ioning and
In oduc ion 9
de elopmen . Pache and San os (2013) showed ha hyb id o ganisa ions aim o
inc ease hei legi imacy by ‘selec i e[ly] coupling’ s a egies elemen s om ‘com-
pe ing ins i u ional logics’.
The ou cha ac e is ics Bayle (2007) iden i ied apply jus as much o comme -
cial en e p ises (e.g., p o essional oo ball clubs, NBA anchises, WTA ennis
ou namen s, ce ain in e na ional e en s) as hey do o IFs. Many p o essional
clubs ind i di icul o make a p o i and pay di idends o sha eholde s. This is
pa icula ly he case in Eu opean oo ball, whe e a lack o economic egula ion
has allowed playe s’ sala ies o spi al ou o con ol. Consequen ly, in es o s a ge
indi ec and/ o non- inancial bene i s (boos allied businesses, epu a ion, public
ela ions, e c.) o a emp o ob ain a e u n on hei in es men by selling all o pa
o hei s ake in he club. Ne e heless, p o essional clubs h oughou he wo ld,
and IFs ha c ea e comme cial e en s, ace g ea e p essu e han o he businesses
o oo he club o e en in i s local a ea. They mus show a commi men o se ing
hei hos communi y (social objec i e) in addi ion o se ing hei sha eholde s
( inancial objec i e) and hei spo ( edis ibu ion o e enues o g ow he spo ).
Thei legi imacy, hei exis ence and hei pe o mance model depend on his, as
his book will show.
I.7 Compe i ion, bu also Coope a ion and Mimic y
The second eason o he g owing simila i ies be ween spo o ganisa ions is hei
ecip ocal in e es s. As well as compe ing agains each o he , spo o ganisa ions
mus coope a e and c ea e pa ne ships. This need o g ea e coope a ion was
igge ed by he Olympic mo emen ’s decision, aken p io o he 1984 Olympic
Games, o abolish i s ules on ama eu ism and admi p o essional a hle es o hei
e en s. Since hen, he wo ld’s bes p o essional ennis playe s and gol e s ha e
aken pa in Olympic Games. Simila ly, No h Ame ica’s p o essional leagues
ha e allowed hei bes playe s o compe e in IF- un wo ld championships and
he Olympic Games (baske ball, oo ball and ice hockey a e on he Olympic p o-
g amme; baseball has been an in i ed Olympic spo ), al hough leagues and an-
chises ha e some imes p e en ed playe s om going o Olympic Games (e.g.,
Majo League Baseball o Tokyo 2020, Na ional Hockey League o Beijing
2022). The easons o hese p o ec ionis decisions ha e included clashes in he
spo ing calenda , COVID 19, s ando s be ween a league and an IF and indi idual
decisions by playe s and/ o clubs o p io i ise hei championship.
As ano he example, an IF may ha e o ind comp omises o main ain i s con-
ol o e a p o essional in e na ional ci cui domina ed by independen comme cial
ope a o s. This is he case in oad cycling, whose IF (Union Cyclis e In e na ionale)
has un he spo ’s mos impo an p o essional ci cui , he UCI Wo ld Tou , since
2005. In ac , he e is a la ge deg ee o po osi y be ween spo un by IFs and spo
un by comme cial spo leagues and ci cui s, as his po osi y se es he in e es s o
bo h ca ego ies o o ganisa ion. Fo No h Ame ica’s eam spo leagues, coope -
a ing wi h IFs and he Olympic Mo emen is a way o globalise hei businesses

10 In oduc ion
( ec ui ing o eign playe s ained wi hin ede a ion sys ems ou side he Uni ed
S a es, demons a ing a league’s supe io i y and ob aining global exposu e by win-
ning wo ld championships and Olympic medals). Fo ede a ions, he p esence o
s a playe s om majo p o essional eam spo leagues o indi idual- spo ci cui s
inc eases hei lagship compe i ions’ spo ing alue, media co e age and ea ning
po en ial. Thus, ela ionships be ween in e na ional spo o ganisa ions end o be
coope i i e, a he han pu ely compe i i e.
Unsu p isingly, manage ial and ma ke ing p ac ices in Olympic/ ede a ed spo
and in comme cial spo a e con e ging, especially in he case o hei spo s e en
business models. Acco ding o neo- ins i u ionalis heo y, his mimic y be ween
in e na ional spo o ganisa ions is due o he g adual homogenisa ion o in e -
na ional spo ’s go e nance, egula ion and managemen p ac ices. DiMaggio and
Powell (1983) o mula ed he concep o ins i u ional isomo phism o desc ibe
he p ocess by which p ac ices wi hin a business sec o con e ge. This p ocess is
clea ly isible in in e na ional spo , as, despi e hei di e en cul u es and objec -
i es, in e na ional spo o ganisa ions, whe he comme cial (e.g., NBA, ATP, p o-
essional oo ball clubs, No h Ame ica’s anchises) o non- p o i (e.g., IOC,
FIFA, UEFA), d aw inspi a ion om each o he ’s comme cial, ma ke ing, p o es-
sionalisa ion and social esponsibili y s a egies.
I.8 A Two- Pa P esen a ion
The i s pa o his book shows ha mos in e na ional spo o ganisa ions,
whe he ede a ions o p i a e comme cial en i ies, ope a e, ei he di ec ly o indi -
ec ly, wi hin h ee main spo s sys ems:
• The Olympic Mo emen and la ge Olympic sys em, o e which he IOC
has asse ed g ea e con ol since Thomas Bach’s elec ion as IOC p esiden
in 2013.
• A spo ’s in e na ional ecosys em, which is shaped by i s his o y and he bal-
ance o powe be ween majo s akeholde s (media, sponso s, ede a ions, a h-
le es, e en o ganise s, e c.). A spo ’s IF is no necessa ily he dominan ac o
in i s ecosys em.
• Na ional spo sys ems, which a y g ea ly ac oss he wo ld. In e na ional spo
o ganisa ions mus wo k wi h hese sys ems o posi ion hei e en s in a hos
e i o y and o inc ease pa icipa ion in hei spo . In addi ion, he go e nance
o e e y IF and egula ion o e e y spo is impac ed by some s a es’ e o s
o in luence he egula ion o ce ain spo s and majo e en s so hey se e i s
in e es s (geopoli ical, economic, media, e c.).
Pa II o he book looks a he egula ion and managemen o IFs, p o essional
eam spo s and p o essional indi idual spo s in he ligh o in e na ional spo
o ganisa ions’ in e ac ions wi h hese h ee ecosys ems. To his end, i examines
he ollowing:
In oduc ion 11
• Pe o mance managemen and pe o mance success ac o s o IFs, which wo k
closely wi h hei con inen al ede a ions and, mos impo an ly, hei NFs,
which play a i al ole in suppo ing hei clubs and indi idual membe s. IFs
and NFs a e ‘ne wo k o ganisa ions’ ha de elop spo on six ie s (global/ con-
inen al/ na ional/ egional/ in a- egional/ local).
• Di e ences in he egula ion and managemen o No h Ame ica’s and Eu ope’s
bigges p o essional eam spo leagues and clubs. These leagues and clubs ha e
adi ionally ocused on hei local ma ke s, bu hey a e inc easingly ying o
in e na ionalise hei b ands.
• The egula ion and managemen o p o essional indi idual spo s, whose spe-
ci ici ies explain no only he unc ioning o he wo ld’s majo ci cui s bu also
he s a egies o in e na ional e en o ganise s and how eli e a hle es in di e en
indi idual spo s manage hei ca ee s.
No es
1 Saudi A abia (2024) Human Righ s Wa ch. A ailable a : www.h w.o g/ mid dle- eas /
no h- a ica/ saudi- a a bia
2 Be na beu, H. (2023) Benzema, Kan é, Ramos… le plan à 20 millia ds de l’A abie saou-
di e. A ailable a : www.spo . / oo b all/ benz ema- kan e- amos- le- plan- a- 20- millia ds-
de- la a bie- saoud i e- 1038 704.sh m
3 Two e o is a acks linked o he wa in Yemen occu ed du ing he 2022 Daka ace.
4 De e , A. (2023) L’A abie Saoudi e se ê e en "plaque ou nan e" du jeu idéo mondial,
L’UsineDigi ale, 2 July. A ailable a : www.usine- digi ale. / a i cle/ l- a a bie- saoud i e- se-
e e- en- pla que- ou na n e- du- jeu- ideo- mond ial.N2138 567
5 Business Today Desk (2023) Saudi A abia Eyes up o $5- bn In es men in IPL a $30-
bn Valua ion, Says Repo , 3 No embe . A ailable a : www.busine ss o day.in/ la es / econ
omy/ s o y/ saudi- a a bia- eyes- mul i bill ion- dol la - s ake- in- ipl- ep o - 404 475- 2023- 11- 03
6 China’s s a egy also a ge s i s huge domes ic ma ke . In con as o Saudi A abia, Qa a
has ocused mo e on hos ing majo spo s e en s han on aking con ol o in e na ional
spo by buying asse s in high- p o ile spo s.
7 DiMaggio and Powell (1983) de ined an o ganisa ional ield as ‘ hose o ganiza ions
which, in he agg ega e, cons i u e a ecognized a ea o ins i u ional li e’ (p. 148).
8 A 2020 Eu opean Union esolu ion asked s a es ‘ o suppo he key ea u es o he
Eu opean spo model, which include: eedom o associa ion, a py amidal s uc u e,
open sys em o p omo ion and elega ion, g ass oo s app oach and solida i y and com-
muni y building’. I s ecommenda ions o Membe S a es included: ‘p omo ing alues
in spo and spo o ganisa ions, go e ned by undamen al p inciples such as: gende
equali y, solida i y, and espec o human igh s, acknowledging and p ese ing he spe-
ci ic na u e o spo and i s s uc u es based on olun a y ac i i y’. I also asked spo
o ganisa ions o ‘commi o inancial solida i y be ween p o essional spo and g ass oo s
spo ’. h ps:// eu - lex.eu opa.eu/ FR/ legal- con en / summ a y/ key- ea u es- o - a- eu op ean-
spo - model.h ml
Bibliog aphy
Bayle, E. (2007) ‘La eche che en managemen des o ganisa ions spo i es: obje , champ,
ni eaux d’analyse e spéci ici és des p a iques de managemen ’, Re ue In e na ionale en
Science du Spo e de l’Éduca ion Physique, 75(1), pp. 59– 81.
12 In oduc ion
Bayle. E. (2022) ‘Qa a 2022: e ou de boome ang pou la FIFA’, Le Temps, 31
Oc obe . A ailable a : www.le e mps.ch/ opini ons/ qa a - 2022- un- e ou - boome ang- i a
(Accessed: 12 Ma ch 2024).
Bayle, E. (2023) ‘A abie Saoudi e 2034: Le jeu décomplexé de la FIFA’, Le Temps, 4
Decembe . A ailable a : www.le e mps.ch/ opini ons/ ch oniq ues/ a a bie- saoud i e- 2034- le-
jeu- dec ompl exe- de- la- i a (Accessed: 12 Ma ch 2024).
Chappele , J.- L. (1991) Le Sys ème Olympique. G enoble: P esses Uni e si ai es de
G enoble.
Chappele , J.- L. (2016) Jeux Olympiques: Ra i e la Flame. Lausanne: PPUR.
Commaille, J. and Jobe , B. (2019) Les mé amo phoses de la égula ion poli ique.
Pa is: LGDJ.
DiMaggio, P. and Powell, W. (1983) ‘The I on- Cage Re isi ed: Ins i u ional isomo phism
and collec i e a ionali y in o ganiza ional ields’, Ame ican Sociological Re iew, 48(2),
pp. 147– 160.
FIFA (2022). Annual Repo . A ailable a : h ps:// publi ca i ons. i a.com/ en/ ann ual- ep
o - 2022/
Hen y, I. and Lee, P.C. (2004) ‘Go e nance and e hics in spo ’, in Beech, J. and Chadwick,
S. (eds.) The Business o Spo Managemen , London: Pea son Educa ion, pp. 25– 41.
Min zbe g, H. (1986) Le Pou oi dans les O ganisa ions. Pa is: Édi ions d’O ganisa ion.
Pache, A.C. and San os, F. (2013) ‘Inside he hyb id o ganiza ion: Selec i e coupling as
a esponse o compe ing ins i u ional logics’, Academy o Managemen Jou nal, 56(4),
pp. 972– 1001.
Tou nay, V. (2011), Sociologie des Ins i u ions, Pa is: P esses Uni e si ai es de F ance.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003462118-2
Pa I
Th ee In e connec ed
Regula o y Sys ems
In e na ional spo cu en ly has h ee in e connec ed egula o y sys ems:
• The Olympic mo emen , whose go e nance has been made mo e complex by
ecen changes in he wo ld (Chap e 1).
• Spo ecosys ems, which a e he p oduc o a spo ’s his o y and he economic
and poli ical balances o powe be ween i s s akeholde s (Chap e 2).
• Na ional spo con igu a ions, which a y g ea ly be ween coun ies bu wi h
which he wo p e ious sys ems mus in e ac .
20 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
Pu ing on he Olympic Games is no , he e o e, an end, bu a means o achie -
ing his goal. The IOC has his o ically called upon a cen al co e o pa ne s o s age
he Olympic Games, de elop spo and p omo e he Olympic alues o ‘excellence,
iendship and espec ’. NFs selec eli e a hle es o he Olympic Games acco ding
o c i e ia se ou by he spo ’s IF and depending on he quo a o a hle es i has
been alloca ed. NOCs send delega ions o a hle es o he Olympic Games, which
a e o ganised by OCOGs co- managed by he hos coun y’s spo s mo emen and
public bodies (hos ci y, hos egion, s a e) bu subjec o close IOC con ol ia i s
e e - mo e de ailed speci ica ion o he Games and i s unding alloca ions.
P o iding unding o Olympic o ganisa ions is ano he impo an aspec o he
IOC’s sys emic go e nance. Con inued g ow h in i s income om he Olympic
Games allows he IOC o keep inc easing he amoun s i edis ibu es and o claim
ha i ‘ edis ibu es 90% o i s e enue o he wide spo ing mo emen ’ (IOC
2018). These sums a e edis ibu ed o ou - yea cycles, wi h 50% going o sum-
me and win e OCOGs; 38% o NOCs, Olympic IFs and Olympic Solida i y; and
12% o he You h Olympic Games and spo ing in eg i y,7 no ably he Wo ld An i-
Doping Agency (WADA). Sky ocke ing e enues om TV igh s ha e allowed
he IOC o massi ely inc ease he sum i edis ibu es o IFs, which has isen om
$37.6 million in 1992 ($1.5 million o each o he 25 Olympic IFs) o $540 million
o he 2016/ 2020 cycle, a 14- old inc ease since 1992. Howe e , he amoun each
IF ecei es depends on c i e ia in oduced in 2004 o enable he IOC o alloca e
mo e unds o he IFs o spo s wi h he highes p o iles and g ea es ma ke ing
po en ial (a hle ics, gymnas ics, swimming) (see Table 1.2).
The a i al o new ac o s (p o essional leagues, a hle es’ unions, NGOs, social
ne wo ks, e c.) has complexi ied he Olympic sys em and inc eased he numbe o
s akeholde s he IOC mus deal wi h. Fo example, i mus pe suade p o essional
leagues, especially hose in No h Ame ica, o allow hei playe s o compe e in
he Olympic Games and wo ld championships/ cups owned by IFs. In addi ion,
he numbe o in e na ional spo s e en s ou side Olympic Games and wo ld
Table 1.2 Amoun s (Cash and Bene i s in Kind) Redis ibu ed o NOCs and
Olympic IFs
Redis ibu ed a e NOCs (million) IFs (million)
Beijing 2008 $301 $297
London 2012 $520 $520
Rio 2016 $540 $540
Tokyo 2020 $540 $540
Tu in 2006 $136 $128
Vancou e 2010 $215 $209
Sochi 2014 $199 $199
PyeongChang 2018 $215 $215
Sou ce: Adap ed om Chappele (2023).

Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 21
championships has exploded in he las 30 yea s, and he calenda now includes
innume able comme cial mul ispo e en s (e.g., X Games, GKA Big Ai Wo ld
Championships, In e na ional Fes i al o Ex eme Spo s Wo ld Se ies), non-
p o i mul ispo e en s (e.g., Wo ld Uni e si y Games,8 Wo ld Mas e s Games,
Gay Games, Asian Games, Wo ld U ban Games) and single- spo e en s (e.g.,
Ul ima e Figh ing Championships, Fo mula 1, Wo ld Su League, Red Bull
e en s, I onman). Mo eo e , mos in e na ional e en s and all o No h Ame ica’s
majo leagues (NFL, NBA, NHL, e c.) ha e adop ed global ma ke ing s a egies.
To adap o young people’s expec a ions and ensu e he Olympic Games emain
a ac i e, he IOC has added se e al new spo s o he Olympic p og amme, such
as 3×3 baske ball (added a Tokyo 2020) and kayak c oss (which will eplace a
less- spec acula slalom discipline as o Pa is 2024). Spo climbing, su ing and
ska eboa ding will s ill ha e addi ional spo s a us a he 2024 Olympic Games,
bu hey will become pa o he o icial p og amme as o 2028. These spo s, which
long saw hemsel es as pa o a coun e cul u e ou side he Olympic mo emen ,
ha e now become ins i u ionalised, ei he by se ing up a new IF (spo climbing9)
o by joining an exis ing IF (ska eboa ding10). B eaking, go e ned by Wo ld Dance
Spo , will be he ou h addi ional spo a Pa is 2024, bu i will no be p esen a
Los Angeles 2028, o which he IOC has chosen i e spo s wi h powe ul closed
leagues, no ably he NFL ( lag oo ball), MLB and Nippon P o essional Baseball
(baseball is he no. 1 spo in Japan) and he Indian P emie League (c icke , by
a India’s bigges spo ). The i e spo s chosen o Los Angeles 2028 – squash,
lac osse, lag oo ball, baseball- so ball and c icke – ypi y he Ame ican spo -
business model and in e es he IOC’s wo mos impo an ma ke s: No h Ame ica
and Asia. India is undoub edly he mos unde exploi ed ma ke o Olympic spo .
Fo example, Viacom 18 (Reliance G oup)11 ob ained he Indian media igh s o he
Tokyo 2020 and Pa is 2024 Olympic Games o jus €10 million and €15.6 million,
espec i ely, e en hough India has a popula ion o 1.4 billion and a p o essional
c icke sec o wo h $20 billion. Wi h India as a po en ial hos o he 2036
Olympic Games, hese igu es show why i is essen ial o he Olympic p og amme
o include c icke .
To make oom o h ee new spo s (Summe Olympic Games may include no
mo e han 10,500 a hle es), he IOC has educed he numbe o disciplines and a h-
le es in owing, boxing and weigh li ing, which a ac ela i ely li le media a en-
ion. This decision was a ep ie e o boxing and weigh li ing, which, along wi h
mode n pen a hlon, came close o being emo ed om he Olympic p og amme
due o hei poo go e nance and ailings in e ms o in eg i y (doping, in igh ing,
inancial p oblems). Adding h ee new spo s will inc ease he numbe o Olympic
IFs om 28 o 31, bu he new IFs will no , o he momen , ecei e IOC unding.
This was he case o he IFs o ugby and gol , whose spo s became pa o he
o icial Olympic p og amme in 2016. The 2026 Win e Olympics will see he debu
o a new ede a ion go e ning ski moun ainee ing. No edis ibu ing Olympic e -
enues o hese new spo s was a comp omise decision aken o sa is y he oldes
Olympic spo s, which did no wan o see hei alloca ions educed.
22 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
A he momen , he IOC is s ill eeling i s way wi h espec o espo s, which
ha e become immensely popula among young people. In 2021 i c ea ed he
Olympic Vi ual Se ies, b inging oge he i e ideo games simula ing cycling,
owing, baseball, sailing and mo o spo , played ia each spo ’s publishe pla -
o m, al hough he i s wo also equi e playe s o ha e a u bo aine o owing
machine. E en s a e b oadcas on he Olympic Channel (olympics.com/ / olympic-
channel). The IOC’s nex espo s ini ia i e was he Olympic Espo Week, launched
in Singapo e in June 2023, which was he i s ime he IOC acco ded he Olympic
label o an e en combining a gaming es i al, exhibi ion, compe i ions and a con-
e ence. Ne e heless, he IOC’s con inued unce ain y abou espo s is e lec ed
in he decision o include only games linked o an Olympic IF,12 e en hough hey
a e less popula han espo s’ leading games (League o Legends, Coun e - S ike,
e c.). Thomas Bach used he IOC Session in Oc obe 2023 o announce a new s ep
in he IOC’s engagemen wi h espo s, which, as he eminded delega es, a e played
by h ee billion people a ound he wo ld. Wi h his in mind, he se up an Espo s
Commission o look in o c ea ing an espo s Olympic Games in ol ing games ha
espec Olympic alues. In o he wo ds, playe s may shoo a a ge s bu no a
people.
To main ain i s leade ship o e he inc easingly complex Olympic sys em, he
IOC mus build alliances and igh o challenges o i s au ho i y. Such challenges
may e en come om inside i s g oup o co e s akeholde s, as illus a ed by i s con-
lic wi h he IFs o e i s decision no o emune a e a hle es o compe ing in he
Olympic Games and i s e usal o mee Spo Acco d’s 2015 demand o inc ease he
amoun i edis ibu es o IFs. Es ablished in 2009 o ep esen all IFs, Spo Acco d
became a powe ul coun e weigh o he IOC by s aging mul ispo e en s (e.g.,
Wo ld Beach Games, Wo ld Comba Games) and by s ongly de ending indi idual
spo ’s in e es s, bu Bach inally managed o emo e his ho n in he IOC’s side in
2017 when he succeeded in eplacing Spo Acco d wi h he Global Associa ion o
In e na ional Spo s Fede a ions (GAISF). A he end o 2022, he ob ained he dis-
solu ion o he GAISF and passed he impo an unc ion o ep esen ing IFs back
o a e amped Spo Acco d unde IOC con ol, which does no mo e han hold an
annual cong ess o IFs.
O e he las 20 yea s, eli e spo and Olympism ha e become subjec o e e -
close sc u iny om he media, NGOs, academics and he public, especially wi h
espec o in eg i y, a hle es’ well- being, human igh s and sus ainabili y. In e u n,
he IOC has ied o a oid o o e come c i icism om hese sou ces by in oducing
new egula o y mechanisms o comba doping, iolence, acism, a hle es’ psycho-
logical well- being, ma ch ixing and co up ion. To achie e his, i has had o adop
a new app oach o poli ical go e nance.
1.1.2.2 Poli ical Go e nance
Poli ical go e nance conce ns he IOC’s and Olympic mo emen ’s ela ions wi h
(in e )go e nmen al o ganisa ions: Uni ed Na ions, Eu opean Union, Council o
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 23
Eu ope, na ional go e nmen s and ci ies/ egions ha suppo spo and spo s
e en s o ganised by o icial spo s bodies. These ela ions ha e o en cen ed
a ound spo ’s di icul ela ionship wi h poli ics, epi omised by go e nmen boy-
co s o spo s e en s, go e nmen meddling in he go e nance o na ional spo s
bodies, au ho i a ian egimes using spo as a ool o so powe , and so on. A
he same ime, s aging he Olympic Games and unding o Olympic spo depend
g ea ly on spo ’s pa ne ships wi h public bodies, as mos Olympic spo s ely
hea ily on di ec and indi ec public suppo o und spo acili ies, NFs, clubs and
eli e a hle es (subsidies, help wi h building and eno a ing acili ies, p o ision o
s a , ax exemp ions, suppo wi h hi ing and p o essionalising s a ). This public
pa ne ship gi es he IOC legi imacy and allows i o nego ia e dispensa ions om
na ional laws o he Olympic Games in he o m o ax exemp ions, legisla ion
p o ec ing ede a ions and a hle es and he applica ion o ‘Olympic laws’ du ing
Olympic Games.
Also in he legal ield, he IOC es ablished he Cou o A bi a ion o Spo
(CAS) in Lausanne in 1984 o p o ide a mechanism o esol ing spo ing dispu es
wi hou exposing spo o he isks associa ed wi h na ional jus ice sys ems (slow-
ness, media co e age, cos , ailu e o unde s and he speci ici ies o spo ). All IFs,
e en FIFA, now ecognise he CAS, which has disc ee ly and e icien ly esol ed
nume ous in e nal dispu es be ween a hle es and hei ede a ions. Mos o he
cases i hea s in ol e doping (app ox. 60% o cases) and oo ball (59% o cases).
Thanks o he CAS, ew spo ing dispu es now go o na ional o sup ana ional
cou s (Eu opean Cou o Jus ice), unless hey in ol e c iminal ac s, which au o-
ma ically all wi hin he ju isdic ion o he c iminal cou s. The CAS e en holds an
ad- hoc ibunal du ing he Olympic Games. In addi ion, some coun ies ha e se
up na ional spo ibunals, alongside o he concilia ion and media ion mechanisms
o esol ing spo - ela ed dispu es.
The need o p o ec spo ’s c edibili y and a hle es’ heal h om he scou ge o
doping led he in e na ional spo mo emen o join o ces wi h na ional go e n-
men s in 1999 o es ablish a global an i- doping body (WADA) (Chappele and
Van Luijk, 2018). WADA e e s dispu es ela ing o i s Wo ld An i- Doping Code
(d awn up in 2003) o he CAS and encou ages indi idual coun ies o se up
na ional an i- doping agencies (62) and egional an i- doping agencies (14). All
hese agencies a e membe s o he iNADO ne wo k, al hough he esou ces hey
ha e a hei disposal a y g ea ly. Howe e , hese mechanisms ha e ailed o
s amp ou doping, as shown by he s a e- sponso ed doping o Russian a hle es,
no ably in Sochi 2014. Facing in ense p essu e o ake ac ion agains Russia, he
IOC suspended Russia’s NOC om he 2016, 2018, 2020 and 2022 Olympic
Games, bu hen dilu ed i s sanc ion by allowing Russian a hle es who me c i e ia
se by hei IF o compe e unde he Olympic lag. I also se up a new egula-
o y body – he In e na ional Tes ing Agency (ITA) – in 2018, o p o ide mo e
independen ( om na ional go e nmen s and IFs) an i- doping con ols in ce ain
spo s, especially hose wi h small IFs ha do no ha e well- es ablished an i-
doping sys ems. C ises ela ing o in eg i y ha e also impac ed many la ge IFs
24 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
(e.g., a hle ics, oo ball, ennis, bia hlon) and led se e al o hem o se up in e nal
in eg i y uni s since he ea ly 2020s.13 These uni s ha e a ying emi s and o en
co e o he b eaches o spo ing in eg i y, including ma ch ixing, psychological/
sexual ha assmen o a hle es, iolence, acism and co up ion, as well as doping
iola ions. The IOC’s s a egy on in eg i y is mo e agmen ed. Fo example, in
2022 i es ablished a ‘Sa e Spo ’14 uni speci ically o deal wi h he ha assmen o
a hle es. Aus alia, Denma k and Swi ze land ha e c ea ed na ional spo in eg i y
agencies o o e see all issues ela ing o in eg i y, al hough hei modes esou ces
mean hey end o ocus p ima ily on doping.
Ne e heless, nume ous cases – he bes - known being he 1995 Bosman uling –
ha e highligh ed he di icul ies ha a ise when ying o econcile spo ’s speci ic
sys em o ules and egula ions (which some specialis s call he Lex spo i a) wi h
na ional legisla ion and/ o Eu opean di ec i es. Fo example, in e na ional spo
has been unable o ee i sel om Eu opean ules ega ding he ee mo emen o
wo ke s wi hin he Eu opean Union, o spo ede a ions abusing hei dominan
ma ke posi ion in nego ia ions wi h he media (Wea he ill, 2017). Mo e ecen ly,
he Eu opean cou s ha e uled ha IFs such as he In e na ional Ska ing Union
con a ened Eu opean compe i ion law when hey used hei egula o y au onomy
o in oduce ules aimed a p e en ing p i a e ope a o s om holding ice- ska ing
compe i ions (Szyszczak, 2018). The Eu opean Cou o Jus ice (ECJ) con i med
his uling on 21 Decembe 2023.
Howe e , he IOC belie es ha spo dese es special conside a ion and has
he e o e ough ha d o pe suade in e na ional bodies (Uni ed Na ions, Eu opean
Union, Council o Eu ope) o ecognise he speci ici y o spo in in e na ional
ea ies (Nice Decla a ion in 2000 and, mos impo an ly, he 2009 T ea y o Lisbon,
whose a icle 165 gi es he EU an explici compe ence o spo and which p o-
ides he basis o a common Eu opean spo s policy). I s e o s ha e been qui e
success ul, as nume ous in e na ional esolu ions and Eu opean di ec i es now ec-
ognise spo ’s social and educa ional ole (e.g., he Eu opean Commission’s 2007
whi e pape on spo and Eu opean Pa liamen esolu ion o 23 No embe 2021 on
he EU’s spo s policy). Fu he mo e, a 2023 uling by he ECJ sugges s ha spo is
exemp om Eu ope’s an i us laws, as i ound ha UEFA had he igh o impose
legi ima e and p opo iona e sanc ions on clubs wishing o ake pa in a p ojec ed
league ‘Eu opean Supe League’, se up in compe i ion o UEFA’s Champions
League.15 Howe e , ollowing an appeal by he Supe League, he ECJ o e u ned
his decision on 21 Decembe 2023, when i uled ha FIFA’s and UEFA’s ‘ ules
on p io app o al o in e club oo ball compe i ions, such as he Supe League, a e
con a y o EU law’. This new uling opens he doo o new ac o s wishing o se
up Eu opean club compe i ions, as had al eady occu ed wi h baske ball’s ‘p i a e’
Eu oleague. Ne e heless, he ECJ also uled ha ‘i is o he Comme cial Cou ,
Mad id, o asce ain whe he hose ules migh ne e heless bene i di e en s ake-
holde s in oo ball, o example, by ensu ing a solida i y- like edis ibu ion o he
p o i s gene a ed by hose igh s’. Hence, he ECJ appea s o ha e gi en i s bless-
ing o a solida i y- based model o dis ibu ing e enues o oo ball’s s akeholde s.
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 25
Eu ope’s spo s minis e s, apa om Spain, published a join le e on 9 Feb ua y
2024, in which hey epea ed hei opposi ion o a Eu opean Supe League in he
name o ‘ he p inciples o openness’, ‘spo ing me i ’ and spo ’s ‘educa ional and
social unc ions’.
The main aim o he Olympic mo emen ’s poli ical s a egy, suppo ed by
in ense lobbying (mos ly by he IOC and UEFA owa ds he Eu opean Union) and
a la ge legal a senal, is o p o ec he Eu opean model o spo and i s widely ec-
ognised posi i e impac s in a eas such as educa ion, heal h and social inclusion.
This s a egy has gi en ise o wo amewo ks o p o ec ing spo ’s in eg i y: he
Council o Eu ope’s Con en ion on he Manipula ion o Spo s Compe i ions,
a i ied in 2014, and he IOC’s Code on he P e en ion o he Manipula ion o
Compe i ions, adop ed in Decembe 2015. The IOC con inued down his pa h in
2017 when i launched he In e na ional Pa ne ship Agains Co up ion in Spo ,
whose aim is ‘ o b ing oge he in e na ional spo s o ganisa ions, go e nmen s,
in e - go e nmen al o ganisa ions and o he ele an s akeholde s o s eng hen
and suppo e o s o elimina e co up ion’.16 In 2009, he Uni ed Na ions Gene al
Assembly acco ded he IOC obse e s a us, which allows i o con ibu e di ec ly
o Uni ed Na ions p og ammes and o p omo e spo o na ional go e nmen s.
Howe e , public au ho i ies ha e begun placing mo e explici condi ions on hese
symbolic, poli ical and legal in e na ional ecogni ions, mos no ably by equi ing
in e na ional and na ional spo ins i u ions o con inually imp o e hei o ganisa-
ional go e nance.
1.1.2.3 (‘Good’) O ganisa ional Go e nance
The IOC, a no - o - p o i o ganisa ion unde Swiss law, has a e y speci ic o m
o o ganisa ional go e nance because i is a closed club wi h a maximum o 115
membe s (99 ac i e membe s in 2023) who a e co- op ed by exis ing membe s.
These membe s mee a he IOC’s annual gene al mee ing, known as he Session,
whose main powe s a e o app o e annual epo s, choose hos ci ies o he
Olympic Games (summe , win e and you h) and elec he IOC’s p esiden . The
IOC is un by i s p esiden , who has had an execu i e ole since 1980, in con-
junc ion wi h a 15- membe Execu i e Boa d (equi alen o a boa d o di ec o s)
ha includes 4 ice p esiden s. Twen y- nine commissions (e.g., A hle es, Public
A ai s and Co po a e Communica ions, Olympic P og amme), composed o
expe s and IOC membe s, ad ise he Session, Execu i e Boa d and/ o p esiden
on speci ic issues.
Day- o- day ope a ions a e ca ied ou by he IOC Adminis a ion, which has
become much mo e p o essional since he 2000s and now employs almos 1,000
pe manen s a (Chappele , 2022). App oxima ely 100 o hese employees wo k a
Olympic B oadcas Se ices’ headqua e s in Mad id o he Olympic web TV chan-
nel (OCS), which he IOC se up in 2016 o b oadcas a chi e oo age o Olympic
compe i ions and p e- Olympic ou namen s. Huge inc eases in he adminis a ion’s
pay oll, and especially i s di ec o s’ sala ies,17 ha e aised ques ions abou whe he

26 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
i s ill o e s good alue o money. Al hough he IOC has unde aken o keep he
cos o unning i s head o ice o below 10% o i s e enues, he ac ual pe cen age
appea s o be much highe han his.18
The IOC’s o ganisa ional go e nance wo ks on he p inciple ha he co- op ed
membe s elec ed o he Execu i e Boa d19 un he ins i u ion, i s sala ied man-
age s implemen he boa d’s policies and he Session con ols he esul s h ough
annual ac i i y and inancial epo s, which ha e become mo e de ailed and mo e
anspa en since 2014. NOCs, IFs, con inen al ede a ions and NFs ha e simila
go e nance s uc u es.
The scandal ha e up ed ollowing e ela ions o co up ion in he a ibu ion o
he 2002 Olympic Games o Sal Lake Ci y was a u ning poin in he IOC’s o gan-
isa ional go e nance (Chappele , 2001). Facing in ense poli ical and media p es-
su e, he IOC’s ‘ins i u ional ipos e’ (Rayne , 2007) was o make majo changes
o i s go e nance, based on he ecommenda ions o a specially con ened ‘IOC
2000 Commission’. These e o ms included educing he age limi o IOC mem-
be s om 80 yea s o 70 yea s and changing he composi ion o i s membe ship
o include 15 Olympic IF p esiden s, 15 NOC p esiden s and 15 a hle es. A hle es
may se e o a maximum o eigh yea s; Olympic IF and NOC p esiden s se e
un il he end o hei e ms as p esiden s. This new ule changed he social makeup
o he IOC’s membe ship, which became much younge , mo e eminine (38 o
he 99 membe s in 2023 we e women) and mo e di ec ly connec ed o he wo ld
o in e na ional spo . The g ea e u no e in membe s (45 membe s a e elec ed
o jus eigh yea s) also made i mo e di icul o he IOC’s p esiden o con ol
he o ganisa ion’s membe ship. IOC p esidencies a e now es ic ed o one eigh -
yea e m ollowed by a ou - yea e m i a p esiden is e- elec ed. The e o ms
also included in oducing a code o e hics o e seen by an e hics commission.
Howe e , his commission has no been e y p oac i e in sanc ioning b eaches
o e hics, including hose commi ed by IOC membe s, as he bes - known IOC
membe s ain ed by co up ion (J. Bla e and J. Ha elange a FIFA, L. Diack a he
In e na ional Associa ion o A hle ics Fede a ions and H. Ve b uggen a he Union
Cyclis e In e na ionale) esigned as IOC membe s o a oid being sanc ioned by he
commission.20
When Thomas Bach ook o e as IOC p esiden in 2013, he IOC aced nume ous
con en ious issues ha h ea ened o weaken i s posi ion and o e u n he poli -
ical balances wi hin spo and he Olympic mo emen . When esponding o hese
issues, Bach showed himsel o be a mas e o ealpoli ik, adap ing his app oach o
each se o ci cums ances.
1.1.3 Thomas Bach’s Realpoli ik App oach o Risk
Managemen
Du ing his 21- yea enu e as IOC p esiden ( om 1980 o 2001), Juan- An onio
Sama anch o e saw a e i able e olu ion in he Olympic Games ha ook hem
a om Coube in’s o iginal ideals and u ned hem in o a global b and (Mille ,
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 27
1993). When Jacques Rogge ook o e om Sama anch in 2001, he mos p ess-
ing issues acing he IOC conce ned spo ’s in eg i y and e hics, along wi h he
inc easing use o spo o p ojec a na ion’s so powe , especially by he BRICS
coun ies and Gul S a es. By he ime Rogge made way o Thomas Bach, a lawye
by aining and an Olympic gold medallis in encing, Olympism was acing a
c isis o legi imacy, as we e o he majo ins i u ions ( eligion, democ acy, e c.) in
many Wes e n coun ies. Bach adop ed a p agma ic, ealpoli ik app oach o add ess
his c isis, which had a isen due o he conjunc ion o se e al p oblema ical issues:
• Public scep icism in Wes e n coun ies abou hos ing he Olympic Games, espe-
cially he Win e Olympics (‘no’ o es p e ailed in 18 o he 31 e e endums on
whe he o bid o he Win e Olympic Games be ween 1968 and 2022 and in
se e al e e endums on he Summe Olympic Games – Chappele 2021).
• The igh o p o ec spo ’s in eg i y (doping, ma ch ixing, co up ion by in e -
na ional spo leade s, physical and psychological well- being o eli e a hle es)
and new issues such as how he Olympic wo ld should emb ace LGBTQI+
a hle es.
• The ins umen alisa ion o spo by au oc a ic coun ies and ailu es o majo
in e na ional compe i ions o espec human igh s.21
• Geopoli ical ques ions such as whe he o appoin spo leade s om au ho i-
a ian and non- democ a ic coun ies o posi ions o powe and how o espond
o Pu in’s Russia ( he wa in Uk aine) and i s use o spo (s a e- sponso ed
doping, in en ion o hos h ee in e na ional spo s e en s in 2024: he Fu u e
Games, a ‘phygi al ou namen ’ combining physical and digi al compe i ions) in
Feb ua y/ Ma ch; he BRICS Games in June; and he Wo ld F iendship Games
in Sep embe , which hope o a ac a leas 70 coun ies, including membe s o
he Shanghai Coope a ion O ganisa ion.22
• C i icisms o majo spo s e en s’ impac on he clima e and hei lack o en i -
onmen al sus ainabili y.
• Compe i ion om new o ms o spo s and om spo s ou side he Olympic
mo emen (e.g., espo s, mixed ma ial a s, ou doo spo s, ex eme spo s,
su i al spo s).
• Beha iou s o gene a ions Z (bo n be ween 1997 and 2010) and alpha (bo n
a e 2010) cha ac e ised by hei use o i ual pla o ms and hei less- ac i e
li es yles, which may p esage majo public heal h p oblems (Moun joy e al.,
2019; WHO, 2021). These younge gene a ions ha e e y di e en ways o con -
suming spec a o spo : Acco ding o a 2023 epo by he Capgemini Resea ch
Ins i u e (‘A Whole New Ball Game’), 77% o gene a ion- Z esponden s and
75% o gene a ion- Y esponden s said hey p e e wa ching spo ou side spo s
enues, compa ed wi h 32% o people o e he age o 70.
Bach’s esponses o hese issues in ol ed as u e isk managemen based on assess-
ing when and wi h whom he IOC could ake a o ce ul posi ion and when i
needed o adop a mo e concilia o y app oach. He s enuously de ended he IOC’s
28 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
posi ion, using a gumen s based on wo main p emises – ‘ esponsible au onomy
h ough good go e nance’ (Bach, 2013) and he bene i s spo and Olympism b ing
o socie y. Howe e , bo h o hese p emises a e open o ques ion.
1.1.3.1 Responsible Au onomy h ough Good Go e nance
Bach i s used he exp ession ‘ esponsible au onomy h ough good go e nance’
in a speech he ga e o he Uni ed Na ions in 2013, sho ly a e being elec ed IOC
p esiden . The ollowing yea , he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly passed a eso-
lu ion suppo ing spo ’s independence and au onomy and he IOC’s leade ship o
he Olympic mo emen . He e, au onomy signi ies he igh o spo o ganisa ions
o be sel - go e ning and sel - egula ing and ee om in e e ence om go e n-
men s and o he ex e nal ac o s, including p i a e inance s (sponso s, b oadcas -
e s), as se ou in A icle 5 o he Olympic Cha e :
O ganisa ions wi hin he Olympic mo emen shall apply poli ical neu ali y.
They ha e he igh s and obliga ions o au onomy, which include eely es ab-
lishing and con olling he ules o spo , de e mining he s uc u e and go e n-
ance o hei o ganisa ions, enjoying he igh o elec ions ee om any ou side
in luence and he esponsibili y o ensu ing ha p inciples o good go e nance
be applied.
This de ini ion o au onomy may ha e meaning and alue in democ a ic s a es,
bu i is much mo e di icul , i no impossible, o apply in au ho i a ian coun-
ies whe e eedom o exp ession is ei he non- exis en o highly es ic ed. In
many cases, he spo mo emen is subjec o poli ical con ol, as i s leade s a e
appoin ed by he s a e, a e se ing poli icians o a e placed unde go e nmen con-
ol, as Ga cia and Meie (2022) showed wi h espec o na ional spo go e nance
in de eloping coun ies in he Global Sou h. Some coun ies’ NOCs a e led by he
coun y’s p esiden (Aze baijan, Gul S a es) o he minis e o spo (some com-
munis coun ies).
The IOC embodied he concep o esponsible au onomy in h ee new go e nance
and managemen p inciples in oduced ollowing Bach’s elec ion as IOC p esi-
den : announce clea s a egic lines o he IOC and Olympic mo emen ; solidi y
he business model; and be e con ol and epo i s ac ions in a global spi i o
g ea e anspa ency, e icaci y and social esponsibili y (Bayle, 2016). Bach se
ou his ision o he Olympic mo emen ’s u u e de elopmen in wo s a egic
oad maps – Agenda 2020 (40 s a egic ecommenda ions), published in 2014, and
Agenda 2020+ 5 (15 ecommenda ions), published in 2021. The IOC claims o ha e
implemen ed 88% o he 40 ecommenda ions o 2014– 2021. Howe e , he IOC
elies on IFs and NOCs o implemen i s ecommenda ions and no all IFs and
NOCs ha e he esou ces o implemen hem e ec i ely.
Bach and his eams nex ocused on consolida ing he IOC’s business model and
ensu ing he ‘balanced’ edis ibu ion o an e e - la ge p opo ion o i s e enues
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 29
o key s akeholde s wi hin he Olympic amily (OCOGs, NOCs, IFs). Bach’s con-
ce n was ha he IOC s ill elies on Olympic Games b oadcas ing igh s o 60%
o i s e enues, a la ge p opo ion o which comes om he Uni ed S a es due o
he huge sums US ne wo ks pay o b oadcas ing igh s (NBC paid $7.65 billion
o he pe iod 2020– 2032). In addi ion, wo- hi ds o he IOC’s 15 TOP sponso s
a e Wes e n companies, so i ob ains 80% o i s e enues om he Wes , despi e
he mul i- pola na u e o oday’s wo ld and he Uni ed S a es’ educed domin-
ance. Media igh s om o he pa s o he wo ld ha e inc eased, bu hey a e s ill
modes (Table 1.1) compa ed wi h he IOC’s Ame ican con ac . Fo example,
he Aus alian media g oup Nine En e ainmen paid jus $191 million o 2024–
2032, e en hough his pe iod includes an edi ion o he Olympic Games (B isbane
2032) in he b oadcas e ’s home e i o y. Desc ibing his sum as ‘s agge ingly
low’, Olympic business expe Pa ick Nally u ged he IOC o ‘ ein en ’ i s ‘age-
ing’ business model (Nally, 2023). Ne e heless, he IOC gene a es su icien e -
enues o spend almos $200 million on a new headqua e s in Lausanne ha opened
in 2019.
Mo es o g adually consolida e i s business model, while emaining dependen
on Ame ican inance and he NBC con ac in a con ex o alling audiences, ha e
been accompanied by a emp s o secu e he Olympic Games’ geopoli ical pos-
i ion. Bach’s i s mo es in his espec we e designed o p o ec he Olympic
Games’ epu a ion, which had been a nished by he con o e sy o e a ibu ing
he e en o au ho i a ian egimes (Beijing 2008 and 2022, Sochi 2014) and by
poli ical p oblems and/ o accusa ions o co up ion (Rio 2016 and Tokyo 2020),
which also a ec ed ecen Foo ball Wo ld Cups (B azil 2014, Qa a 2022). Unlike
FIFA, which con inued o a ibu e i s lagship compe i ion o au ho i a ian coun-
ies (Russia 2018, Qa a 2022), he IOC has a ibu ed all o hcoming edi ions
o he Olympic Games o Wes e n coun ies o democ acies. Al hough FIFA has
a ibu ed he 2026 and 2030 Wo ld Cups o democ a ic coun ies, i did so in a
way ha opened he doo o Saudi A abia, i s new poli ical and inancial pa ne ,
o hos he 2034 ou namen . Thus, he Uni ed S a es and i s Canadian and Mexican
pa ne s will hos he 2026 Wo ld Cup, bu he cen ena y Wo ld Cup in 2030 will be
spli be ween h ee con inen s (A ica, Eu ope and Sou h Ame ica) and six coun-
ies (Mo occo, Spain and Po ugal, which will hos mos o he ma ches, bu wi h
h ee ma ches played in U uguay, A gen ina and Pa aguay).
Pa adoxically, he pauci y o candida es o he o hcoming Olympic Games has
made i easie o he IOC o a ibu e he e en o democ a ic coun ies, as, o he
i s ime in i s his o y, in 2017 a single IOC Session was able o a ibu e wo edi-
ions o he Summe Games, which wen o Pa is (2024) and Los Angeles (2028).
This mo e was pa o a new ‘win- win’ a ionale ( o he IOC and o candida e ci -
ies) aimed a a oiding wha And e (2012) called ‘ he cu se o he winning bid’.23
Simila easoning, and he oppo uni y o awa d he Games o ano he Wes e n
coun y, led he IOC o a ibu e he 2032 Summe Olympics ( o B isbane) many
yea s in ad ance,24 wi hou in i ing o he bids. This ocus on he Wes is eassu ing
o he IOC’s Wes e n s akeholde s ( espec o human igh s, bid quali y, use o
36 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
Table 1.3 S a egic Responses o Ins i u ional P ocesses
S a egies Tac ics Examples Applied o he IOC
Acquiescence Adap Adap o
in isible
no ms, aken
as gi en
Socie al changes (gende equali y,
disabili ies, di e si y, e c.)
Imi a e Mimic
ins i u ional
models
UN’s 2030 sus ainable
de elopmen goals
E hical con o mi y p ac ices used by
mul ina ional companies
Submi Follow ules
and accep
no ms
Bach’s slogan: ‘Change o be
changed’
Accep Eu opean law bu demand
ecogni ion o he speci ici y
o spo (mobilising poli ical
suppo )
Comp omise Balance Balance he
expec a ions
o nume ous
s akeholde s
Redis ibu e Olympic e enues
o OCOGs, IFs, NOCs
( edis ibu ion scale)
Appease Appease
ins i u ional
s akeholde s
Olympic T uce du ing Olympic
and Pa alympic Games (a med
con lic )
CAS ( esol e legal dispu es mo e
quickly, disc ee ly and e icien ly
han na ional cou s)
In ol e go e nmen s in he igh
agains doping (WADA)
Nego ia e Nego ia e wi h
ins i u ional
s akeholde s
S a es/ go e nmen s o o ganising
Olympic Games (applica ion o
‘Olympic law’)
A oidance Hide Non-
con o mi y
Do no apply he Basic Uni e sal
P inciples o Good Go e nance
(2009) o good go e nance
measu es o IFs (ASOIF, 2016)
No eal suppo o coe cion om
he IOC on his issue
Cushion Relax
ins i u ional
ies
Accep media/ inancial demands
( iming o some e en s a
OlympicGames imposed by NBC,
e.g., o swimming e en s a
Tokyo 2020)
Re use o compensa e a hle es bu
elax ules on indi idual image
igh s
Flee Change
objec i es,
ac i i y, o
ield
Na ional jus ice sys ems (‘don’
wash he di y laund y in public’
by c ea ing a spo s jus ice sys em
and by sel - egula ion ia an
in e nal e hics commission)

Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 37
and Pa alympic Games, so hey need he IOC and Olympic mo emen , e en i
hese ins i u ions a e impe ec (as a e poli ics and business). Spo is doing i s
bes and ying o imp o e, e en i i is on a small scale. Olympism and spo ha e
bene icial impac s in nume ous ields, including educa ion, inclusion and heal h,
and a e he e o e essen ial o socie y. Because he Olympic mo emen is ounded
on democ a ic, non- p o i p inciples and on olun ee ism, Olympism is a com-
mon good o socie y and humani y.28 Nei he o al p i a isa ion o spo no o al
s a e con ol would be in socie y’s in e es . The o me would isk excluding many
people om spo ; he la e would equi e massi e public in es men o ensu e
S a egies Tac ics Examples Applied o he IOC
De iance Igno e Igno e no ms
and explici
alues
Public opinion and NGOs (human
igh s and sus ainabili y,
depending on he coun ies
hos ing Olympic and Pa alympic
Games)
Challenge Dep eca e
p ac ices and
demands
Denounce some o ms o poli ical
in e e ence (bu accep o he s)
in he name o spo ’s au onomy
and poli ical neu ali y
A ack A ack
sou ces o
ins i u ional
p essu e
Manoeu e o dissol e Spo Acco d
(2017) and hen he GAISF
(2022) – IF umb ella bodies and
his o ic coun e weigh s o he IOC
Manipula ion Co- op Inco po a e
in o
in luen ial
bodies
New IOC membe s (ex e nal
lobbying/ in e nal geopoli ical
balance) and new Olympic spo s
(a ac young people and new
ma ke s, especially India, China
and Indonesia)
In e na ional Tes ing Agency
(independen an i- doping body)
In luence In luence
alues and
c i e ia
My hs ela ing o he Olympic
Games’ o igins and hei e i al by
Coube in
Ideology a ound he uni e sal
na u e o Olympic alues and
hei e ec s
Con ol Domina e
aspec s o
socie y and
ins i u ional
p ocesses
Olympic Cha e (cons i u ional
amewo k)
Posi ion he Olympic b and as a
socially esponsible b and
Agendas 2020 and 2020+ 5 (s a egic
oadmaps o he Olympic
mo emen )
Sou ce: Adap ed om Oli e (1991).
Table 1.3 (Con inued)
38 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
e e yone has access o spo . E e yone, especially na ional and in e na ional poli -
ical leade s, mus keep hese h ea s in mind.
So a , he en i e wo ld has gene ally accep ed his his o ically cons uc ed
sys em o belie s and meanings, which Bach and his communica ion eams
p omo e. IFs and NFs push his message in e na ionally and na ionally, wi h
UEFA lobbying pa icula ly ha d o implan i wi hin he Eu opean Union.
These e o s ha e enabled he IOC o hold on o i s igh o sel - egula ion in
many a eas.
Since 2014, he IOC has used speeches and documen s, combined wi h
decoupling p ac ices on issues such as ‘good’ go e nance, sus ainabili y and
in eg i y, o build a social meaning a ound a new o m o IOC- led egula ion
o he Olympic sys em. I has ied o homogenise he Olympic o ganisa ional
ield’s p ac ices,29 despi e ha ing nei he he capaci y no he means o impose
i s will on Olympic IFs and NOCs, which con inue o be e y a ied in hei
unc ioning and p o essionalisa ion. Mo eo e , in he name o espec ing IFs’
and NOCs’ au onomy, he IOC e uses o become in ol ed in hei go e nance
and unc ioning. Ins ead, i elies on ins i u ional isomo phism (Dimaggio and
Powell, 1983) o con e ge and homogenise he beha iou s o IFs, NOCs and
e en OCOGs. Dimaggio and Powell (1983) iden i ied h ee ypes o ins i u ional
isomo phism, all o which can be seen in he IOC’s ac ions owa ds he Olympic
sys em’s co e o ganisa ions:
• No ma i e isomo phism, which can occu ia inc eased p o essionalisa ion
b ough abou by he e enues he IOC edis ibu es and by in e - o ganisa ional
s a mobili y be ween OCOGs, IFs, NOCs, he IOC and p o essional Olympic
expe s, s eng hened by associa ions o p o essional spo manage s.30
P o essionalisa ion is also ed by IOC- app o ed spo managemen aining
o ganisa ions and p og ammes, such as he In e na ional Olympic Academy,
AISTS31 and MEMOS.32 The IOC o en ec ui s senio manage s and s a om
hese p og ammes.33
• Mime ic isomo phism: he copying o good go e nance, sus ainabili y and
in eg i y p ac ices. Olympic o ganisa ions may imi a e o he Olympic o gani-
sa ions, in e na ional bodies (e.g., UN amewo ks on sus ainabili y, e ugees,
e c.) and he IOC’s mul ina ional pa ne s (e.g., e hical con o mi y p ac ices).
• Coe ci e isomo phism: o mal and in o mal poli ical p essu e by he IOC ia
he Olympic Cha e and Olympic e enue edis ibu ion c i e ia.
Faced wi h he g ea he e ogenei y in Olympic o ganisa ions’ p o essionalism,
he IOC add esses p oblems, inconsis encies and c ises as hey a ise. I s s a egy
ends o be e y lexible, allowing i o bend o poli ical eali ies, which some-
imes in ol es side- s epping sensi i e in e na ional issues by lea ing IFs o make
hei own decisions. The IOC has aken his app oach wi h espec o Russia’s
s a e- sanc ioned doping (allowing each IF o se i s own c i e ia o ein eg a ing
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 39
Russian a hle es a e he Rio Olympics), in e sex and ansgende a hle es, and
he wa in Uk aine (allowing Russian a hle es o compe e unde ce ain condi-
ions bu gi ing each IF he powe o e o o i s spo . Wo ld A hle ics is he
only spo o ha e used his e o). This esul s in IFs aking di e en posi ions,
p e en ing Olympic spo s om speaking wi h a single oice and leading o
inconsis encies. Fo example, he In e na ional Fencing Fede a ion disquali ied
a Uk ainian compe i o om i s 2023 wo ld championships because she e used
o shake hands wi h he Russian opponen . The IOC immedia ely called on he
ede a ion o e oke he sanc ion and allow his a hle e o quali y o he 2024
Olympic Games. E en Uk aine adop ed a less- igid s ance in he summe o 2023
by no longe asking Uk ainian a hle es o boyco all compe i ions in ol ing
Russian a hle es.
This is why he IOC’s ins i u ional wo k can be desc ibed as a balancing ac
in which i mus manage he pa adoxes and con adic ions ha a ise om he
nume ous e hical dilemmas acing educa ional and humanis mo emen s such as
Olympism: business e sus ‘pu i y’ o Olympic alues; eli e spo ing pe o mance
e sus in eg i y o compe i ions e sus a hle e heal h; exempla i y o leade s e sus
con lic s o in e es and co up ion; spo ’s poli ical neu ali y e sus geopoli ical
ins umen alisa ion; au onomy o spo e sus poli ical in e e ence in spo , he
Uni ed Na ion’s uni e sal human igh s and Olympic humanism e sus a ibu ing
Olympic Games o au ho i a ian egimes guil y o human igh s abuses and so
on. Ha dy and Magui e (2008) iden i ied h ee possible s a es o o ganisa ional
ields: eme ging, s able ma u e and ma u e in c isis. Olympism can be conside ed
a ma u e ield in c isis, a ca ego y cha ac e ised by con adic ions and s uggles
be ween ac o s. Challenges o p ac ices and o ms augu a possible decline and
a p ocess o de- ins i u ionalisa ion ollowed by ins i u ional inno a ion and e-
ins i u ionalisa ion (Zie sma and Law ence, 2010). Using ins i u ional en ep e-
neu ship o a i m i s leade ship lea es he IOC open o c i icism and inc eases he
p essu e i aces o con o m o social no ms, which es ic s i s abili y o ac eely.
This is why i ends o eac o changes in socie y, a he han aking p oac i e
measu es o lead socie al change.
O he ypes o social e alua ion, no ably an o ganisa ion’s s a us (posi ion in
a hie a chy o o ganisa ions), i s epu a ion (an indica o o he quali y o i s se -
ices/ p oduc s) and whe he i is s igma ised o subjec o public disapp o al (see
Roule , 2019) also impac an o ganisa ion’s legi imacy. This aises he ques ions
o whe he hese posi i e and nega i e social e alua ions e ec an o ganisa ion’s
pe o mance and whe he hey a e linked o and consis en wi h i s social espon-
sibili y (Bayle, 2016) and sus ainabili y (Moon, Bayle and F ançois, 2021) s a -
egies. Adop ing a s a egic managemen pe spec i e, Ben Slimane and Leca (2014)
d ew up a amewo k combining he esou ce- based iew ( esou ces/ compe encies
equi ed o build a compe i i e ad an age) and he concep o ins i u ional wo k.
Thei amewo k shows how ac o s in a ield use ou key ins i u ional compe encies
(unde s anding he en i onmen ; cons uc ion o jus i ica ions and a ionalisa ion;
40 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
mobilisa ion o poli ical suppo ; mobilisa ion o ma e ial esou ces) o de elop
ins i u ional esou ces and capaci ies ha a e i al o s ee ing he o ganisa ion’s
legi imacy. Applying his amewo k o he IOC shows ha i s p ime eason o
de ending i s legi imacy is o ensu e i s economic pe o mance.
A mo e undamen al ques ion is o de e mine he main objec i e o he IOC’s
ins i u ional wo k. Is i o main ain he IOC’s and Olympic mo emen ’s cu en
posi ion, and ha o i s indi idual ac o s (leade s, di ec o s, e c.), o is i o gi e
ins i u ional and Olympic spo a new place (‘ ision’) in socie y? This ques ion
ouches no only on he u u e o spo s policies bu also on spo ’s ole in socie y.
Fo Olympic spo o achie e i s socie al objec i es, he IOC mus wo k wi h i s
ne wo k o co e pa ne s.
1.2 The IOC’s Co e Pa ne s
The IOC’s co e pa ne s – IFs, NOCs, OCOGs, a hle es and NGOs – o m a e y
he e ogeneous g oup whose membe s do no necessa ily ha e he same in e -
es s. IFs and NOCs di e g ea ly in size and esou ces and ha e di e ing aims
depending on he na u e o hei spo (IFs) o spo ’s place wi hin hei coun y
(NOCs). A he same ime, he way he Olympic Games is s aged is e ol ing in
line wi h hos go e nmen s’ in e es s and in esponse o inc easing demands om
a hle es and s onge c i icism om NGOs.
1.2.1 In e na ional Fede a ions
Mos IFs a e un as non- p o i associa ions34 and a e based in Swi ze land, whe e
hey enjoy exemp ions om income and weal h axes, especially in he Vaud
can on, home o he IOC’s headqua e s.35 They a e he gua dians o hei spo ’s
ules and esponsible o i s g ow h. The IOC ecognises wo ca ego ies o IFs –
hose whose spo (o ce ain disciplines) a e on he Olympic Games p og amme
(32 IFs o Pa is 2024 and 8 IFs o Milan- Co ina 2026) and hose whose spo
could be added o he Olympic p og amme (e.g., squash, ka a e, o ien ee ing).
The 40 IFs in his la e ca ego y o m he Associa ion o Recognised In e na ional
Spo Fede a ions. In 1982, he Olympic IFs came oge he o o m he ASOIF and
he Associa ion o Win e Olympic In e na ional Fede a ions (AWOIF).
The numbe o in e na ional e en s c ea ed and ma ke ed by Olympic IFs has
inc eased g ea ly o e he las 50 yea s. Acco ding o he ASOIF, in 1975 he 25
summe Olympic IFs an 160 e en s, whe eas in 2013 he 28 summe Olympic IFs
an 216 e en s. Mo e ecen igu es show ha he 28 summe Olympic IFs and 7
win e Olympic IFs an 351 wo ld championships and in e na ional ci cui s in 2020.
In cycling, o example, he Union Cyclis e In e na ionale’s (UCI) Wo ld Tou com-
p ises 35 e en s and i s calenda includes a ound 1,500 aces, whose o ganise s pay
a ee o he UCI. Gene ally, li le is known abou how IFs a e un, in con as o NFs,
whose legal amewo ks and unding a e o en con olled by he s a e.
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 41
IFs ha e g ea ly expanded hei comme cial ac i i ies and e enues since he
2000s, no ably by ma ke ing hei wo ld championships, which has made i pos-
sible and necessa y o hem o ec ui p o essional s a . In ac , many IFs ha e
se up companies, some imes in conjunc ion wi h comme cial pa ne s, o be e
manage hei comme cial ac i i ies (e icien go e nance, p o essional expe ise,
e c.). The speed and in ensi y o his p o essionalisa ion a y acco ding o an IF’s
size and si ua ion. FIFA, he wo ld’s la ges IF, inc eased i s pay oll om 13 s a
in 1975 o 250 s a in 2003, a ound 450 s a in 2015 and mo e han 800 s a in
2023. UEFA’s expansion since he beginning o he wen y- i s cen u y has been
e en mo e spec acula , wi h employee numbe s ising om 105 in 2003 o 780 in
2023. Simila ly, he UCI’s pay oll has inc eased om jus 3 s a in 1992, when
Hein Ve b uggen became p esiden , o 55 s a a he end o his e m in 2005 and
o 111 s a in 2023.36 O he IFs ha ha e subs an ially inc eased hei pay olls,
albei on a smalle scale, include he Fédé a ion In e na ionale de Hockey (14 paid
s a in 2010, 36 paid s a in 2015), Wo ld Rowing (3 paid s a in 1992, 19 paid
s a in 2015) and Uni ed Wo ld W es ling (10 paid s a in 2012, 24 paid s a in
2015). Howe e , i is di icul o assess he p o essionalisa ion o he compe encies
o elec ed execu i es and olun ee s on IFs’ boa ds and commissions because hese
appoin men s depend as much on poli ics as on an indi idual’s compe encies and
a ailable ime.
The p o essionalisa ion o IFs is linked o hei abili y o a ac ex e nal e -
enues (g ow h in media igh s, ees paid by hos coun ies/ ci ies, sponso ship om
ma ke ing hei wo ld championships), inc eases in hei IOC unding and hei
in e nal managemen s a egies (leade ship and specialisa ion and s anda disa-
ion needs linked o he di e si ica ion o asks and ac i i ies: ma ke ing, sus-
ainabili y, an i- doping, digi al communica ion, e c.). Fo example, FIFA’s income
om Wo ld Cup media igh s ose om $110 million in 1994 o $2.4 billion in
2014 and $3.4 billion in 2022. As ano he example, al hough he IOC began edis-
ibu ing e enues in 1992, i was no un il 2012 ha he sums in ol ed became
la ge enough o allow small IFs o ec ui signi ican numbe s o p o essional
s a (see Table 1.4). Th ee o he ac o s ha e pushed IFs o inc ease hei ech-
nical expe ise o e he las ew yea s: he de elopmen o and h ough spo ( ia
solida i y p og ammes o hei na ional ede a ions), he igh o p o ec spo ’s
in eg i y and he need o ha ness digi al echnologies (e.g., Facebook, Twi e ,
Ins ag am, YouTube and o e - he- op b oadcas ing o compe i ions) o build an
communi ies and associa ed ma ke ing oppo uni ies. Indeed, IFs now compe e
o build he la ges possible an base, as his is one o he c i e ia he IOC uses
o de e mine an IF’s sha e o edis ibu ed Olympic e enues. These c i e ia also
include he ex en o which an IF applies he IOC’s good go e nance p inciples,
i s ac ions o g ow i s spo and i s con ibu ion o he Olympic Games’ popula i y
and economic success (e.g., icke sales, ele ision audience). In e nally, i is an
IF’s leade s who decide whe he o s a o accele a e a p o essionalisa ion p o-
cess. P esiden s and/ o gene al manage s d aw up and implemen managemen

42 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
ools such as s a egic plans, comme cial and ma ke ing s a egies, digi al s a -
egies and a s a egy o g owing he spo a ound he wo ld. To his end, hey
ec ui expe s om inside and ou side spo o mee new demands (e.g., commu-
nica ion, legal, human esou ces, comme cial) and o u he op imise ac i i ies
likely o inc ease e enues, such as ma ke ing and e en s. This specialisa ion o
unc ions has complexi ied IFs’ o ganisa ional s uc u es and led o a need o
s anda disa ion.
E e - inc easing e enues om TV igh s and con inued g ow h in he sums
edis ibu ed om he Olympic Games ha e impac ed e e y IF’s business model
and esou ce s uc u e. The o al amoun edis ibu ed o summe Olympic IFs
e e y ou yea s has isen om $37.6 million in 1992 o $523 million o 2012–
2016 (a hle ics ecei es he la ges sum – $39.5 million, he ‘smalles ’ IFs ecei e
$13 million). A simila sum was edis ibu ed o he ollowing ou - yea cycle,
awa ded a e he Tokyo Olympic Games. A he same ime, small Olympic IFs ha e
become dependen on hese edis ibu ed e enues. As Clausen and Bayle (2018)
showed (see Table 1.4), IFs such as Wo ld Rowing and he In e na ional Canoe
Fede a ion depend on Olympic e enues, whe eas he Fédé a ion In e na ionale
de Hockey and In e na ional Ski Fede a ion ha e ‘mixed’ business models cen ed
a ound a combina ion o Olympic e enues and ma ke ing in e na ional e en s (TV
igh s and sponso ship). FIFA’s and Wo ld Rugby’s business models a e based on
a single, ex emely luc a i e mega e en whose globalised media igh s ha e sky-
ocke ed in ecen yea s. Indeed, e enue om he Men’s Wo ld Cup enables FIFA
o inance all i s o he in e na ional e en s (women and junio s), which cu en ly
make losses, edis ibu e a minimum o $1 million o each o i s 211 na ional ed-
e a ions o g ow oo ball and in es se e al million dolla s in i s FIFA Fo wa d
oo ball de elopmen p og amme. The UCI has an unusual business model in ha
i ob ains a la ge p opo ion o i s e enues (40%) om oyal ies and licence ees
paid by e en o ganise s (calenda axes, o ganisa ion ees) and p o essional eams.
Such e en s- based s a egies ha e esul ed in many IFs ha ing inc easingly com-
me cial objec i es, which is no wi hou isk should an IF become o e ly dependen
on comme cial income (as shown when he COVID- 19 pandemic led o he can-
cella ion o mos spo s compe i ions). An o e ly comme cial ocus may also esul
in an IF losing sigh o i s mission and alues and inc ease he isk o i spending
excessi e sums on ope a ing cos s (e.g., luxu ious o ices, plush banque s, exo -
bi an a el expenses) and oo li le on impo an bu o en cos ly issues such as
p o ec ing spo ’s in eg i y, an issue ha o en consumes 30% o mo e o an IF’s
budge .37
Looking beyond business models and p o essionalisa ion, an analysis o IFs’
s a egies and s uc u es e eals ou gene al ca ego ies o IFs.
1.2.1.1 Fou Ca ego ies o IFs
Clausen and Bayle (2018) analysed he s uc u es and s a egies o 22 Olympic
IFs, ocusing on h ee s uc u e a iables and ou s a egy a iables. The s uc u al
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 43
Table 1.4 S uc u e, Re enues and Expendi u e o Se en IFs
IF S uc u e Re enue
(2016– 2019)
Expendi u e
(2016– 2019)
Membe s Employees
2019
To al Ol. E . Adm. E . De .
Model based on a
mega e en
FIFA 211 >600 $6.6 billion 0.4% 96% 14% 45% 35%
Wo ld Rugby 120 150– 200 $459 million - 73% 27% 39% 34%
Model dependen on
Olympic e enues
Wo ld Rowing 148 19 $29 million 56% 32% 57% 29% 14%
In e na ional Canoe
Fede a ion
171 10– 12 $18 million 85% 5% 43% 11% 1%
Mixed model Fédé a ion
In e na ionale de
Hockey
132 36 $45 million 34% 27% 56% 28% 17%
In e na ional Ski
Fede a ion *
128 60– 70 $84 million 41% 50% 44% 10% 24%
Tax- collec o model UCI 174 >100 $190 million 13% 65% 45% 44% 11%
Sou ce: IF annual epo s.
No es:
Re enues om: Ol. = Olympics; E . = e en s.
Expendi u e on: Adm. = adminis a ion; E . = e en s; De . = de elopmen .
*2015– 2018 ( o Win e Olympic IFs).
newgen pd
44 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
a iables we e ede a ion size, measu ed by he numbe o sala ied headqua e s
s a in 2016/ 2017; business model, measu ed by he a io o comme cial e enues
(e.g., TV igh s, sponso ship) o o he e enues (e.g., edis ibu ed by he IOC,
membe ship ees) be ween 2012 and 2015; and solida i y, measu ed by he pe -
cen age o o al expendi u e an IF edis ibu ed o i s membe s in 2012– 2015. The
ou s a egy a iables we e: image/ epu a ion, based on whe he he p ess had
epo ed scandals in ol ing he IF since 2005; s a egic plan, e alua ed by whe he
an IF has a publicly a ailable s a egic plan; communica ion, especially i s digi al
s a egy o 2016/ 2017, e alua ed ia he ankings con ained in REDTORCH’s
Spo on Social 2017 epo ; and accoun abili y. In line wi h Chappele , Bayle
and Clausen (2020), his inal a iable combined inancial anspa ency (i.e., pub-
lica ion o inancial audi s), a hle es’ con ibu ions o he boa d’s decisions (i.e.,
igh o o e), publica ion o o icial epo s (i.e., egula publica ion o ac i i y
epo s and minu es o mee ings) and he exis ence o an e hics commission. I
also included he p esence o e m limi s o he IF’s p esiden (maximum o h ee
4- yea e ms). Clausen and Bayle’s analysis o hese se en a iables e ealed ou
ideal ypes o IF: ma ke dominan , ma ginalised, inno a i e and adi ionalis .
• Ma ke - dominan IFs ha e subs an ial inancial esou ces, an image a nished
by nume ous scandals, a o mal accoun abili y sys em and a well- de ined long-
e m s a egy. They in es la ge sums in g owing and globalising hei spo ,
conque ing new ma ke s and suppo ing hei membe associa ions. Mos IFs
o his ype ha e a s ong social media p esence and engagemen . Thei la ge
comme cial e enues make hese IFs mo e suscep ible o co up ion du ing
leade ship elec ions and when a ibu ing majo e en s o hos coun ies/ ci ies.
To egain c edibili y, legi imacy and hei s akeholde s’ us , hey a e mo e
likely o adop o mal accoun abili y s anda ds and o de elop a long- e m
s a egy. In addi ion, hey ha e he necessa y human and inancial esou ces
in communica ion and c isis managemen o espond e ec i ely when p ob-
lems a ise. IFs in his ca ego y include FIFA, he In e na ional Volleyball
Fede a ion, Wo ld A hle ics, Wo ld Rugby and he UCI. Howe e , he UCI’s
e enues a e qui e small compa ed wi h cycling’s o al economy and he iches
cycling eams ha e la ge budge s han he UCI. Hence, he no ion o ma ke
domina ion is ela i e.
• Ma ginalised IFs a e a he opposi e end o he scale o ma ke - dominan IFs.
They gene ally ha e low e enues, a good image and a ague s a egy wi h no
o mal s a egic plan. Many IFs in his ca ego y go e n spo s ha a e expensi e
o do, so hey ha e qui e small global communi ies. Because hey a e highly
dependen on edis ibu ed Olympic e enues, hese IFs y o s eng hen hei
posi ions wi hin he Olympic mo emen by aligning hemsel es wi h he IOC’s
expec a ions, as se ou in he Olympic Agenda 2020. Scandals in hese IFs a e
a e, bu hei weak business models make hem ulne able o poli ical o geo-
poli ical ‘ akeo e s’, as occu ed when a ich Russian pa on was elec ed p esi-
den o he Fédé a ion In e na ionale d’Esc ime in 2008. This isk led Wo ld
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 45
Rowing o add a clause o i s s a u es o p e en anyone om ou side owing
becoming he ede a ion’s p esiden . IFs in his ca ego y include he Fédé a ion
In e na ionale d’Esc ime, In e na ional Canoe Fede a ion, Wo ld Rowing and
Wo ld Sailing.
• Inno a i e IFs wo k ha d o expand hei communi y o membe associa ions
and o g ow hei spo . This s a egy, which is o en d i en by a powe ul p esi-
den o gene al manage , leads hese IFs o p o ide ( e y) la ge amoun s o sup-
po o hei membe s and hei spo and o be e y ac i e on social media. IFs
in his ca ego y a e dynamic and p oac i e and se ou hei medium- and long-
e m objec i es in a s a egic plan. Despi e hei e o s o a ac new in es o s
and en e new ma ke s, edis ibu ed Olympic e enues s ill accoun o a sub-
s an ial p opo ion o hei e enues, so hey ha e o comply wi h he IOC’s
injunc ions while ying o mee hei pa ne s’ demands. IFs in his ca ego y
include he Fédé a ion In e na ionale de Hockey, In e na ional Ski Fede a ion
and Wo ld W es ling Union.
• T adi ionalis IFs a e he pola opposi e o inno a i e IFs. They depend la gely
on edis ibu ed Olympic e enues and spend a la ge p opo ion o hei budge s
on adminis a ion and e y li le on g owing hei spo and suppo ing hei
membe s. Many o hese IFs ha e had he same leade o many yea s and ha e
a nished images due o p oblems o in eg i y (doping and co up ion) o poo
go e nance (independence/ quali y o leade s). These p oblems end o be he
esul o ou da ed s uc u es and p ocedu es, de icien go e nance and a lack o
p o essionalism. These IFs a e mo e in en on main aining he s a us quo han on
e ol ing, and hey a ach pa icula impo ance o p ese ing hei spo ’s adi-
ions. Hence, hey do no end o ha e medium- o long- e m s a egic plans. IFs
in his ca ego y include he Wo ld Cu ling Fede a ion, In e na ional W es ling
Fede a ion and In e na ional Shoo ing Spo Fede a ion.
This ypology can be used o iden i y which Olympic IFs ha e modi ied he way
hey ope a e since he COVID- 19 pandemic. A he same ime, many changes o a
ede a ion’s s uc u e and s a egy a e based on o mal c i e ia whose implemen a-
ion mus be s udied case- by- case o de e mine how well hese c i e ia ha e been
applied and whe he changes ha e eal e ec s. The ac ha FIFA came ou op in
he Spo s Go e nance Obse e ’s 201538 anking o IFs’ go e nance a he same
ime he FIFAga e scandal e up ed illus a es ano he p oblem: IFs o en use hei
ins i u ional ipos es o wa d o c i icism ( om he media, NGOs, public au ho -
i ies and o he s akeholde s) o how hey a e go e ned, a he han o implemen eal
change. Hence, i can be di icul o eliably e alua e he ue impac s o e o ms
on an o ganisa ion’s go e nance and managemen ools and sys ems. Indeed, many
IF execu i es’ p ime conce n is o main ain hei posi ions and hei geopoli ical
and comme cial powe wi hin he ede a ion, an a i ude ha can lead o ensions
wi h he ede a ion’s p o essional adminis a o s. In pe iods o c isis, his ic ion
can esul in signi ican numbe s o employees lea ing, aking wi h hem conside -
able knowledge and expe ise. Fo example, almos 50% o he UCI’s s a ei he
52 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
1.2.3.1 Funding and Deli e ing Olympic Games
Once an edi ion o he Olympic Games has been a ibu ed and he IOC, local
NOC and ci y council ha e signed he Hos Ci y Con ac , he u u e hos se s up
an OCOG. Since 2012, summe and win e OCOGs ha e been equi ed o s age he
Pa alympic Games unde he auspices o he In e na ional Pa alympic Commi ee,
in addi ion o he Olympic Games. In 2021, he IOC modi ied he TOP p og amme,
so i s pa ne s also sponso he Pa alympic Games, and he In e na ional Pa alympic
Commi ee ecei es a p opo ion o he p og amme’s e enues. Cen alising he
igh s o and managemen o he Pa alympic Games in his way gene a es mo e
e enues o he In e na ional Pa alympic Commi ee by aising he Pa alympic
Games’ p o ile and educing cos s.
One o he bigges changes o how he Olympic Games a e deli e ed is he
inc easing use o public– p i a e pa ne ships, ‘wi h a g ea e o lesse inclina ion
o he public sec o (Beijing 2008, Sochi 2014) o he p i a e sec o (Sal Lake
Ci y 2002), depending on he hos coun y’s adi ions and i s NOC’s au onomy’
(Chappele , 2020). Mos OCOGs a e p i a e, non- p o i associa ions (e.g., Pa is
2024) bu inanced by comme cial esou ces ( e enues awa ded by he IOC,
domes ic sponso ship and icke ing). They mus wo k closely wi h he hos ci y and
o he public bodies, which wan o maximise he e u ns on he public in es men s
made in connec ion wi h he Olympic Games.
All hos na ions since 2000 ha e in oduced speci ic legisla ion o he Olympic
Games (o en called ‘Olympic laws’) co e ing a eas such as ax exemp ions, ules
on ad e ising hoa dings and planning equi emen s. Also since 2000, hos coun-
ies ha e c ea ed ad- hoc public agencies o build o eno a e he acili ies equi ed
o he Olympics and o o ganise se ices such as anspo a ion. Go e nmen s
gene ally appoin a Games Minis e and some imes se up an ad- hoc body o coo d-
ina e he coun y’s Olympic s akeholde s.
1.2.3.2 The Pa is 2024 OCOG
The F ench go e nmen con inued his adi ion in May 2022 by appoin ing a
Minis e o Spo and he Olympic Games o Pa is 2024. In addi ion, an in e -
minis e ial commissione o he Pa is Olympic Games, wi h delega es in se e al
minis ies (cul u e, educa ion, heal h), ep esen s he F ench go e nmen and
coo dina es i s wo k wi h he OCOG (Figu e 1.1). The company esponsible o
deli e ing Olympic and Pa alympic acili ies (SOLIDEO) is an indus ial and com-
me cial public ins i u ion p esided o e by he mayo o Pa is, who ep esen s he
local au ho i ies in ol ed, which, in conjunc ion wi h he s a e, p o ides hal o he
OCOG’s budge (€4.4 billion). F ance’s audi o gene al (Cou des comp es) checks
he OCOGs’ and SOLIDEO’s accoun s e e y yea , as equi ed by he Olympic Ac
pa liamen passed on 26 Ma ch 2018. Sepa a ing oles and budge s in his way
makes cos s mo e anspa en by showing symbolically ha he OCOG has p i a e
unding and ha he o he bodies a e in es ing his public money o he u u e and

Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 53
o he Games’ legacy. Sha ing and p esen ing he cos o he Pa is Olympics in his
way makes he expendi u e mo e accep able o he media and he public. The IOC
o e sees he whole p ocess ia a Coo dina ion Commission, chai ed by an IOC
membe , which can apply p essu e should p oblems a ise (la e deli e y, secu i y
measu es, e c.) o sugges modi ica ions and a bi ages (budge , compe i ion si es,
anspo a ion, e c.).
Gi en hei di e ing in e es s and poli ical manoeu ing, go e ning and coo din-
a ing he ac o s in ol ed is complex, as is con olling he OCOG’s and SOLIDEO’s
budge s. A yea be o e Pa is 2024, he F ench go e nmen ga e a clea message
ha i was aking in hand key aspec s o he Games, no ably hei cos , announcing
he e would be no ‘Olympic Games ax’.50 I will also supe ise he key issues
o anspo a ion and secu i y ( he go e nmen is esponsible o secu i y ou side
compe i ion enues, and he OCOG is esponsible o secu i y inside enues).
These wo aspec s o Pa is 2024 a e pa icula ly sensi i e as, o he i s ime, he
Olympic Games opening ce emony will no ake place in a s adium bu along he
banks o he Seine, he eby allowing up o 326,000 spec a o s ( educed, o secu i y
easons, om he 2 million spec a o s announced in 2021) o wa ch he e en .
Mos o he OCOG’s public unding is ea ma ked o he Pa alympic Games,
in line wi h commi men s included in he bid. Successi e e- e alua ions o he
OCOG’s budge due o in la ion and inc eases in ce ain i ems, no ably secu i y,
ha e seen he o al inc ease om €3.8 billion in 2018 o €4.38 billion.
The OCOG ob ains mos o i s unding om h ee p i a e sou ces: he IOC,
icke sales and domes ic pa ne s. The IOC’s con ibu ion o OCOGs, se ou in
he Hos Ci y Con ac , includes bo h cash (€1.22 billion, wi h €750 million om
TV igh s and €470 million om TOP pa ne ships) and se ices in kind (ai -
line icke s, p o ision o ehicles and spo s equipmen , specialis consul ancy
se ices).
Figu e 1.1 Bodies Responsible o Deli e ing he Pa is 2024 Olympic Games.
54 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
Ticke ing, co po a e hospi ali y and ie- in p oduc s a e expec ed o aise €1.56
billion, wi h mos o his sum (€1.1 billion) coming om he sale o 10.5 million
icke s o he Olympic Games and 3.4 million icke s o he Pa alympic Games.
London 2012 sold 97% o a ailable icke s, bu he COVID- 19 pandemic p e en ed
any icke s om being sold o Tokyo 2020 and Beijing 2022. Ticke sales o Pa is
2024 will be cen alised h ough he IOC’s exclusi e wo ldwide hospi ali y supplie ,
he Ame ican company On Loca ion, wi h income sha ed be ween he IOC, he
OCOG and F ance’s NOC. The OCOG also ecei es income om i s licencing p o-
g amme o using he Games’ logo, especially i s Olympic masco (€127 million).
The OCOG has de ined h ee le els o domes ic pa ne (p emium pa ne , o i-
cial pa ne and o icial suppo e ) wi h di e en le els o con ibu ion, exposu e
and igh s. Pa is 2024 will ha e a o al o 62 sponso s, including he IOC’s 15 TOP
pa ne s (AB inBe , he wo ld’s bigges b ewe , joined he o iginal 14 TOP pa ne s
a he beginning o 2024), who ha e he same igh s as he i e p emium domes ic
pa ne s. Pa is’s objec i e is o ea n €1.2 billion om i s pa ne s, a simila sum
o ha ea ned by London 2012 and Rio 2016 bu almos wo- and- a- hal imes less
han he eco d- b eaking $3.24 billion ea ned by Tokyo 2020’s domes ic sponso -
ship p og amme.
This esou ce s uc u e means he Olympic Games is a comme cially unded
e en , whe eas he public pe cei es i as a commons wi h subs an ial public com-
mi men s and unding. This can lead o con adic ions be ween he OCOG p esen -
ing he Games as an inclusi e e en o all (i ’s slogan is ‘Games Wide Open’) and
ce ain o - c i icised aspec s o he e en , including high icke p ices;51 he ban on
d inking alcohol in Olympic enues o mos spec a o s bu no o VIPs in hospi-
ali y lounges (a esul o F ench law, no Olympic ules); he high sala ies paid o
he OCOG’s execu i es, e en hough i is a non- p o i associa ion and elian on he
wo k o 50,000 olun ee s; he high cos o he Olympic To ch elay o he dépa -
emen s i goes h ough (€180,000 o public money o one day) compa ed wi h
he gene ally modes bene i s i b ings; and he elay’s p i a e pa ne ships wi h
wo o he IOC’s TOP pa ne s (Coca- Cola and Ai BnB) and a Pa is 2024 p emium
pa ne ( he F ench banking g oup BPCE).
An OCOG’s p ima y ole is o deli e a well- o ganised mega e en and make
i a unique es i e occasion o all. Bu , as F ance’s audi o gene al no ed in 2023,
he e en ’s legacy is ano he ‘majo condi ion de e mining he Olympic Games’
accep abili y’ (Cou des comp es, 2023).
1.2.3.3 The Con o e sial Issue o Impac s and Legacy
Legacy is he e m he IOC, media and poli icians use o desc ibe an Olympic
Games’ medium- o long- e m impac s. These impac s can be di ided in o se en
ca ego ies:
• Accele a ing he cons uc ion o eno a ion o u ban in as uc u e and acil-
i ies. Mos o he u ban de elopmen associa ed wi h Pa is 2024 will be in he
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 55
Seine- Sain - Dénis dépa emen . U ban enewal p ojec s associa ed wi h he
2000 and 2012 Olympic Games ans o med, espec i ely, he Wes e n subu bs
o Sydney and he Eas o London (Wol e e al., 2021).
• Inc easing pa icipa ion in spo and s eng hening he hos coun y’s spo ing
cul u e.
• Imp o ing he e icacy and e iciency o a coun y’s spo sys em (medals, pa -
icipa ion in spo , egis e ed playe s). In F ance, his will equi e mo e p o-
essional, mo e e ec i e and mo e esponsible go e nance o NFs, om hei
headqua e s o indi idual clubs.
• P o iding economic bene i s (inc ease ou ism h ough sho - e m wind all
e ec s, despi e he impac o e ic ions) and psychosocial bene i s (na ional
p ide and cohesion), which expe s o en con es o e he longe e m due o he
di icul y o measu ing hese bene i s and es ablishing clea causal ela ionships
(Scheu, P euß and Könecke, 2021).
• Se ing up speci ic bodies and policies o build/ eno a e spo s acili ies.
• C ea ing o mal and in o mal pa ne ships and building expe ise
(Chappele , 2016).
• Raising he hos ci y’s/ coun y’s in e na ional p o ile, by building he ci y’s
image, ma ke ing he coun y and/ o using spo as an ins umen o so powe /
diplomacy.
Hos ci ies/ coun ies can achie e hese objec i es and e ec s mo e easily i hey
a e associa ed wi h suppo policies d awn up and implemen ed long in ad ance
(no ably by he spo s sec o and public au ho i ies). They a e also easie o jus i y
and achie e o an eme ging coun y. Whe he a hos ci y/ coun y builds a success-
ul Olympic legacy depends on he coun y’s poli ical, economic and social si u-
a ion (Rio 2016 ook place du ing a se e e poli ical and economic c isis in B azil;
COVID 19 cas a shadow o e Tokyo 2020;52 Pa is 2024 could be ma ed by he
iolen social p o es s ha ha e a lic ed F ance since he la e 2010s) and e en
on he in e na ional con ex (wa s in Uk aine and Gaza o Pa is 2024). F ance is
al eady he wo ld’s mos popula ou is des ina ion, a leading spo ing na ion, an
expe ienced o ganise o majo spo and cul u al e en s, and one o he wo ld’s
mos in luen ial coun ies in e ms o so powe . Mo eo e , i is his o ically and
cul u ally a ‘Te e de Jeux’, a label launched by he o ganise s o p omo e he
Olympic Games o hei pa ne s and he public.
1.2.3.4 A Ca alys o T ans o ming a Coun y? F ance and he
2024 Olympic Games
The i s ques ion o ask when a ci y and a coun y decide o bid o he Olympic
Games is why. Wha do hey expec o achie e? The Olympic Games can and
should be he hea o a 20- o 30- yea p ojec o mee a e i o y’s and/ o com-
muni y’s needs. Be o e en e ing hei bid, candida es mus ind a poli ical and
social consensus on how o ul il hese needs. I is an oppo uni y o a coun y
56 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
o uni e behind a majo p ojec and o a i m i s powe and in luence o he
whole wo ld.
So how can F ance use he Olympic Games o b ing abou he desi ed poli ical,
economic and social ans o ma ion? F ance mus o e come h ee main challenges
i i is o achie e his objec i e:
• I mus build a sense o communi y by ob aining a consensus ‘ om he bo om
up’, which means in ol ing o dina y ci izens, as well as he public au ho i ies,
businesses, unions and communi y o ganisa ions.53
• I mus ge ac o s o wo k collec i ely by b eaking down ‘silo poli ics’ (wi hin
le els and sec o s: public, p i a e, cha i able) and o e u ning cen alism, con-
se a ism, bounda ies and s a u es.
• I mus s op iewing spo and physical ac i i y in e ms o pe o mance, meas-
u ed by indica o s such as annual g ow h and numbe s o medals, and s a see-
ing hem as a long- e m means o imp o ing people’s li es.
Do coun ies do enough o mee hese challenges when hey hos he Olympic
Games? The Pa is 2024 OCOG p omised a ‘ e olu iona y Games’, symbolised by
a se ies o masco s in he shape o Ph ygian caps (which ha e come o symbolise
he F ench e olu ion), bu i s e o s o p omo e spo ini ially wen li le u he
han epea ing he slogan ‘Mo e Mo e’, in line wi h P esiden Mac on’s desi e o
‘ge F ance in o spo ’. The Olympic Games can inca na e much mo e and o e -
come poli ical di ides by making spo a key ool o mee ing u u e challenges
in a eas such as digi alisa ion, sus ainabili y, gende equali y, seden a y li es yles
(Ne ille e al., 2022), ageing and gi ing young people con idence in he u u e. To
his end, he ideas o b inging he na ion oge he h ough spo 54 and building a
spo ing na ion began ea u ing mo e egula ly in he spo minis y’s and OCOG’s
communica ion in he inal yea be o e he Olympic Games. B inging he na ion
oge he h ough spo means using spo o p omo e na ional uni y, encou age
posi i e alues and s imula e social and economic de elopmen . To achie e his,
Olympic Games hos coun ies (and coun ies in gene al) mus ake a long- e m
iew o spo as an essen ial ool in he ields o :
• Educa ion: No only ensu e minimum daily amoun s o physical ac i i y a p i-
ma y school (se a 30 minu es in F ance) and minimum weekly hou s o spo
a seconda y school ( ou hou s a junio high school and wo hou s a high
school) bu also gene alise, and no jus du ing he Olympic yea , he use o
games, spo and Olympism as ools o de elop young people’s sel - awa eness
and o encou age hem o accep o he s and hei di e ences. A mo e ambi ious
p ojec would include modi ying he school day o lea e a e noons ee o
ex a- cu icula spo (as in Ge many and Scandina ia) and expanding spo -
s udy p og ammes and high- school spo - s udy sec ions.
• You h and in e gene a ional ies: Suppo and p omo e olun ee ism and
encou age young people o help o he s (communi y se ice, olun a y wo k,
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 57
in e na ional olun ee ing, in e gene a ional eams, e c.). These ac i i ies c ea e
solida i y and o m an essen ial base o socie y and democ acy.
• Heal h: Re ise he heal h sys em o inco po a e spo as a p e en i e and he a-
peu ic ool (e.g., F ance’s 500 spo - heal h cen es p og amme, launched in
2019; doc o s p esc ibing spo as he apies (Dalla P ia, And ieu and Mikulo ic,
2021), al hough heal h insu ance policies encou aging his app oach need o be
gene alised.
• Economic de elopmen : C ea e jobs, use spo and olun a y wo k in inno -
a ion, en ep eneu ship and managemen aining cou ses and imp o e wo king
condi ions o employees.
• Social inclusion: School o li e and second chances o people who d opped ou
o he school sys em o who a e on he ma gins o socie y; imp o e he in eg a-
ion o people wi h disabili ies (Cha ie , Éloi and Joing, 2021).
• Planning: Use own planning and e i o ial de elopmen o p omo e ac i e
mobili y, which can almos immedia ely educe bo h mode n li es yles’ impac
on he en i onmen and he incidence o many non- ansmissible diseases
(WHO, 2021).
Fo London 2012, in addi ion o he ac ions aken by LOCOG, he B i ish go -
e nmen se i e ‘legacy p omises’ o he Games (Chappele , 2020). These i e
p omises, se ou in a documen published by he Depa men o Cul u e, Media
and Spo , we e as ollows:
• Make he Uni ed Kingdom a wo ld- class spo ing na ion.
• T ans o m he hea o Eas London ( he si e o he Olympic Pa k).
• Inspi e a new gene a ion o young people o ake pa in local olun ee ing, cul-
u al and physical ac i i y.
• Make he Olympic Pa k a bluep in o sus ainable li ing.
• Demons a e he Uni ed Kingdom is a c ea i e, inclusi e and welcoming place
o li e in, isi and o business.
In 2009, he go e nmen added a six h objec i e ‘B ing abou las ing changes o
he li e expe iences o people wi h a disabili y’. These p omises we e e o mula ed
sligh ly and hen encapsula ed du ing he Games in he e y gene al and mo i a ing
slogan: ‘Inspi e a gene a ion’.
This ype o p ospec i e legacy can be pe cei ed as hollow wo ds i i is no
accompanied by conc e e policies and unding o by he cul u al changes needed o
achie e i . Fo example, s udies ha e shown ha :
• The eno a ion o Eas London led o he e ic ion o lowe - income people and
he a ea’s gen i ica ion (Wa , 2013).
• The London Olympic Games we e no ollowed by ac ions in a ou o school
spo , which ecei ed less suppo om public bodies (Kohe and Bowen-
Jones, 2016).

58 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
• Go e nance o he London 2012 legacy was oo op- down and did no su i-
cien ly in ol e local ac o s (Gi gino , 2012).
• Disabled people’s o ganisa ions ha e c i icised he Games’ impac s on people
wi h disabili ies (B i ain and Beacom, 2016).
• B exi and he economic c isis ha e g ea ly educed public unding o g ass-
oo s spo .
Pa is 2024 has al eady made some symbolic commi men s:
• Ensu e gende pa i y, as p omised by he IOC. The e will be s ic gende pa i y
among he 10,500 a hle es quali ied o he Games, which will include eigh
new mixed e en s.
• Deli e he ‘g eenes ’ Games in his o y by hal ing g eenhouse gas emissions
compa ed wi h London 2012 and Beijing 2016. This will in ol e adop ing
inno a i e policies using he ci cula economy, bu mos o he ‘ educ ion’ will
be achie ed h ough ca bon o se ing.
• Implemen a wide- eaching legacy and sus ainabili y plan.
The 170 measu es lis ed in his plan, adop ed in 2019, include ac ions o imp o e
spo s in as uc u e; inc ease pa icipa ion in spo , employmen and olun ee ing;
imp o e anspo a ion and accessibili y; add ess socie al issues (gende equali y,
disabili y, disc imina ion, e c.); de elop he spo s economy; and imp o e F ance’s
image. To help build his legacy, he OCOG has se up a ‘Pa is 2024 endowmen
und’ o ad ise and suppo spo - based communi y p ojec s p omo ing heal h,
well- being, he pleasu e o lea ning, ci ic engagemen , social inclusion, solida i y,
equali y and he en i onmen . I is p esen ed as a pla o m o social inno a ion
h ough spo . In addi ion, he OCOG has launched a mul idisciplina y ‘cul u al
Olympiad’ in ol ing se e al housand a s and cul u e e en s be ween 2021 and
2024, un in conjunc ion wi h cul u al o ganisa ions and designed o b ing oge he
he wo lds o cul u e and spo .
Fo spo o play he socie al ole cu en ly expec ed o i , i mus go beyond
exis ing schemes o inc ease i s social e icacy (social e u n on in es men ) and
e iciency (less expendi u e on secu i y, heal h, ene gy, e c.). This will equi e
new modes o unding o complemen public unding, such as solida i y- based/
g een/ esponsible inance, social bonds, public– p i a e pa ne ships, pa onage and
mic oc edi . A common ea is ha p i a e and public in es men in spo will all
a e he Olympic Games, gi en he in ense ocus and g ow h o spo s in es men s
in he un up o he e en .
Clea ly, he Olympic Games canno cu e all o socie y’s p oblems and o e come
declinis he o ic, bu i can p o ide hope o a new way o li ing and wo king
oge he . I can be he ca alys and nucleus o a mo e ambi ious spo ing p ojec
o e a pe iod o 20 o 30 yea s, as B isbane 2032 hopes o achie e h ough i s
‘Ele a e 2042’ legacy p ojec .55 To achie e hese goals and go beyond deli e ing
a high- quali y bu epheme al spo s compe i ion and es i e occasion, mul ile el/
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 59
mul isec o unding mus be combined wi h pa ne ship policies and indi idual/
collec i e pa icipa ion aimed a making physical ac i i y a na ion’s ‘bea ing
hea ’. This mo emen could build on e e - expanding wo ldwide ini ia i es o
inc ease physical ac i i y’s ole in heal h and well- being. To his end, in 2020
he In e na ional Socie y o Physical Ac i i y, whose mission is o make phys-
ical ac i i y a global p io i y, published a epo appealing o in es men in phys-
ical ac i i y in eigh a eas: whole- o - school p og ammes; ac i e anspo ; ac i e
u ban design; heal hca e; public educa ion, including mass media; spo and ec-
ea ion o all; wo kplaces; and communi y- wide p og ammes. In he 2010s, he
Associa ion o In e na ional Spo o All and E aleo d ew on pionee ing wo k
by he ci y o Li e pool o se up he ‘global ac i e ci ies’ p og amme. Suppo ed
by he IOC since 2017, his p og amme encou ages ci ies o p omo e heal h and
physical ac i i y.56 Mo eo e , some IFs ha e mo ed away om ocusing solely on
compe i i e spo and joined he global igh o encou age physical ac i i y o all.
Such ini ia i es include he In e na ional Uni e si y Spo s Fede a ion’s ‘heal hy
campus’ p og amme, launched in 2020.57 Al hough coun ies/ ci ies do no need
he Olympic Games o pu in o p ac ice he idea o ‘li ing be e oge he h ough
spo ’, he Olympic Games can igge and/ o boos e o s o achie e a ans o m-
a ion in people’s a i udes owa ds physical ac i i y.
Ano he impo an issue o he Olympic Games (and o he majo in e na ional
spo s e en s) is how o espond o o he s akeholde s’ inc easingly ocal demands.
1.2.4 A hle es and NGOs
A hle es and la ge NGOs ha e gained much g ea e in luence wi hin he Olympic
mo emen o e he las ew decades, la gely due o he a en ion he media gi e o
hese wo key s akeholde s’ decla a ions. As a esul , he IOC and IFs can no longe
a o d o igno e hei demands and c i icisms.
1.2.4.1 A hle es’ New Demands
The wo ld’s bes a hle es compe ing agains each o he is wha makes he Olympic
Games so spec acula and p es igious. While i is he a hle es who gi e he Olympic
Games hei alue, he Olympic Games’ p es ige gi es alue o eli e a hle es. To
a much g ea e ex en han o he in e na ional spo s e en s, he Olympic Games’
symbolism goes beyond spo ing pe o mance (assembling he bes a hle es om
all i e con inen s, pa ading wi h one’s na ional Olympic eam a he opening ce e-
mony, building iendships be ween housands o a hle es in he Olympic illage,
e c.). This is why he bigges s a s om he wo ld’s mos luc a i e p o essional
spo s (baske ball, oo ball,58 gol , ennis,59 e c.) wan o compe e in he Olympic
Games and, i possible, win a (gold) medal. They a e looking o add a li le soul,
h ough he Olympic d eam and magic, o hei spo ing li es and achie emen s
in a unique momen o pa io ic (con) a e ni y sha ed wi h he bes a hle es in he
wo ld’s bigges spo s. Consequen ly, he Olympic Games is unique among majo
60 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
spo s e en s in ha he balance o powe lies wi h he o ganise s, a he han hese
s a s, and business appea s o ake a back sea , al hough s a a hle es’ IFs and NFs
ha e o i on ou ce ain legal de ails o ensu e hei pa icipa ion.60 In less p o es-
sional and less ich spo s, he Olympic Games a e essen ial o an eli e a hle e’s
ame and inances (bonuses paid by s a es, egions, ci ies, NOCs, ede a ions and
sponso s i hey win medals). Many Olympic a hle es, especially hose in eme ging
coun ies, ha e e y low incomes and a e in p eca ious socio- economic posi ions.
A hle es in indi idual spo s also lack social secu i y p o ec ion.61 Thei depend-
ency on he Olympic Games inc eases hei socio- psychological ulne abili y
when hey a e o o m o inju ed and when hey pe o m badly o a e unable o
compe e, which inc eases he isk o isola ion, dep ession and doping (Hughes and
Lea ey, 2012).
The Olympic Games’ excep ional na u e and a i y (e e y ou yea s), eli e a h-
le es’ you h and insouciance and he lack o a collec i e body o de end hei in e -
es s help explain why a hle es ha e a ely insis ed on hei igh s and e enues
om he Olympic business. In con as o wo ld championships, whe e mos IFs
ha e begun paying bonuses o medal winne s, Wo ld A hle ics is he only IF o
ha e indica ed i s in en ion o ewa d medallis s a he Olympic Games. Despi e
his decision’s po en ial impac on o he IFs, Wo ld A hle ics has decided o awa d
a $50,000 p ize o each o he 48 a hle ics gold medal winne s a he Pa is 2024
Olympics and o expand he p og amme o sil e and b onze medallis s as o he
2028 Olympic Games. Wo ld A hle ics’ p esiden de ended his decision, saying: ‘I
hink i is impo an we make su e some o he e enues gene a ed by ou a hle es
a he Olympic Games a e di ec ly e u ned o hose who make he Games he
global spec acle ha i is’.62 Fo he momen , he IOC has been able o head o
demands o i and/ o OCOGs o emune a e he 10,500 a hle es who ake pa
in he Olympic Games by a guing ha i is up o NFs, NOCs, go e nmen s and/
o sponso s o compensa e a hle es o hei Olympic pe o mances, ha i p o-
ides se ices o a hle es du ing and a e hei ca ee s ia he A hle e365 pla o m,
launched in 2017, ha i suppo s NOCs and a hle es who a e he mos in need ia
Olympic Solida i y g an s and ha i edis ibu es 90% o i s e enues o i s mem-
be s. Ne e heless, his posi ion is likely o collapse one day, as shown by he 2023
Women’s Wo ld Cup. FIFA used o pay compensa ion/ bonuses o NFs who ook
pa in he compe i ion, bu no o playe s, and some NFs, bu no all, edis ibu ed
a p opo ion o hese sums o hei playe s (30% in F ance). A e aking hei NF
o cou o sex disc imina ion, in 2022 he Uni ed S a es’ women’s oo ball eam
ob ained an ag eemen gua an eeing hem he same pay as playe s on he men’s
na ional eam. Faced wi h such legal isks and he socio- economic p eca i y o
p o essional women oo balle s a ound he wo ld (acco ding o FIFP o he mean
annual sala y o a p o essional woman oo balle is €13,000), FIFA decided o pay
i s pe o mance bonuses di ec ly o playe s, wi h sums ising om €30,000 o
playe s in eams elimina ed a e he i s ound o €270,000 o playe s on he
winning eam. In o he wo ds, FIFA compensa es he 22 playe s in e e y eam ha
compe es in he Wo ld Cup inals (704 playe s in o al).
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 61
A hle es, o en ad ised and in luenced by hei en ou age (coaches, iends, pa -
en s, ma ke ing, legal and inancial ad iso s, e c.) and equi ing e e - mo e inan-
cial esou ces o emain compe i i e, a e becoming mo e ocal in hei demands.
A hle es in eam spo s belong o clubs/ p o essional leagues and some a hle es in
indi idual spo s belong o academies o ha e p i a e manage s (e.g., dis ance un-
ne s, especially hose om A ica). They may be equi ed o skip some majo in e -
na ional compe i ions ei he o spo ing easons ( eco e y, p o ec hei heal h)
o o inancial/ con ac ual easons (so hey can compe e in mo e luc a i e e en s
o e en s s ipula ed in hei con ac s). I is o hese easons ha some a hle es in
No h Ame ica’s p o essional leagues do no ake pa in he Olympic Games o
wo ld championships. A hle es may skip some majo in e na ional compe i ions
(e.g., Commonweal h Games, oo ball’s A ica Cup o Na ions) o p o ec hei
inancial in e es s o hei ca ee s. Toge he wi h geopoli ical issues, hese com-
me cial aspec s inc easingly aise he ques ion o who uly ‘con ols’ a hle es and
hei pa icipa ion in compe i ions: he Olympic mo emen and spo ede a ions?
Go e nmen s? Comme cial s akeholde s?
A hle es’ demands co e nume ous issues, including condi ions o compe ing
in he Olympic Games ( aining condi ions, emune a ion, social secu i y and
e i emen p o ision, insu ance agains inju y, e c.), in ol emen in go e nance
decisions (elec ion o execu i es, designa ion o hos ci ies and coun ies o com-
pe i ions), he way compe i ions a e un (changes o ules, iming and condi ions o
compe i ions, equipmen used, e c.) and he sponso s wi h which hey will be expli-
ci ly o implici ly associa ed. They also wan he eedom o exp ess hei opinions
on poli ical and social issues, no ably ia social media.
In heo y, a hle es now ha e mo e say in he go e nance o Olympic o gani-
sa ions, no ably h ough he a hle es commissions ha ha e become quasi-
obliga o y o la ge spo o ganisa ions (which is a way o con olling a hle es
in e nally and a oiding hem o ming ex e nal unions) and, in some cases, h ough
ese ed sea s o a hle es on an o ganisa ion’s execu i e body. This is he case
o nume ous IFs, NFs and NOCs who ese e (only) one sea o an a hle e.
Acco ding o Chappele (2023, p. 55), ‘Some coun ies ha e passed legisla ion
equi ing a highe quo a (e.g., a hle es mus be g an ed a hi d o he sea s on
he Uni ed S a es Olympic Commi ee’s boa d)’. A g owing numbe o o me
a hle es a e going on o occupy senio posi ions in he go e nance o wo ld spo .
P ominen examples include Thomas Bach, who became p esiden o he IOC;
Michel Pla ini, who became p esiden o UEFA; Sebas ien Coe, who became
p esiden o Wo ld A hle ics; Samuel E o, who became p esiden o he Came oon
Foo ball Fede a ion; Jean- Ch is ophe Rolland, who became p esiden o Wo ld
Rowing; and Tony Es angue , who p esided he OCOG o he Pa is 2024 Olympic
Games. Following he lead se by NOCs and Olympic IFs, since 2000 he IOC has
co- op ed 15 membe s om among Olympic a hle es.63 These ad ances gi e a h-
le es mo e oppo uni ies o exp ess hei opinions and demands, bu hei powe
emains limi ed as powe in mos IFs, NFs, NOCs and he IOC emains cen alised
in he hands o he o ganisa ion’s p esiden . The isk o he IOC and IFs is ha
68 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
p ocess o he 2030 Win e Games. A new amewo k o s aging he Win e
Olympics is needed in oday’s wa ming wo ld. Al hough he in e na ional commu-
ni y can be p oud o he Olympic Games and hei abili y o b ing oge he young
people, coun ies and cul u es om all a ound he globe, he condi ions (go e n-
ance, unding, sus ainabili y, in eg i y, e c.) in which hese Games a e held mus
change.
Holding an Olympic Games o each o he ou seasons, wi h one season pe
yea o e a ou - yea cycle, would ha e se e al ad an ages. I would
• Open he Olympic doo o new spo s and new ypes o spo ( he Olympic
label would inc ease hese spo s’ exposu e, unding and p o essionalisa-
ion, in e na ionally and na ionally) and he eby expand and s eng hen he
Olympic mo emen by no abandoning spo s o comme cial o ganisa ions o
sel - o ganisa ion.
• Encou age he co- hos ing o he Olympic Games by se e al ci ies and coun ies
and he eby educe building cos s and a el by spec a o s.
• Allow mo e e i o ies on he ou con inen s o hos he Olympic Games.
• Make he Olympic Games mo e inclusi e and mo e di e se by holding com-
pe i ions in ol ing men/ women/ ansgende people, people wi h and wi hou
a disabili y and olde people, and by explici ly mixing spo and cul u e, spo
and echnology, and spo and he en i onmen , and c ea ing mul ina ional and
mul icul u al eams.
• Be be e o he clima e and mo e sus ainable by being a ibu ed o hos
egions ha mee key en i onmen al c i e ia (al i ude and g ea e gua an ee o
snow, p ese ing ecosys ems, e c.) and which ha e exis ing acili ies.
• Re i alise he Olympic business model, which cu en ly elies hea ily on
Ame ican companies (media igh s and TOP sponso s). By seeking new sou ces
o unding, he wo new Olympic Games could gene a e billions in e enue o
he IOC and Olympic mo emen .
• Allow he IOC o posi ion he Sp ing and Au umn Olympic Games as eco-
esponsible e en s by edis ibu ing a p opo ion o hei e enues o disad an-
aged coun ies o use in spo de elopmen and spo o de elopmen p ojec s
led by local NGOs.
• Regene a e he Olympic p ojec and i s goal o building a be e wo ld
h ough spo .
Each o he ou Olympic Games could be awa ded o a e i o y on one o he ou
con inen s, and his e i o y could hos h ee successi e edi ions o he Games o
a oid building acili ies o each edi ion. This new 4- season, 4- con inen , 12- yea
o a ion would b ea he new li e in o he Olympic spi i , educe cos s, educe ca bon
emissions and a ou o ganisa ional lea ning. I would also enable hos e i o ies
o u n he Olympics in o a he i age e en and he eby op imise hei legacy, bo h
egional and uni e sal, as desi ed by he Olympic communi y. I could be a gued
ha holding an Olympic Games e e y yea , which is al eady almos he case wi h

Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 69
he wo Olympic Games and wo You h Olympic Games, would dep ecia e he
‘Olympic p oduc ’. Bu hese ou - season Games would no necessa ily be o he
same size o ha e he same a ge s and goals. They would be placed in he in e -
na ional calenda in such a way as o lea e app op ia e slo s o IFs’ wo ld champi-
onships and o he o he in e na ional mul ispo games he IOC sponso s (Wo ld
Uni e si y Games, Asian Games, Medi e anean Games and Commonweal h
Games).
No es
1 Some o he in o ma ion and analyses included in his sec ion we e d awn om: Bayle,
E. (2024) ‘Changes o he IOC’s go e nance du ing Thomas Bach’s p esidency: In ense
ins i u ional wo k o achie e balance and comp omise’, Spo in Socie y, pp. 1– 25,
doi: h ps// doi.o g/ 10.1080/ 17430 437.2024.2310 696
2 In 1987, Bennis and Nanus p oposed he ac onym VUCA o hese ou adjec i es, which
ha e in luenced he s a egic leade ship o o ganisa ions in nume ous business sec o s.
3 3.6 billion iewe s o London 2012, 3.2 billion o Rio 2016 and 3.05 billion o
Tokyo 2020.
4 In Augus 2023, he BRICS g oup in i ed Saudi A abia, Uni ed A ab Emi a es, I an,
Egyp , E hiopia and A gen ina o join hem o o m a powe ul i al o he Uni ed S a es.
This new g ouping will come in o being on 1 Janua y 2024.
5 India’s candida e will p obably be Ahmedabad, which has al eady unde aken o in es
€721 million in building spo s acili ies in he p ospec o hos ing he Olympic Games.
6 www.ins ide hega mes.biz/ a ic les/ 1141 743/ pa ick- nally- big- ead- ioc- inanc ial
7 Acco ding o he Council o Eu ope’s 2021 Eu opean Spo s Cha e , spo in eg i y
encompasses pe sonal, compe i i e and o ganisa ional in eg i y.
8 The bi- annual Summe Wo ld Uni e si y Games, o me ly known as he Uni e siades,
a e one o he wo ld’s bigges spo s e en s, behind he Summe Olympic Games and
Men’s Foo ball Wo ld Cup. The 12 days o compe i ion in ol e 10,000 a hle es and
ecei e 300 million in e ne iews, as do he Win e Wo ld Uni e si y Games, which
las 11 days and in ol e 2,500 a hle es. www. isu.ne / isu- e e n s/ isu- sum me - wo ld-
uni e s i y- games/
9 In e na ional Fede a ion o Spo Climbing, c ea ed in 2007.
10 The IOC added ska eboa ding o he Olympic p og amme o b ing he spo wi hin
he Fédé a ion In e na ionale de Rolle Spo s ( enamed Wo ld Ska e in 2017), which
go e ns o he olle - ska e disciplines, including a is ic olle ska ing, speed ska ing,
ink hockey and inline hockey. Howe e , only ska eboa ding, which began as a coun e -
cul u e spo , will be on he o icial Olympic p og amme.
11 In compa ison, Viacom 18 paid FIFA €54 million o b oadcas ing igh s o he 2022
Wo ld Cup in Qa a .
12 Zwi (cycling), Jus Dance (dancing), G an Tu ismo (mo o spo ), Vi ual Rega a
(sailing), Chess, WBSC eBaseball: Powe P os (baseball), Vi ual Taekwondo, Tennis
Clash, Fo ni e (shoo ing), Tic Tac Bow (a che y).
13 One o he i s was he Tennis In eg i y Uni , c ea ed in 2018.
14 IOC (2024) Sa e Spo . A ailable a : h ps:// olymp ics.com/ ioc/ sa e- spo (Accessed:
12 Ma ch 2024).
15 EU Ad oca e Gene al Ran os: The FIFA- UEFA ules unde which any new compe i ion
is subjec o p io app o al a e compa ible wi h EU compe i ion law, Communica ions
Di ec o a e P ess Release 205/ 22, Decembe 2022, Uni cu ia.eu opa.eu, CaseC-
333/ 21.
16 IPACS (2024) Abou IPACS. A ailable a : www.ipacs.spo / abou - ipacs
70 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
17 A majo NGO has c i icised he IOC’s senio manage s’ emune a ion: $1.426 million o
he di ec o gene al, $920,000 dolla s o he chie ope a ing o ice , acco ding o: www.
ins ide hega mes.biz/ a ic les/ 1141 368/ da id- owen- blog- us- docum en - ioc- inan ces
18 P. Nally, an expe in he Olympic business, gi es an es ima e o 30% bu wi hou ci ing
any sou ces. He also ques ions he ailu e o consolida e cos s linked o he ma ke ing
company TMS (an IOC- owned o - p o i company ha manages he IOC’s sponso ship
and ma ke ing con ac s), o OBS, owned by he IOC, and o he Olympic Games. www.
ins ide hega mes.biz/ a ic les/ 1141 743/ pa ick- nally- big- ead- ioc- inanc ial
19 Membe s ecei e €6,500 pe yea o co e adminis a i e expenses and €418 o
e e y day hey wo k. The IOC’s p esiden ecei es €225,000 pe annum (Sou ce: IOC
epo , 2022).
20 Fo a c i ical analysis o in e na ional spo ’s codes o e hics and e hics commissions,
see: Cons and and Willem (2021).
21 See McGilli ay e al. (2019) o mo e on bidding, planning and deli e ing majo spo s
e en s ha le e human igh s.
22 F ancs Jeux (2023) Les Jeux des BRICS oien ès g and. A ailable a : www. a ncsj
eux.com/ b e es/ les- jeux- des- b ics- oi en - g and
23 The bidding p ocess o hos ing an edi ion o he Olympic Games leads candida e ci -
ies o o e s a e hei cases by unde - es ima ing he cos o acili ies and o s aging he
e en . Fo he ci y ha ob ains he Games, his unde - es ima ion esul s in a subs an-
ial inc ease in he ac ual cos , which may be wice he amoun o iginally indica ed
(And e , 2012).
24 Ele en yea s be o e he e en , a he han he usual se en yea s.
25 In 2016, he Eu opean Olympic Commi ees designed a go e nance lea ning and
assessmen ool called SIGGS (Sel - e alua ion Tool on Good Go e nance o Na ional
Olympic Commi ees). www.siggs.eu/ index.h ml
26 Ca bon o se ing is becoming inc easingly con o e sial. A s udy by ETH Zu ich and
Camb idge Uni e si y ound ha only 12% o ca bon- o se ing p ojec s ul il hei
p omises: www. esea ch- col lec ion.e hz.ch/ han dle/ 20.500.11850/ 620 307
27 A e i s double a ibu ion o he 2030 and 2034 Win e Olympic Games, a he end o
2023 he IOC’s execu i e boa d announced i was looking in o he idea o al e na ing
he Win e Olympics be ween coun ies in Eu ope, No h Ame ica and Asia wi h eli-
able clima ic condi ions.
28 See Chappele , J.- L. (2023) on common heo ies applied o he Olympic Games,
chap e 7, pp. 147– 163.
29 Dimaggio and Powell (1983) de ined an o ganisa ional ield as a g oup o o ganisa ions
ha belong o he same ‘a ea’ o ins i u ional li e. Tha is, an a ena in which o ganisa-
ions ecognise each o he and sha e he same sense o eali y and he same cogni i e
schemas and in e ac a ound ins i u ionalised p ac ices and o ms. Thus, an o ganisa-
ional ield comp ises all he ac o s who help build and main ain ins i u ions in ha ield.
30 The Swiss Associa ion o Spo Manage s plays his ole in Swi ze land.
31 Académie In e na ionale des Sciences e Techniques du Spo : an academic ounda ion
se up by local uni e si ies, he IOC, he ci y o Lausanne and he Vaud can on.
32 Execu i e Mas e s in Spo O ganisa ions Managemen , which Olympic Solida i y uses
o ain Olympic mo emen execu i es and manage s.
33 Simila ly, FIFA, in conjunc ion wi h he CIES, and he UEFA Academy o e ‘in e nal’
aining cou ses o people in ol ed in oo ball.
34 The In e na ional Tennis Fede a ion and Wo ld Rugby a e limi ed pa ne ship com-
panies ( egis e ed in he Bahamas and Wales, espec i ely). Wo ld Sailing is a limi ed
liabili y company ( egis e ed in he Isle o Man).
35 Abou 75% o he IFs based in Swi ze land ha e hei headqua e s in he Vaud Can on,
mos equen ly in Lausanne. Some IFs ha e eloca ed pa o hei headqua e s o
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 71
o he coun ies (e.g., FIFA opened an o ice in Pa is in 2021) o ha e le Swi ze land
comple ely (e.g., Wo ld Aqua ics announced i s in en ion o mo e o Budapes in 2023).
These mo es can be a ibu ed o Swi ze land’s high cos o li ing and/ o geopoli ical
decisions and/ o oppo unis ic decisions aken by newly elec ed p esiden s.
36 Plus 40 sala ied employees a he Wo ld Cycling Cen e.
37 Acco ding o UCI p esiden D. Lappa ien (in e iew wi h L’Équipe on 16 May 2023),
in 2022 he UCI spen $10 million o i s $45 million budge on he igh agains dop-
ing. An i- doping es ing, ca ied ou by he In e na ional Tes ing Agency since Oc obe
2020, consumes 30% o he In e na ional Weigh li ing Fede a ion’s budge .
38 This p ojec , launched by he NGO Play he Game, wi h suppo om he Danish go -
e nmen and a conso ium o pa ne s, e alua es ou a eas o IF go e nance: ans-
pa ency and public communica ion, democ a ic p ocesses, in e nal accoun abili y and
con ol and socie al esponsibili y. www.play heg ame.o g/ p oje c s/ spo s- go e na nce-
obse e - sgo/ . A e sion o his ool o NFs has also been d awn up: he ‘Na ional
Spo s Go e nance Obse e ’.
39 ‘The main excep ion in Eu ope is G ea B i ain’s NOC (B i ish Olympic Associa ion),
which is no an umb ella o ganisa ion o he Uni ed Kingdom’s NFs, as mos spo s
ha e an NF o each o he Uni ed Kingdom’s ‘home na ions’ (England, Sco land,
Wales, No he n I eland). I is also he case o mos coun ies in he Commonweal h,
whe e a ‘spo council’ eg ouping all he coun y’s NFs exis s alongside he NF
(Chappele , 2023).
40 Fo example, FIBA has a ibu ed he las h ee men’s Baske ball Wo ld Cups o coun-
ies in Asia: China in 2019, Japan/ Philippines/ Indonesia in 2023 and Qa a in 2027.
Asia’s a ac i eness is due o a combina ion o he po en ial o g owing baske ball in
he egion and Asian coun ies’ abili y o pay he high ee FIBA demands o hos ing
he e en .
41 Sheikh Talal eplaced his elde b o he , Sheikh Ahmad Al- Fahad Al- Sabah, who led he
OCA o 30 yea s, un il 2021. Sheikh Ahmad, an IOC membe since 1992, a membe
o he FIFA Council, p esiden o he Associa ion o NOCs since 2012 and p esiden
o nume ous spo o ganisa ions in Asia (handball, oo ball, e c.) was long conside ed
one o he mos in luen ial people in he Olympic mo emen . In July 2023, he IOC
banned him o h ee yea s o ha ing in e e ed in he ecen elec ion o he p esiden
o he Asian Olympic Council, in which his younge b o he , Sheikh Talal, na owly
bea he p esiden o Wo ld Aqua ics, Husain Al- Musallam. Al- Musallam was himsel
implica ed in a inancial scandal ha shook Wo ld Aqua ics ( hen known as FINA) in
2017. The IOC annulled he elec ion. See: www.ins ide hega mes.biz/ a ic les/ 1138 711/
she ikh- alal- elec ed- oca- p esid en
42 Acco ding o IOC ules, an OCOG’s execu i e body mus include he coun y’s IOC
membe (s), he NOC’s p esiden and gene al sec e a y and a leas one membe ep e-
sen ing and chosen by he hos ci y.
43 This o ganisa ion was es ablished o ‘help newly independen coun ies, pa icula ly
in Asia and A ica, o de elop hei own bodies o p omo e he expansion o spo
h oughou he coun y’ (Sou ce: h ps:// olymp ics.com/ ioc/ 1962- c ea ion- o - olym pic-
sol ida i y#)
44 IOC (2022) Basic Uni e sal P inciples o Good Go e nance wi hin he Olympic
Mo emen . A ailable a : h ps:// s ill med.olymp ics.com/ media/ Docume n s/ Bey ond- he-
Games/ In eg i y/ Bonne- Gou e na nce- EN.pd
45 Expe ienced manage s in de eloping coun ies o en ea n less han €1,000 dolla s
a mon h.
46 A he end o 2021 Ca los Nuzman, a o me IOC membe , head o he Rio Olympic
Games and p esiden o B azil’s NOC, was sen enced o 30 yea s in p ison o co up-
ion ela ing o Rio’s winning bid o hos he Olympic Games. I eland’s Pa ick Hickey,
72 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
a membe o he IOC’s Execu i e Boa d and p esiden o he Eu opean Olympic
Commi ees, was accused o illegally selling icke s o he Rio Olympic. The p esi-
den o Japan’s Olympic commi ee, an IOC membe , was o ced o esign in 2019
o e suspicions o co up ion wi h espec o he a ibu ion o he Tokyo Olympics.
Finally, a scandal in ol ing se e al Japanese businessmen and Olympic Games’ spon-
so s esul ed in wo o hese men ecei ing suspended p ison sen ences o se e al
mon hs in 2023.
47 Play he Game (2017) One in Se en Olympic Commi ees A e Di ec ly Linked o
Go e nmen s. A ailable a : www.play heg ame.o g/ news/ one- in- se en- olym pic- com
mi ees- a e- di ec ly- lin ked- o- go e nme n s/
48 ‘Macao is a special case. This special adminis a i e egion o China has i s own NOC
(c ea ed in 1987), ecognised by he OCA. I includes 20 NFs a ilia ed o Olympic
IFs. Macao sends i s own eam o egional games in Asia h ough an ag eemen
be ween China, Macao and he OCA. The appea ance o his NOC has no posed
a p oblem, a leas on he con inen al le el. On he o he hand, i s non- con o mi y
wi h Olympic ules p e en s i aking pa in Olympic Games unde i s own colou s’
(Chame ois, 2006).
49 Su eys conduc ed a yea be o e he Pa is 2024 Olympic Games ha e p oduced con a-
dic o y esul s wi h only 20% o F ench people en husias ic abou he Olympic Games
acco ding o one su ey (Les Echos – Ins i u Mon aigne) and 72% suppo o Pa is
2024 acco ding o ano he (Toluna Ha is In e ac i e conduc ed o he Pa is 2024
OCOG). These esul s h ow doub on he su ey me hodologies used and he inde-
pendence o he polling companies. A su ey ca ied ou by Odoxa o Winamax and
RTL on 12 No embe 2023 ound ha 4% o people in he G ea e Pa is a ea in end o
a end he Games, 32% o esponden s looked o wa d o he Games’ a mosphe e and
52% we e ei he no in e es ed o in ended o lea e Pa is. Abou 15% o esponden s
in end o en ou hei house o apa men .
50 This exp ession does no mean much o he han ha he Olympic Games will no exceed
he ag eed budge . And he Pa is Olympics will also ecei e axpaye s’ money o build
and eno a e spo s acili ies, suppo ce ain p ojec s and pay o secu i y. The issue is
whe he he public unding associa ed wi h he Pa is Olympics has been well used and
o wha i will con ibu e.
51 The mos expensi e icke s o he opening ce emony cos €2,700 and hose o he
inals o popula e en s such as swimming cos almos €1,000. On he o he hand, 1 mil-
lion icke s will be a ailable a €24 and some ou doo e en s on he Seine will be ee o
wa ch, wi h no icke equi ed.
52 These Games came close o being cancelled and we e opposed by mos Japanese people.
Ne e heless, he Japanese go e nmen held i m and s aged a success ul e en , despi e
i being pos poned o a yea (while keeping he name Tokyo 2020) because o COVID
19. In ligh o his con ex , a Japanese TOP sponso , Toyo a, decided no o ac i a e i s
Olympic ma ke ing igh s o he Tokyo Olympics. www.lemo nde. / spo / a i cle/ 2021/
07/ 22/ l- opp osi ion- aux- jeux- oly mpiq ues- e ele- les- i ail leme n s- du- jap on_ 6 0892 18_ 3
242.h ml
53 A mass- pa icipa ion ma a hon du ing he Olympic Games and nume ous cul u al
e en s bea ing he Olympic label will con ibu e o his.
54 ‘B ing he na ion oge he h ough spo ’ (Fai e na ion pa le spo ) was he i le o a
epo by Ka l Oli e, published on 22 Feb ua y 2022.
55 IOC (2023) B isbane 2032 Re eals 20- Yea Legacy S a egy Aiming o A Heal hie ,
Mo e Ac i e and Inclusi e Socie y. A ailable a : h ps:// olymp ics.com/ ioc/ news/ b isb
ane- 2032- e e als- 20- yea - leg acy- s a egy- aim ing- o - a- heal h ie - mo e- ac i e- and-
inclus i e- soci e y
Olympic Go e nance unde P essu e 73
56 IOC (2017) IOC Ac i ely P omo ing Heal h and Physical Ac i i y h ough he New
In e na ional Global Ac i e Ci y P og amme. A ailable a : h ps:// olymp ics.com/ ioc/
news/ ioc- ac i ely- p omo ing- hea l h- and- physi cal- ac i i y- h o ugh- he- new- in e n a io
nal- glo bal- ac i e- ci y- p og a mme
57 FISU (2022) Heal hy Campus P og amme Passes 100 Uni e si ies Regis e ed.
A ailable a : www. isu.ne / news/ isu- heal hy- cam pus/ isu- heal hy- cam pus- p og a
mme- pas ses- 100- uni e si ies- eg is e ed
58 To a oid compe i ion wi h i s Men’s Wo ld Cup, FIFA allows each squad o 18 play-
e s o include only 3 playe s o e he age o 23. This es ic ion does no apply o he
women’s Olympic oo ball ou namen .
59 In an in e iew wi h L’Équipe published on 13 Feb ua y 2024, he young Spania d
and wo ld numbe 2 Ca los Alca az said: ‘I I had o choose o 2024, I’d a he win
Olympic gold han Roland Ga os’, e en hough he Olympic ou namen does no gi e
p ize money o ATP poin s.
60 IFs and NFs o eam spo s ha e eached ag eemen s wi h p o essional clubs o e inju y
insu ance o hei playe s.
61 In F ance, his da es om he Ac o 27 No embe 2015, which p o ec s eli e and p o-
essional a hle es and de ines hei legal and social s a us.
62 Ingle, S. (2024) ‘Coe de ends Wo ld A hle ics’ mo e o awa d $50,000 o Olympic gold
winne s’, The Gua dian, 10 Ap il. A ailable a : www. heg ua d ian.com/ spo / 2024/ ap /
10/ wo ld- a hle ics- in odu ces- 50000- dol la - p ize- money- o - olym pic- gold- med alli s s
(Accessed 26 Ap il 2024).
63 Candida es mus be p oposed by hei NOC, mus ha e aken pa in Olympic Games
and mus ne e ha e been sanc ioned o doping. They will be elec ed by hei pee s
du ing he Pa is Olympic Games.
64 Fo mo e on a hle es’ demands, see Chappele (2023, pp. 63– 79).
65 Human Righ s Wa ch, 16 Decembe 2022: ‘The Wo ld Cup will come o an end wi hou
compensa ion o mig an wo ke s’.
66 Alliance clima ique suisse, Ca bon Ma ke Wa ch (Belgium), New Wea he Ins i u e
(G ea B i ain) and F ee Foo ball and Reclame Fossie ij (Ne he lands). These o gani-
sa ions d ew mos ly on a epo by he NGO Ca bon Ma ke Wa ch.
67 This issue was he subjec o a con e ence in ol ing in e na ional spo o ganisa-
ions, in e na ional go e nmen al o ganisa ions and NGOs: Achie ing SDGs h ough
Spo : Pa ne ships and ins i u ional esponses o g ea e cohe ence and e ec i eness,
5 Oc obe 2017 in Lausanne.
68 Fo example, P o ec ou Win e s’ 2023 campaign called on he In e na ional Ski
Fede a ion o s op i s g eenwashing ega ding he Alpine Ski Wo ld Cup e en s a
Sölden (Aus ia) and Ze ma (Swi ze land), whe e he use o mechanical digge s
o p epa e ski uns o Wo ld Cup compe i ions in la e Oc obe and ea ly No embe
2023 caused ex ensi e damage o he a eas’ glacie s (www.p o ec ou win e s.
ch/ / ).
69 Olympic Re ugee Founda ion, es ablished by he IOC in 2017 and which wo ks wi h he
Uni ed Na ions high Commission o Re ugees: h ps:// olymp ics.com/ cio/ news/ l- olym
pic- e uge- ou nda ion- en o ce- son- sou ien- aux- e ug ies- du- monde- en ie
70 FIFA Founda ion, se up in 2018: www. i a.com/ / soc ial- imp ac / i a- ou nda ion/
abou - us
71 UEFA Founda ion o Child en, c ea ed in 2014: h ps:// onda ionu e a.o g/ in o ma i
ons- gene a les/ his o i e- de- la- onda ion/
72 See, o example, hei highly c i ical epo on Saudi A abia’s spo swashing s a egy,
published in No embe 2023: www.play heg ame.o g/ news/ he- powe - play e s- beh ind-
saudi- a ab ias- spo s- s a egy/

74 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
73 Play he Game (2023), Clea ingSpo : Almos 200 Expe s Call o an Agency
agains Co up ion and C ime in Wo ld Spo . A ailable a : www.play heg ame.
o g/ news/ clea i ngsp o - alm os - 200- expe s- call- o - an- age ncy- agai ns - co up
ion- and- c ime- in- wo ld- spo /
74 Fo mo e on his subjec , see Mangin, V. (2023), The IOC Is Unde P essu e om he
Wes , 5 July. A ailable a : www.swissi n o.ch/ eng/ busin ess/ he- ioc- is- unde - p ess u e-
om- he- wes / 48641 996
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olymp ics.com/ media/ Docum en %20Lib a y/ Oly mpic O g/ Gene al/ EN- Olym pic- Cha
e .pd ?_ ga= 2.38134 627.112 2345 679.170 9474 170- 405297 204.170 9474 170 (Accessed:
12 Ma ch 2024).
IOC (2014) Olympic Agenda 2020. A ailable a : h ps:// olymp ics.com/ ioc/ olym pic- age nda-
2020 (Accessed: 12 Ma ch 2024).
IOC (2018) Annual Repo 2018. A ailable a : h ps:// s ill med.olym pic.o g/ media/ Docum
en %20Lib a y/ Oly mpic O g/ Docume n s/ IOC- Ann ual- Rep o / IOC- ANN UAL- REP ORT-
2018.pd (Accessed: 12 Ma ch 2024).
IOC (2021) Olympic Agenda 2020+ 5. A ailable a : h ps:// olymp ics.com/ ioc/ olym pic- age
nda- 2020- plus- 5 (Accessed: 12 Ma ch 2024).
Kunz, E.R., Elsässe , F. and San omie , J. (2016) ‘Spo - ela ed b anded en e ainmen : The
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6(5), pp. 520– 541.
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Law ence, T.B. and Suddaby, R. (2006). ‘Ins i u ions and ins i u ional wo k’, in G eenwood,
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pp. 215– 254.
Lo e , A. (2003) Géné a ion glisse, Pa is: Édi ions Au emen .
Magui e, S. and Ha dy, C. (2009). ‘Discou se and deins i u ionaliza ion: The decline o
DDT’, Academy o managemen jou nal, 52(1), pp. 148– 178.
McGilli ay, D. e al. (2019) ‘A concep ual model and esea ch agenda o bidding, plan-
ning and deli e ing majo spo e en s ha le e human igh s’, Leisu e S udies, 38(2),
pp. 175– 190.
Mille , D. (1993) La Ré olu ion Olympique, Po ai de J.A. Sama anch. Lausanne: Payo .
Moon, P., Bayle, E. and F ançois, A. (2021) ‘Assessing in e na ional spo ede a ions’
sus ainabili y p ac ices: Towa d in eg a ing sus ainabili y in hei main spo s e en s’,
F on ie s in Spo s and Ac i e Li ing, 3. doi: h ps:// doi.o g/ 10.3389/ spo .2021.752 085
Moun joy, M. e al. (2019). ‘Heal h p omo ion by in e na ional Olympic spo ede a-
ions: P io i ies and ba ie s’, B i ish Jou nal o Spo s Medicine, 53(17), pp. 1117– 1125.
doi: h ps:// doi.o g/ 10.1136/ bjspo s- 2018- 100 202
Mülle M. e al. (2021) ‘An e alua ion o he sus ainabili y o he Olympic Games’, Na u e
Sus ainabili y. doi: h ps:// doi.o g/ 10.1038/ s41 893- 021- 00696- 5
Nally, P. ‘Is he In e na ional Olympic Commi ee heading o i s own i anic disas e ?’,
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big- ead- ioc- inanc ial (Accessed: 15 Oc obe 2023).
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003802 6123 1217 869
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San ini, D. and Hende son, H. (2021) ‘The winne s and lose s in he ace o en i onmen al
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84 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
(e.g., Play In e na ional, P o Spo De elopmen , Su ide Founda ion, Red C oss,
Te e des Hommes) and mul i udinous na ional o ganisa ions. Some o hese bod-
ies, no ably T anspa ency In e na ional (2016) and Play he Game, ha e se hem-
sel es up as coun e weigh s o he powe o he IFs and he IOC, and o he spo
business in gene al (Gee ae , 2019).
2.1.3 P inciples Unde lying he Model
The model p esen ed he e is ounded on he idea ha he mobilisa ion o one
o mo e o hese ou ypes o egula ion and hei associa ed compe encies can
p oduce speci ic o ms o egula ion. Depending on a spo ’s de elopmen s age
(launch, g ow h, ma u i y, decline) and he in e nal and ex e nal c ises i encoun-
e s, he ac o s will y o s eng hen o conse e hei posi ions o des abilise o
c ea e a new balance in he ecosys em ia con on a ion, nego ia ion and alliances
equi ing new comp omises.
The esul ing con igu a ion can a ec he leade ship o he en i e Olympic
sys em, as well as a speci ic ecosys em and i s ounda ions. This occu ed in 2015
when he Ame ican jus ice sys em’s allega ions o co up ion wi hin he wo ld
oo ball’ go e ning body (legal egula ion, Bayle and Rayne , 2016) igge ed wha
became known as he FIFAga e scandal. The esul ing media and public ou c y
led o changes in he Olympic sys em’s poli ical egula ion ia he in oduc ion
o sel - e alua ions o IFs, acco ding o a p o ocol d awn up by he Associa ion
o Summe Olympic In e na ional Fede a ions (ASOIF) in 2016 (see Chap e 1).
P e ious scandals wi hin FIFA had al eady impac ed he legal egula ion o spo
by p omp ing he Swiss go e nmen o pass a new p i a e- co up ion law (called
he ‘FIFA Ac ’, p omulga ed on 12 Decembe 2014) ha imposes s ic e ules on
he heads o spo o ganisa ions and hei en ou ages. Following he Fes ina a ai
a he 1998 Tou de F ance, which led people a ound he globe o iew cycling as
synonymous wi h doping, he F ench go e nmen played a leading ole in he igh
agains doping by helping o c ea e he Wo ld An i- Doping Agency in 1999 (legal
and poli ical egula ion). As ano he example, he Bosman Ruling, published by he
Eu opean Union in 1999, shook up he legal (and subsequen ly economic) egula-
ion o Eu opean oo ball, and o p o essional eam spo s in gene al (Ga cia and
Meie , 2016). These h ee examples illus a e he impac o ex e nal in e en ions
on a spo ’s ecosys em. Mo e a ely, he spo s mo emen akes s eps in e nally o
modi y he p e ailing pa adigm o head- o he h ea o changes being imposed
om ou side. Fo example, since 2013 he IOC unde Thomas Bach has sough o
modi y he social and poli ical egula ion o in e na ional spo by adop ing a new
s a egy (in 2014) called ‘Agenda 2020’. Mo eo e , he IOC has aken s eps wi h
espec o go e nance and ‘Olympic sus ainabili y’ wi h he aim o inspi ing he
en i e spo s mo emen o adop a new app oach o sus ainabili y (see Chap e 1).
Using he SELP model o analyse he si ua ions in indi idual spo s shows how
he ac o s in di e en spo ecosys ems use hei egula o y compe encies and
esou ces o achie e hei objec i es.

Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 85
To cha ac e ise a spo ’s in e na ional ecosys em, i is necessa y o iden i y he
numbe and ype o ac o s con olling he spo and de e mine he weigh each o
hese ac o s has. E e y spo ’s ecosys em is ei he pa o o di ec ly o indi ec ly
connec ed o he la ge Olympic sys em, e en in he case o non- Olympic spo s.
2.1.4 The Fou Key Va iables in a Spo ’s In e na ional
Ecosys em
E e y spo ’s in e na ional ecosys em can be cha ac e ised ia ou a iables:
a The numbe o ac o s in ol ed.
b The uni o mi y o in e na ional ules o play.
c Who con ols he in e na ional compe i ion calenda and wo ld ankings.
d Who owns/ con ols hallma k e en s.
(a) Numbe o ac o s in ol ed
The g ea e he numbe o ac o s in ol ed in con olling a spo , he mo e com-
plex egula ion becomes, especially i he e is no ob ious hie a chy among hese
ac o s. Boxing is a good example o his, as he In e na ional Boxing Associa ion
(IBA) aces se e al comme cial boxing compe i ion ope a o s and a mul i ude o
small e en o ganise s. Mo eo e , he IBA los i s IOC ecogni ion in 2023 and saw
he eme gence o a i al (Wo ld Boxing) o i s posi ion as he spo ’s IF. Tennis’s
ecosys em is also agmen ed wi h h ee majo ope a o s: he In e na ional Tennis
Fede a ion (ITF); he ou G and Slam ou namen s, which a e un independen ly
om he ITF bu by ITF membe s (excep o Wimbledon); and he independen
men’s (ATP) and women’s (WTA) p o essional ci cui s. Exhibi ion- s yle compe i-
ions such as he La e Cup, se up by Roge Fede e and his agen in 2017 along a
simila model o he Ryde Cup, and Ul ima e Tennis Showdown, launched in 2020
by Pa ick Mou a oglou, who uns an in e na ional ennis academy, ea u e sho e -
o ma ma ches o a ac a younge audience. These e en s ha e now been joined
by wo mo e exhibi ion ma ches/ ou namen s: The Ne lix Slam, in Las Vegas (a
ma ch be ween Nadal and Alca az), and he Six Kings Slam, held in Saudi A abia
in Oc obe 2024. This p og essi e de egula ion o he p o essional ennis calenda
by comme cial ope a o s makes he c ea ion o global ennis supe league look
mo e likely.
O he spo s wi h mul iple con olling ac o s include cycling, baske ball and
swimming. Cycling has ou majo ope a o s: he Union Cyclis e In e na ionale
(UCI, cycling’s IF); he powe ul p ess and e en s g oup Amau y Spo
O ganisa ion, which owns he Tou de F ance and (since 2014) he Vuel a a Espana;
he RCS Spo publishing g oup, which owns he Gi o d’I alia; and Flande s
Classics, which owns se e al classic aces in Belgium and he Ne he lands. The
In e na ional Baske ball Fede a ion (FIBA) aces wo e y powe ul and hege-
monic ope a o s: No h Ame ica’s NBA, which has adop ed an inc easingly global
86 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
ma ke ing s a egy, and Eu ope’s Tu kish Ai lines Eu oLeague, a semi- closed
league o med in 2000 by a p i a e comme cial o ganisa ion called he Union o
Eu opean Leagues o Baske ball (ULEB). ULEB deli e s Eu ope’s mos p es i-
gious club i le, in con as o oo ball, whe e i is he spo ’s Eu opean ede a ion,
UEFA, ha owns he con inen ’s p eeminen club compe i ion (UEFA Champion’s
League). Con ol o e in e na ional swimming ecen ly appea ed o be e ol ing
owa ds a duopoly be ween he In e na ional Swimming Fede a ion (FINA) and he
In e na ional Swimming League (ISL), ounded in 2019 by a powe ul Russian oli-
ga ch. Howe e , COVID- 19 cu ailed he ISL’s ini ial ambi ions, and he compe i-
ion could disappea a e losing a lawsui in he Uni ed S a es (Inside he Games,
9 Janua y 2023).
Con ol o e oo ball is domina ed by wo non- p o i bodies: he spo ’s in e -
na ional ede a ion (FIFA), which owns he highly luc a i e Foo ball Wo ld
Cup, and UEFA, which owns and s ages he Eu o and Na ions League ou na-
men s o na ional sides and se e al Eu opean club compe i ions (Men’s and
Women’s Champions Leagues, Eu opa League, e c.). Al hough p i a e comme -
cial ope a o s ha e a emp ed on nume ous occasions o make in oads in o he
p o essional oo ball e en ecosys em (including he Eu opean Supe League,
announced in 2021 bu apidly quashed by he media), none o hese e o s has
succeeded.
Many o he spo s’ ecosys ems ha e jus one dominan ac o , who holds a
i ual monopoly o e he spo . In many en i ely ama eu spo s (e.g., owing,
canoeing, encing, a che y), his ac o is he spo ’s IF. Howe e , he e a e also
a ew new spo s ha do no ha e an IF and whe e he single dominan ac o is
a comme cial company. This was he case in ee ide skiing un il 2023, when
he Swiss company F ee Ride Wo ld Tou Managemen , which owned he spo ’s
bigges p o essional and junio e en s, was bough by he In e na ional Ski and
Snowboa d Fede a ion.
Thus, his o ical and cul u al/ iden i y easons (e.g., whe he a spo is global
o popula on jus one o wo con inen s), combined wi h economic oppo unism
(exis ence o absence o a ma ke ), ha e led o la ge di e ences be ween spo s in
e ms o he numbe , ype, economic weigh , ins i u ional in luence, legal s a us
and objec i es o he ac o s in ol ed.
(b) Uni o mi y o in e na ional ules o play
The numbe o con olling ac o s and hei i al ies can de e mine whe he a spo
has a uni o m se o ules o all compe i ions (as in oo ball) o di e en ules o
compe i ions wi h di e en owne s. Spo s in his la e si ua ion include baske -
ball, whe e FIBA and he NBA ha e di e en ules, and ennis, whe e he numbe
o se s needed o win a ma ch di e s be ween compe i ions and whe e, un il 2023,
each G and Slam ou namen had i s own ules o deciding he inal se . Ha ing
a uni o m se o ules o all compe i ions h oughou he wo ld p o ides cla i y
o all o an ecosys em’s s akeholde s, bu whe he a spo is able o achie e
Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 87
consensus on his issue depends on he balance o powe be ween i s ecosys em’s
main ac o s.
(c) Con ol o e he in e na ional compe i ion calenda and wo ld
ankings
Who con ols he in e na ional compe i ion calenda and wo ld ankings is ano he
key aspec o in e na ional spo ecosys ems. In oo ball, FIFA and i s con inen al
and na ional associa ions ha e comple e con ol o e he spo ’s calenda , om
in e na ional compe i ions o con inen al club compe i ions and na ional p o es-
sional leagues and/ o championships. As a esul , a oiding clashes be ween majo
compe i ions is easie o oo ball han i is o spo s wi hou uni ied calenda s,
such as baske ball and ice hockey. Con ol o e he calenda gene ally goes hand-
in- hand wi h con ol o e wo ld ankings and awa ding i les (wo ld champion,
con inen al champion, e c.) and some imes wi h con ol o e majo p o essional
compe i ions. The UCI is an excep ion o his ule. Despi e no owning mos o
oad cycling’s main compe i ions and despi e ha ing a powe ul compe i o in he
o m o Amau y Spo O ganisa ion, du ing he 2000s he UCI managed o uni y
he in e na ional calenda and ake con ol o e wo ld ankings o p o essional id-
e s. Mo eo e , i managed o pe suade e en o ganise s and eams o pay ees o
ea u e in i s in e na ional ci cui , he UCI Wo ld Tou (Aubel and Ohl, 2015).
I con ol o e a spo ’s in e na ional compe i ion calenda and wo ld ankings is
agmen ed, he spo is likely o be less a ac i e o i s ans and inancial backe s,
who ind i di icul o unde s and he spo ing hie a chy.
(d) Owne ship and con ol o hallma k e en s by an IF
Hallma k is he e m used o desc ibe a spo ’s mos p es igious and mos luc a i e
compe i ions, capable o gene a ing subs an ial e enues ei he di ec ly o indi -
ec ly ia media igh s and sponso ship. The Olympic Games a e he hallma k e en
o mos Olympic spo s, bu he e a e Olympic spo s in which a wo ld cham-
pionship o comme cial e en supe sedes he Olympics. These e en s may be held
e e y one, wo, o ou yea s. Foo ball’s hallma k e en is he Wo ld Cup, which is
owned by he spo ’s IF (FIFA) and is held e e y ou yea s. O he spo s’ hallma k
e en s a e owned by p i a e ope a o s, ou side he IF’s con ol. This is he case in
cycling and ennis, whe e he Tou de F ance and ou G and Slam ou namen s a e
mo e impo an han he Olympic Games.
2.1.5 Resou ces and Compe encies Needed o he Fou
Types o Regula ion
Each o he ou a eas o egula ion (social, economic, legal and poli ical) equi es
speci ic compe encies ha de e mine how he ac o s in an ecosys em use esou ces
and how hey use hem.
88 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
2.1.5.1 Social Regula ion
Social egula ion shapes he amewo k o de eloping spo and/ o p omo ing
de elopmen h ough spo . These ini ia i es, which can bene i he gene al popu-
la ion as well as a spo ’s pa icipan s, con ibu e o he social esponsibili y p o-
g ammes implemen ed by ac o s in a spo ’s ecosys em.
Wo ldwide spo de elopmen p og ammes. Do a spo ’s main ac o s un de elop-
men p og ams o help na ional ede a ions and hei clubs de elop he spo (e.g.,
building acili ies, aining coaches and umpi es, suppo ing women’s spo , p o-
mo ing spo o people wi h disabili ies, e c.)?
De elopmen h ough spo p og ammes. Do a spo ’s main ac o s un de el-
opmen h ough spo p og ams, ei he ia a ounda ion o ia pa ne ships wi h
cha i ies o NGOs? Such p og ams may co e in e na ional de elopmen issues
anging om imp o ing public heal h o p omo ing social in eg a ion and com-
ba ing acism and disc imina ion.
Solida i y wi h leas de eloped coun ies. Do a spo ’s main ac o s o e solida i y
and aid p og ams o help poo e coun ies o coun ies hi by na u al disas e s
o wa ?
Sus ainabili y ac ions. Do a spo ’s main ac o s ha e a clea sus ainabili y s a egy
ha is isible bo h in e nally and ex e nally? A e sus ainabili y ini ia i es jus
g eenwashing o conc e e, ans o ma ional ac ions?
2.1.5.2 Economic Regula ion
Economic egula ion shapes he business model adop ed o a spo ’s compe i ions
and de e mines who, i anyone, edis ibu es compe i ion e enues, how much is
edis ibu ed and o whom.
Size o he global economic sec o . A spo ’s global economic sec o co esponds
o he u no e gene a ed by manu ac u e s and dis ibu o s o spo ing goods,
e en o ganise s and membe s o he leisu e sec o in ha spo . This sec o may be
subs an ial, as in ho se iding ( hanks o spo s be ing and he s ud ma ke ) and in
sailing ( hanks o nau ical ou ism), o mo e modes , as in encing and w es ling.
The la ge a spo ’s economic sec o , he easie i is o o ganisa ions in ha spo
o gene a e p o i able business models.
Economic alue and p o i abili y o a spo ’s hallma k compe i ions. Does a spo
ha e one o mo e hallma k compe i ions/ e en s ou side he Olympic Games ha
gene a e su icien income o he ac o s con olling he spo / e en (s) o help und
Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 89
g ass oo s spo ? These compe i ions may be wo ld championships, p i a e com-
me cial e en s and/ o an in e na ional p o essional ci cui .
Redis ibu ion o su pluses and e ec s o de eloping spo . Is pa o he su plus/
p o i om majo spo s e en s edis ibu ed o help de elop he spo ? Wha a e
he e ec s o he sums edis ibu ed?
The spo ’s image and ex e nali ies. Do he public and he au ho i ies ha e a posi-
i e image o he spo ? Ha ing a posi i e and a ac i e image bo h legi imises
go e nmen suppo o spo and spo e en s and helps a ac olun ee s.
2.1.5.3 Legal Regula ion
Legal egula ion shapes a spo ’s in e na ional egula o y amewo k and he way
in which spo o ganisa ions and na ional and in e na ional judicial bodies apply
his amewo k.
In luence on na ional legisla ion. Is a spo ’s IF o ano he majo ac o able o
ob ain di ec o indi ec legisla i e ad an ages in i s hos coun y by demons a ing
he impo ance o i s e en s and/ o i s social u ili y? Fo example, depending on
whe e i s head o ice is loca ed, an IF may be able o nego ia e di ec and indi ec
inancial ad an ages (e.g., ax b eaks).
In luence on Eu opean law. Is he spo ’s main ac o able o in luence Eu opean
legisla ion by demons a ing he impo ance o i s e en s (di ec o indi ec ad an-
ages ecognised by Eu opean law) and/ o he e ec i eness o i s egula o y sys em
( aining, labou - ma ke ules, comme cialisa ion o spo , e c.)?
Numbe (and ela i e cos ) o dispu es submi ed o he CAS. How o en do a
spo ’s s akeholde s submi g ie ances o he CAS? Such li iga ion can ha e sub-
s an ial cos s o a spo , bo h di ec ly (p ocedu al cos s and lawye s’ ees) and
indi ec ly (damage o he spo ’s image). Is he spo impac ed by li iga ion in
na ional cou s? Such li iga ion, especially c iminal p osecu ions, may ecei e
ex ensi e media co e age and damage he spo ’s image.4
Policy on (and ela i e cos o ) p o ec ing spo ing in eg i y. Does he IF and/ o
ano he ac o alloca e legal and inancial esou ces o comba , alone o collec i ely,
p oblems impac ing spo ing in eg i y (ma ch ixing, doping, co up ion, iolence,
acism, psychological and sexual ha assmen o a hle es and/ o o he s akeholde s,
e c.)? How signi ican a e any measu es aken and how independen a e hey? How
does he ede a ion and i s membe s add ess issues a ec ing in eg i y (e.g., ia e h-
ics and/ o disciplina y commi ees and/ o in eg i y uni s)? Does he ede a ion ac
alone o in conjunc ion wi h o he ac o s (public au ho i ies, speci ic body, e c.)?
How c edible a e i s e hics policies?

90 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
2.1.5.4 Poli ical Regula ion
Poli ical egula ion aims o shape he ela ionships be ween an ecosys em’s main
ac o s and ensu e hese ela ionships a e ha monious (pa ne ships on p inciples/
ac ions) and p oduc i e o de eloping he ecosys em. Ways o achie ing his
include se ing up discussion o ums and encou aging o icial and/ o uno icial
exchanges. Poli ical egula ion can also be pe cei ed as a way o si ing p esiden s
o con ol a ede a ion’s in e nal poli ical sys em ( o e ain hei posi ions), no ably
ia economic egula ion (p ize money awa ded o a hle es, s ipends and/ o a el
expenses paid o leade s who o e in elec ions).
In eg i y policy (doping, ma ch ixing, e c.). Has a spo ’s main ac o d awn up a
spo ing in eg i y policy, ei he in e nally and/ o in conjunc ion wi h o he ac o s,
no ably he Wo ld An i- Doping Agency and he In e na ional Tes ing Agency?
How e ec i e a e hese policies? How do ac o s wo k oge he wi hin he spo
and wi h ex e nal s akeholde s o implemen uly e ec i e and c edible policies on
his issue? Ha e hey joined/ ecognised na ional bodies such as he na ional an i-
doping and spo s in eg i y agencies being se up in many coun ies?
Quali y o he main ac o ’s go e nance. How good is he go e nance o a spo ’s
main ac o , such as an IF? ‘Good go e nance’ can be assessed ia he indica o s d awn
up by he ASOIF o , be e , ia o he independen se s o indica o s (Gee ae , 2019).
In addi ion, mo e quali a i e ex e nal s udies and in es iga ions by expe s and in es-
iga i e jou nalis s can e eal p oblems such as con lic s o in e es and/ o scandals.
P esence o dialogue and decision- making mechanisms in a spo ’s go e nance.
Ha e an ecosys em’s ac o s c ea ed discussion and decision- making mechanisms
(o icial o uno icial) wi hin he spo ? Do hese mechanisms encou age ac o s o
each consensuses on impo an issues and p oduce a sha ed ision o how o de elop
he spo ha inco po a es di e en s akeholde s’ in e es s and expec a ions?
Powe o he main ac o in he go e nance o in e na ional spo . Does a spo ’s
ecosys em ha e a clea leade ? Is he main ac o ’s philosophy p edominan ly soci-
e al (de elopmen o spo and/ o h ough spo ) o economic (maximise p o i s o
e en owne s)?
The hemes/ issues included wi hin he amewo k desc ibed abo e can be used
o analyse each spo ’s global ecosys em and o de e mine how he ac o s in his
ecosys em use he ou a eas o egula ion and he compe encies associa ed wi h
each a ea. Such analyses shed ligh on he ways in which o ganisa ions gain, main-
ain and lose con ol o e a spo and on how bo h he comp omises be ween ac o s
and an ecosys em’s s abili y/ ins abili y impac he e olu ion o he spo in ques ion
and o spo in gene al.
Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 91
2.2 Fi e Regula ion Con igu a ions o In e na ional
Spo
Whe eas he no ion o go e nance desc ibes a sys em’s ins i u ional amewo k
and decision- making mechanisms, he concep o egula ion e e s o social, legal
and poli ical modes o in e ac ion and coo dina ion and he economic lows wi hin
an ecosys em. To acili a e compa isons o egula o y sys ems, Bayle (2023) used
a quali a i e analysis (Fox- Wol g amm, 1997) o a ound 30 Olympic and non-
Olympic spo s o iden i y ‘ideal’, in he Webe ian sense o he e m, egula ion
con igu a ions in wo ld spo . The i e con igu a ions Bayle iden i ied a e: egula-
ion domina ed by an IF, egula ion coo dina ed by an IF, pa allel egula ion by an
IF and a comme cial body, egula ion domina ed by a comme cial ope a o (s) and
o ally p i a e egula ion by a comme cial ope a o (s).
2.2.1 Regula ion Domina ed by an In e na ional Fede a ion
In his con igu a ion, an IF (and i s con inen al and na ional ede a ions) con ols
a spo ’s ules o play, calcula es wo ld ankings and owns he spo ’s hallma k
compe i ions. IFs in his posi ion gene ally ook con ol o hei spo du ing i s
ea ly days and hen locked ou possible compe i o s by sanc ioning clubs ha
did no espec hei ules on eleasing playe s o ep esen na ional eams a he
IF’s compe i ions. Dominan IFs ac i a e hei social egula ion by edis ibu ing
a p opo ion o hei e enues o na ional ede a ions, which in es hese sums
in de elopmen p og ammes.5 In a new de elopmen , which began in he la e
2000s, many dominan IFs ha e in oduced o ms o poli ical egula ion o s a e
o h ea s om wi hin hei ecosys ems. UEFA, o example, has b ough oge he
key s akeholde s in Eu opean oo ball – playe s unions, clubs, leagues – wi hin a
P o essional Foo ball S a egy Council and has alloca ed wo sea s on i s execu-
i e commi ee o he Eu opean Club Associa ion and one sea o he Eu opean
P o essional Leagues Associa ion. As FIFA did la e , UEFA has also ound new
comp omises wi h espec o economic egula ion, no ably by paying bonuses o
na ional associa ions based on hei ankings and pe o mances in he Eu o ou -
namen (since 2004), compensa ing clubs who elease playe s o in e na ional
du ies and p o iding insu ance o playe s (who a e unde con ac o and paid
by clubs) who ake pa in he Eu o (since 2008). IFs in his ca ego y ecei e all
he in e na ional media and comme cial igh s o hei spo ’s majo compe i ions
while ans e ing he isks o o ganising hese e en s o na ional/ local public
ac o s, who p o ide mos o he unding, mos ly indi ec ly. This unding some-
imes akes he o m o paying a ee o hos a spo ’s wo ld championship/ cup,
p o iding public subsidies and ax b eaks o o ganising commi ees and second-
ing public au ho i y s a o help o ganise an e en (especially anspo a ion and
secu i y ou side enues).
92 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
The key compe ency used by dominan IFs and hei ede al ne wo ks is legal-
poli ical, ha is, he abili y o p e en comme cial ope a o s om aking con ol
o in e na ional and na ional compe i ions. FIFA and Wo ld Rugby p o ide good
illus a ions o his model. Thei o ganisa ional capaci y consis s o ma ke ing one
o wo ou - yea ly mega- e en s o e which hey ha e a monopoly (Rugby Wo ld
Cup, FIFA Wo ld Cup and UEFA Eu o). As Figu e 2.2 shows, FIFA’s business
model is cen ed a ound selling in e na ional media igh s and sponso ship, mos ly
ela ed o i s Men’s Wo ld Cup in B azil ($4.8 billion o 2015– 2018). This income,
which amoun ed o $7.6 billion o he 2019– 2023 cycle and which is expec ed o
g ow o $11 billion o he 2023– 2026 cycle (FIFA, 2022) inances FIFA’s head
o ice ope a ions, i s go e nance, i s o he loss- making in e na ional compe i ions
(women’s and you h) and he sums i edis ibu es o NFs o de elop oo ball. To
ensu e he s aging o he Wo ld Cup and con ol he commi men o i s key s ake-
holde s, FIFA se s aside la ge sums o he ou namen hos ($1.64 billion o he
2014 Wo ld Cup, see Figu e 2.2, ela ing o he 2014 Wo ld Cup in B azil) and o
he eams ha ake pa in he Wo ld Cup inals ($42 million o he winning eam,
$442 million in o al, dis ibu ed acco ding o each eam’s pe o mance and o help
poo e NFs send a eam o he compe i ion). I also compensa es (la ge) p o es-
sional clubs ha ee playe s o ake pa in he ou namen and con inue o pay
hei wages while hese playe s a e on na ional eam du y. Finally, FIFA co e s he
cos o insu ing playe s agains se ious inju y du ing he ou namen and helps und
oo ball de elopmen and oo ball de elopmen p ojec s wi hin he hos coun y’s
legacy p og amme.
Howe e , FIFA’s so- called solida i y model aises se e al ques ions.
Figu e 2.2 The FIFA Wo ld Cup ‘Solida i y Model’.
No e: The sums indica ed a e in $ million.
Sou ce: FIFA (2014).
Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 93
• The e en ’s o ganise s ecei e subs an ial exemp ions om co po a e
income ax. Whe he hese exemp ions a e jus i ied is highly deba able gi en
he amoun o comme cial e enue FIFA ex ac s om he compe i ion, a
la ge pe cen age o which is ans e ed o Swi ze land, home o FIFA’s head
o ice.
• Simila ly, is i jus i iable o in es huge sums o public money in building/ eno-
a ing s adiums and se ing up an zones, e c. o such a highly luc a i e com-
me cial e en ?
• FIFA spends conside able sums on oo ball’s ‘go e nance’. These cos s
(bonuses paid o FIFA execu i es, head- o ice ope a ing cos s, sala y cos s, cos
o holding cong esses and execu i e commi ee mee ings, compensa ion paid o
execu i es, e c.) could be educed o op imised.
• Ques ions can be asked abou he way NFs use he de elopmen unds hey
ecei e om FIFA – e icacy and e ec s on g owing oo ball. Ne e heless,
he sums edis ibu ed (be ween $3 million and $4 million o each NF o ou
yea s) ha e enabled small NFs in poo coun ies ha a e en i ely dependen on
he e enues FIFA edis ibu es o p o essionalise ( ec ui p o essional admin-
is a i e di ec o s, echnical di ec o s, ma ke ing manage s, e c.).
This o m o IF- domina ed egula ion also occu s in a hle ics and olleyball. Wo ld
A hle ics’ hallma k e en , ou side he Olympic Games, is i s wo ld championships,
c ea ed in 1983. As a complemen o his e en , in 2010 i launched he Diamond
League,6 o supe sede he Golden League (1998– 2009), which is un by s akehold-
e s who belong o o who ha e close ies wi h Wo ld A hle ics. Howe e , Wo ld
A hle ics does no con ol ei he he oad- unning o ail- unning ma ke s, which
ha e g own massi ely since he 1980s, al hough i egained a la ge deg ee o con-
ol o e ma a hon unning by c ea ing he ‘Wo ld Ma a hon Majo s’ ci cui .7 Thus,
he con igu a ion in he case o ma a hon unning is close o he egula ion coo -
dina ed by an IF ca ego y desc ibed in he ollowing sec ion. In olleyball, he
In e na ional Volleyball Fede a ion (FIVB) has joined o ces wi h an in es men
und (CVC) o d aw up a s a egy o ma ke ing a ich (bu con using o ans)
po olio o e en s. Wo ld Table Tennis has se up a ci cui simila o ennis’s ATP
and WTA ci cui s, un by a comme cial company ha has been unde Wo ld Table
Tennis’s con ol since 2019.
The In e na ional Ski and Snowboa d Fede a ion (FIS) and he In e na ional
Bia hlon Union (IBU) also all in o his ca ego y because, in addi ion o being
Olympic spo s, hey own in e na ional p o essional ci cui s and lagship wo ld
championship compe i ions. Al hough FIS has se up a comme cial company (FIS
Ma ke ing AG) in conjunc ion wi h wo spo s ma ke ing i ms (T idem SA and
In on SA) o manage media and comme cial igh s o i s e en s, he powe ul
Aus ian and Swiss ski ede a ions ha e sold he igh s o he Wo ld Cup e en s
hey hos o In on , which esells hem o b oadcas e s and sponso s. FIS’s la es
con ac wi h In on , nego ia ed in 2023 by he ede a ion’s new p esiden , gi es
FIS ‘ o al con ol’ o e con ac s, gua an eed minimum sales o €600 million (o e
100 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
only he Uni ed S a es. The In e na ional Fede a ion o Ame ican Foo ball (IFAF),
ounded in 1998, o ganises wo ld championships, bu NFL playe s do no ake pa .
In addi ion, he NFL does no ollow WADA’s an i- doping ules. Ne e heless,
some NFL playe s ha e indica ed hei in e es in compe ing a he 2028 Olympic
Games in he lag oo ball compe i ion o ganised unde he auspices o he IFAF.
Flag oo ball is a limi ed- con ac a ian o Ame ican and Canadian oo ball ha is
much easie o o ganise, as each eam consis s o 45 playe s wi h jus 5 playe s on
he pi ch a any one ime ( e sus 11 playe s in Ame ican oo ball).
Mixed Ma ial A s’ (MMA) majo e en s a e con olled by a ew p i a e leagues.
Cu en ly, he Ul ima e Figh ing Championship (UFC) is he mos powe ul o
hese leagues, al hough se e al in e na ional o ganisa ions a e ying o become he
spo ’s only go e ning body. To his end, he Global Associa ion o Mixed Ma ial
A s, ounded in 2017 and suppo ed by Russia, has signed a mul i- yea con ac
wi h he In e na ional Tes ing Agency (o ganisa ion in cha ge o p o iding inde-
penden , in e na ional an i- doping es ing) o ca y ou doping con ols in MMA.
The In e na ional Mixed Ma ial A s Fede a ion (IMMAF) was ounded in 2012
wi h suppo om he UFC wi h he aim o legalising MMA in coun ies ha had
banned MMA igh s (by making he spo less iolen h ough egula ing which
ac s a e pe mi ed, as in ama eu boxing and p o essional boxing).14 Following
i s me ge wi h he Wo ld Mixed Ma ial A s Associa ion in 2020,15 he IMMAF
claims, wi h s ong suppo om he wes e n bloc, o be MMA’s ep esen a i e
body. I sealed i s posi ion as he spo ’s IF in 2024, by b inging oge he 139 NFs.
I signed he Wo ld An i- Doping Code in 2021 and has pa ne ed wi h he ITA
since 2024 o ca y ou independen d ugs es ing. Bu he g owing MMA business
emains in he hands o powe ul comme cial ope a o s such as he UFC (no -
ably in he Uni ed S a es) and One Championship (especially in Asia), who apply
di e en ules o hei igh s. In he mid- 2010s, he UFC signed an ag eemen
wi h Ame ica’s an i- doping agency (USADA), bu i has since wi hd awn om
his pa ne ship, which i conside ed oo es ic i e o ce ain igh e s, no ably he
I ish MMA s a Cono McG ego . MMA, which is apidly g owing in popula i y
h oughou he wo ld, is cha ac e ised by he p esence o nume ous egional com-
me cial ope a o s (e.g., Bella o , Bah ain’s B a e Comba Fede a ion), as is he
case o p o essional boxing. Comme cial ope a o s pay ees o he IMMAF, in i s
ole as he spo ’s egula o and o i s con ibu ion o aining upcoming igh e s.
The IMMAF holds a low- paying wo ld championship and e en aspi es o join he
Olympic p og amme, some hing ha appea ed unconcei able jus a ew yea s ago
due o he i ulen opposi ion o o he Olympic comba spo s, which el MMA
was oo iolen .
In b eakdancing, he spo ’s mos p es igious compe i ion – he Red Bull BC
One – is owned by a p i a e company (Red Bull). Howe e , on he IOC’s ad ice,
he Wo ld DanceSpo Fede a ion inco po a ed b eaking in 2018 so i can be a
demons a ion spo a he 2024 Pa is Olympics. Simila ly, he In e na ional Rolle
Spo s Fede a ion (known as Wo ld Ska e since 2017) ook o e ska eboa ding
so i could be included as a demons a ion spo a he 2020+ 1 Olympics and

Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 101
subsequen ly join he o icial Olympic p og amme (as o 2028). Ye , ska eboa ding
is his o ically a coun e cul u e spo ha has been pa o he X Games since hei
ounda ion in 1994 and whose compe i ions a e un by comme cial ope a o s, no -
ably he S ee League, c ea ed in 2010.
IFs ha ind hemsel es in his con igu a ion ha e no eal con ol o e he ules
applied in in e na ional compe i ions, he compe i ion calenda , o he wo ld ank-
ings. No do hey ha e a business model ha allows hem o engage in an ambi ious
de elopmen and solida i y policy wi h espec o hei na ional ede a ions.
These IFs’ key compe ency is poli ico- social because hey mus con ince o he
ac o s in he ecosys em o con ibu e o de eloping he spo (social egula ion),
which equen ly in ol es calling on he spo ’s dominan comme cial ac o s
(majo e en s, majo sponso s) and s a a hle es o show hei social esponsibili y
by aking pa in he IF’s compe i ions (e en i hey a e no e y luc a i e) and/ o
using hei image o pe sonal ounda ions. An IF can also play a ole in egula ing
o legi imising a ci cui . A complemen a y s a egy is o ob ain Olympic s a us o
he spo , as achie ed by he IFs o ennis (1988), ia hlon (2000) and gol (2016).
A e being in i ed o spo s a he 2020 and 2024 Olympic Games, su ing and
ska eboa ding will be on he o icial Olympic p og amme o 2028. Padel hopes o
ollow in hei oo s eps in 2032. Achie ing Olympic s a us allows IFs o globalise
hei de elopmen s a egies by enabling hei NFs o claim he public subsidies
mos go e nmen s alloca e o Olympic spo s. The Olympic label also gi es an
IF g ea e legi imacy as i s spo ’s go e ning body and he eby helps i p o ec i s
posi ion om powe ul and dominan comme cial ope a o s and hei ecosys ems.
2.2.5 To ally P i a e Regula ion by he Comme cial Sec o
The inal con igu a ion, egula ion by a comme cial o ganisa ion, occu s when
a spo does no ha e a clea ly legi ima e IF o when an IF is jus beginning o
eme ge. Spo s in his ca ego y include ee ide skiing, ail unning, espo s and
pa kou . I was also he case o MMA and b eaking, which a e domina ed by
comme cial ope a o s bu which now ha e an IF ecognised by he in e na ional
sys em. These ela i ely new spo s now ecei e ex ensi e media co e age and
ha e become e y popula . Thei ise began when p i a e ope a o s c ea ed majo
e en s (X eme Ve bie o ee ide skiing in 1986 and Ul a- T ail du Mon - Blanc
o ail unning in 2003) ha became hei spo ’s lagship e en s and o med
launch pads o in e na ional ci cui s.16 By ailing o quickly emb ace hese new
disciplines, e en hough hey a ose om hei adi ional spo s, he es ablished IFs
o skiing, a hle ics and moun ainee ing allowed oppo unis ic p i a e comme cial
ac o s o cap u e hei ma ke alue and in e na ionalise hei appeal. These p i a e
ac o s ha e become quasi- ede a ions ou side he Olympic sys em, as hey con ol
he spo ’s in e na ional calenda , ules o play and wo ld ankings. F ee ide skiing
has e en begun holding junio compe i ions o upcoming eli e a hle es hoping o
join he main ci cui , as well as se ing up academies in pa ne ship wi h ski schools
o b ing h ough he nex gene a ion o a hle es.
102 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
In 2007, he Ame ican company Ru Magic En e ainmen and eigh op-
le el pa kou a hle es came oge he o es ablish he Wo ld F ee unning Pa kou
Fede a ion (WFPF) wi h he aim o holding he i s in e na ional pa kou com-
pe i ions (spo in which a hle es y o comple e a cou se in ol ing nume ous
obs acles as quickly and as s ylishly as possible). The yea 2014 saw he c e-
a ion o ano he , non- comme cial ede a ion, he In e na ional Pa kou Fede a ion
(IPF), oo ed in he Global Sou h. Na ional Olympic commi ees and spo s minis-
ies ha e ecognised nume ous na ional pa kou ede a ions. In ligh o pa kou ’s
g owing popula i y, he In e na ional Gymnas ics Fede a ion (FIG), wi h suppo
om he IOC, also ecognised pa kou and in eg a ed wo o i s disciplines, Speed-
Run (Sp in ) and F ees yle. In 2018 i signed an ag eemen wi h he IPF. P io o
his, he FIG had wo ked wi h wo comme cial pa kou e en ope a o s (APEX
and JUMP F ee un o ` he In e na ional Fes i al o Ex eme Spo s) o inc ease
i s legi imacy in he eyes o pa kou a hle es and amilia ise i sel wi h he spo ’s
codes. I held i s i s wo ld championship in 2022, bu he IOC ejec ed he FIG’s
bid o include pa kou in he p og amme o he 2024 Pa is Olympics.17 Ano he
in e na ional pa kou , ee unning and ‘a du déplacemen ’ ede a ion (Pa kou
Ea h) was es ablished in 2017 a he ins iga ion o Pa kou UK o coun e he
FIG’s a emp o ‘ ake o e ’ pa kou . Bu pa kou ’s lagship e en is s ill ‘A o
Mo ion’, c ea ed by Redbull in 2007. Thus, he ins i u ionalisa ion o his spo is
e y ecen , ongoing, and pa icula ly complex in e ms o he di e en s akehold-
e s in ol ed.
Pa kou may be mo ing owa d a digi ally media ed, communi y- based egula-
ion model (B odmann, 2022), as shown by he eme gence o S o o as a po en ial
egula ing powe . Founded in sou he n England in 2010, S o o is a collec i e
o se en p o essional a hle es wi h mo e han 10 million YouTube subsc ibe s,
1.7 million Ins ag am ollowe s, and almos 60,000 TikTok ollowe s. As a esul ,
i has become ex emely in luen ial wi hin he wo ld o pa kou , which i would
like o emain independen om he IOC.
T ail unning’s mos p es igious ace is s ill he pionee ing Ul a- T ail du Mon -
Blanc (UTMB), which has been held in Chamonix since 2003. In 2021 he UTMB
G oup buil on he success o his ace o c ea e a global ail- unning ci cui ,
called he UTMB Wo ld Se ies, in conjunc ion wi h I onman G oup ( he leade
in long- dis ance ia hlons). T ial unning’s o he in e na ional ci cui , he Golden
T ail Se ies, is suppo ed by he ou doo equipmen company Salomon. C ea ed in
2018, Eu ospo aces has p o ided li e TV b oadcas s o aces since 2023 (in con-
as o he UTMB, which is b oadcas by OTT). The Golden T ail Se ies consis s
o six ail aces (eigh as o 2024) cou ses de ail plus a inal. When an IF o
ail unning, he In e na ional T ail Running Associa ion (ITRA), came in o being
in July 2013, i was la gely unde he sway o he UTMB ( he UTMB wi hd ew
om ITRA in 2020). ITRA de ined ace classi ica ions (compe i ions) and ace dis-
ances, bu mos compe i ions and he egula ion o he spo emained in he hands
o independen ope a o s. Wo ld ail- unning and moun ain- unning champion-
ships ha e been held unde he auspices o he ITRA, he Wo ld Moun ain Running
Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 103
Associa ion and he In e na ional Associa ion o Ul a unne s, wi h suppo om
Wo ld A hle ics, since 2022. Howe e , hese championships emain low down
he hie a chy o in e na ional ail- unning aces and es in he shadows o majo
e en s such as he UTMB. Bu he inc easing comme cialisa ion o he UTMB
(60% inc ease in en ance ees in 2013) be ween 2023 and he ace’s con o e sial
sponso ship and sus ainabili y p ac ices led he spo ’s bigges s a , Killian Jo ne ,
o call o a boyco o he ace in 2024 (he subsequen ly en e ed nego ia ions wi h
he o ganise s). A he end o 2022, Jo ne and se e al o he leading ail unne s
ounded he P o T ail Runne s Associa ion, a so o union o de end p o essional
ail unne s’ in e es s agains e en o ganise s, who a e globalising he ma ke ing
o ail unning.
Espo s also alls in o his con igu a ion because ideo games publishe s s ill
own and o ganise all majo compe i ions. Mo eo e , un il 2020 he IOC conside ed
espo s o be a business, no a spo . Al hough some coun ies’ spo s minis ies and/
o NOCs ha e been pe suaded o ecognise espo s as a sepa a e spo , such cases
emain a e. Games publishe s ha e in es ed hea ily in egula ing p o essional
compe i ion ecosys ems because hey a e su e o ha e a e u n on hei in es men s,
bu his is no he case o ama eu espo s, o which publishe s ha e no ye ound
a p o i able business model. Se e al bodies ha e sough o ill his acuum by se -
ing hemsel es up as (na ional o in e na ional) espo s ‘ ede a ions’, al hough he
absence o games publishe s means ha hese ede a ions ha e li le weigh and
do no egula e any espo s. In addi ion, con lic s a ise whene e hese ede a ions
s ay on o he publishe s’ u . The e a e cu en ly h ee espo s ede a ions a ound
he wo ld. Two o hem s and ou :
• The In e na ional Espo s Fede a ion (IESF), ounded in 2008, is he oldes
espo s ede a ion. I is suppo ed by Sou h Ko ea and has always ied o mee
he Olympic mo emen ’s c i e ia o ob aining GAISF/ Spo Acco d ecogni-
ion. I has un he Wo ld Espo s Championship since 2011.
• The Global Espo s Fede a ion (GEF) was ounded in 2019 by s akehold-
e s close o he Olympic mo emen wi h suppo om Singapo e and China.
Since 2021, i has held he annual Global Espo s Games, a mul ispo espo s
compe i ion.
Bo h hese ede a ions a e now unde Saudi con ol because he IESF’s new p esi-
den , P ince Faisal ben Banda , is also ice- p esiden o he GEF and a membe
o Saudi A abia’s Public In es men Fund. This Saudi domina ion explains why
hese wo bodies’ 2024 in e na ional compe i ions will ake place in Saudi A abia’s
capi al, Riyadh. In Decembe 2023, he wo ede a ions signed a memo andum o
unde s anding o pa e he way o close collabo a ion be ween hem. Howe e ,
nei he ede a ion has g ea legi imacy wi hin he espo s sec o , e en hough hey
ha e managed o wo k hei way in o Olympic ci cles.
Gi en espo s’ apidly g owing popula i y among young people, especially in
Asia, he IOC inally decided o en e he ma ke by holding he i s Olympic
104 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
Espo s Week, in Singapo e, in June 2023. This e en combines a ideo games es-
i al, a ‘global i ual and simula ed spo s compe i ion’, discussions and compe i-
ions in espo s using pla o ms associa ed wi h IFs (e.g., Zwi in cycling, Vi ual
Taekwondo). In 2023, he IOC’s p esiden e en announced plans o examine he
possibili y o holding an espo s Olympic Games.
The key compe ency o nascen IFs in his con igu a ion is poli ical. They
mus also ha e he o ganisa ional capaci y needed o achie e ins i u ional legi -
imacy. Thei p io i ies mus be o gain Spo Acco d ecogni ion (Spo Acco d
ook o e his ole om he GAISF in 2023) – he i s s ep owa ds joining he
Olympic sys em – and/ o o sign he Wo ld An i- Doping Code and/ o o pe suade
na ional bodies (e.g., spo s minis ies, na ional Olympic commi ees, exis ing
na ional ede a ions) o ecognise hei membe s. All he spo s in his con ig-
u a ion a e new and some imes c i icised o being iolen and dange ous, bu
hey a e a ac i e o young people, an impo an a ge g oup o he IOC and
Olympic Games.
2.3 Conclusion
The egula ion con igu a ions p esen ed in he p e ious sec ions a e ideal ca -
ego ies whose bounda ies a e po ous and lexible. Some IFs may go e n disciplines
whose egula ion con igu a ion di e s om ha o he spo ’s o he disciplines. Fo
example, Wo ld A hle ics is he dominan ac o in mos a hle ics disciplines, bu
i is in a coo dina ed egula ion con igu a ion in he case o ma a hon unning.
Simila ly, FIBA is in a sepa a e egula ion con igu a ion o mos o ms o bas-
ke ball, bu i is he dominan ac o o 3X3 baske ball. In addi ion, he egula ion
con igu a ion in some spo s has changed in ecen yea s. This is he case o ee-
ide skiing, which mo ed om comme cial egula ion wi hou an IF o egula ion
by a dominan IF in Decembe 2022, when FIS bough he F ee ide Wo ld Tou .
The aim o his deal is o ob ain Olympic s a us o ee ide skiing in ime o he
2030 Games and he eby inc ease bo h he spo ’s popula i y and i s ea ning powe
by inco po a ing i in o FIS’s e en s po olio. Simila ly, a e being aken o e by
he Wo ld DanceSpo Fede a ion and included in he 2024 Olympic Games as a
demons a ion spo , b eaking’s egula ion con igu a ion has changed om o ally
p i a e egula ion by comme cial ope a o s o egula ion domina ed by comme cial
ope a o s.
The i e a che ypal con igu a ions shed ligh on o he ela i e powe o he
ac o s in ol ed and he way hey use hei social, economic, legal and poli ical
egula ion compe encies o u he hei in e es s. The dynamics o his egula ion
can be analysed in e ms o i s:
• Scale: Con ol may be mac o (global – he ocus o his chap e – con inen al o
na ional), meso (i.e., wi hin o ganisa ions such as p o essional leagues o clubs)
o mic o (based on analyses o indi idual beha iou s: a hle es, agen s, execu-
i es, e c.). These aspec s a e discussed u he in Chap e s 5 and 6.
Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 105
• Fo m: Con ol may be bo om- up o op- down (as in ede al py amids) o ho i-
zon al (as in he bi- o mul i- la e al ela ionships be ween an IF and ac o s ou -
side he ede al sys em).
• In ensi y: Depends on he p esence o poli ical/ economic oppo uni ies, en-
sions, dys unc ions o c ises wi hin a gi en ecosys em.
• Rhy hm: Rapidi y/ con inui y/ discon inui y.
• Modali ies: Ins i u ional con ol by he IOC and o he in e na ional spo o gan-
isa ions, independen con ol by speci ic comme cial ac o s, sha ed con ol
h ough pa ne ships be ween he IOC/ in e na ional spo mo emen and in e -
na ional public bodies o p o ec he in eg i y o spo .
• Balance o powe : Wi hin he in e na ional spo sys em (IOC/ FIFA/ UEFA) o
be ween hese o ganisa ions and p i a e comme cial leagues o a hle e associa ions.
The SELP model also shows how egula ion con igu a ions can e ol e and how spo s
can lea n om and d aw on o he spo s’ expe iences when nego ia ing changes in
hei con ol con igu a ions. Fo example, since ugby union became p o essional
in he mid- 1990s, i s IF has bene i ed g ea ly om he example se by oo ball, no -
ably in e ms o adop ing a business model based on a quad ennial Wo ld Cup. A he
same, i has seen bo h he alue and limi a ions o na ional p o essional champion-
ships o he ools used o egula e spec a o spo . In a con ex o elec ions, unce ain y
and he desi e o globalise ugby, in 2020 he p esiden o ugby’s go e ning body
(Wo ld Rugby) ou lined i e challenges o he go e nance o in e na ional ugby:
• C ea e a wo ld championship o na ional sides be ween Wo ld Cups.
• D aw up a global calenda co e ing bo h hemisphe es.
• Examine he possibili y o c ea ing a wo ld club championship.
• Gi e playe s a sea a he nego ia ing able.
• G ow ugby in he Uni ed S a es and Canada (wi h he 2027 o 2031 Rugby
Wo ld Cup held in hese coun ies).
Gi en he nume ous p oblems acing wo ld spo (in eg i y, go e nance, hype -
comme cialisa ion, sus ainabili y, e c.), IFs a e acing inc easing p essu e o
demons a e hei abili y o egula e hei spo while doing mo e o sa is y hei
s akeholde s and mee he challenges posed by comme cial compe i o s. To do his,
hey mus de ine a cohe en egula ion s a egy and use hei business models o
se e he de elopmen o spo and de elopmen h ough spo . Only by achie ing
hese goals can hey jus i y he inancial and legal ad an ages hey ecei e compa ed
wi h he e e - g owing numbe o comme cial ac o s in ol ed in in e na ional spo .
No es
1 The e m con igu a ion e e s o all he elemen s composing a sys em.
2 Some o he in o ma ion and analyses p esen ed in his sec ion we e i s published
in Bayle, E. (2023) ‘A model o he mul i- cen e ed egula ion o wo ld spo ’,

106 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
In e na ional Jou nal o Spo Policy and Poli ics, 15(2), 309– 327. doi: h ps:// doi.o g/
10.1080/ 19406 940.2023.2205 868
3 Some go e nmen s ha e in es ed hea ily in ce ain spo s, so hey can play a cen al
ole in hei de elopmen . Fo example, he Sou h Ko ean go e nmen has adop ed his
app oach in aekwondo.
4 The Nassa scandal, in which he Ame ican Olympic gymnas ics eam’s doc o , La y
Nassa , was sen enced o li e imp isonmen o sexually abusing se e al hund ed gym-
nas s, including Olympic champion Simone Biles. Sex abuse scandals in F ench igu e
ska ing, Ame ican socce , and Canadian ice hockey in he ea ly 2020s, which encou -
aged se e al hund ed ic ims o speak ou . These widely epo ed scandals o ced
na ional go e nmen s o add ess hese issues, some ede a ion heads o esign, and he
ede a ions o se up mechanisms o p e en simila p oblems eoccu ing. They also
sh edded he c edibili y o he ede a ions conce ned.
5 Examples in oo ball include FIFA’s ‘Fo wa d’ p og amme and UEFA’s ‘Ha T ick’
p og amme, ounded in 2004. Ha T ick 6, co e ing he 2024– 2028 cycle, allows each
UEFA- membe na ional associa ion o ecei e up o €2.4 million o suppo ope a ional
p ojec s (g owing women’s oo ball, p o ec ing in eg i y wi hin oo ball, e c.) and up o
€4.5 million o in as uc u e p ojec s (building a head o ice, oo ball pi ches, e c.).
6 A e signing a en- yea sponso ship deal wi h he Chinese company Wanda in 2020, he
e en will be known as he ‘Wanda Diamond League’ un il 2030.
7 This ci cui , launched in 2006, includes some o he wo ld’s la ges ma a hon e en s
(Be lin, Bos on, Chicago, London, e c.). The calenda includes wo o he aces: he wo ld
championship, e e y wo yea s, and he Olympic games, e e y ou yea s. Runne s a e
anked acco ding o hei esul s in hese aces, and he highes anked a hle es a he
end o he season win cash p izes ($500,000 o he winne s o he men’s and women’s
ankings).
8 Leman Bleu (2023) Acco d en e la FIS e l'agence In on , www.lemanb leu.ch/ / Ac ual
i e/ Spo / Acc o d- en e- la- FIS- e - l- age nce- In on .h ml (Accessed: 24 July 2023).
9 Business Today Desk (2023) Olympic B oadcas Righ s in India may Fe ch Rs 1,550 C
as C icke Se o Re u n: Repo , 10 Oc obe . A ailable a : www.busine ss o day.in/ spo
s/ s o y/ olym pic- b oadc as - ig h s- in- india- may- e ch- s- 1550- c - as- c ic ke - se - o- e
u n- ep o - 401 459- 2023- 10- 10
10 Fo example, FIBA co e ed he cos o insu ing NBA playe s who ook pa in i s 2023
Baske ball Wo ld Cup.
11 NHL playe s did no ake pa in he Beijing 2022 Olympics because hey had o play
domes ic games pos poned because o he COVID- 19 c isis.
12 The ATP ou and G and Slam ou namen s ha e annual u no e s o mo e han $1 bil-
lion, whe eas he ITF had an annual income o a ound $70 million be o e changing he
o ma o he Da is Cup in 2018. I now has e enues o a ound $100 million, en imes
less han he spo ’s wo main economic ac o s.
13 A e making accusa ions agains a senio Chinese leade a he end o No embe 2021,
he p o essional ennis playe Peng Shuai ound he sel a he cen e o an in e na ional
media s o m ha aised he wide issue o China’s human igh s eco d. The WTA can-
celled i s compe i ions in China, bu he ATP did no .
14 No ably in F ance, which legalised MMA in 2020.
15 IMMAF (2020) The Tale o IMMAF & WMMAA: How Two Global MMA Fede a ions
Me ged o C ea e a Supe O ganisa ion. A ailable a : h ps:// imma .o g/ 2020/ 08/ 05/
he- ale- o - imma - wmmaa- how- wo- glo bal- mma- ede a i ons- me ged- o- c e a e- a-
supe - o gan isa ion/
16 The F ee ide Wo ld Tou (launched in 2008) comp ises i e e en s on h ee con inen s.
The Ul a- T ail Wo ld Tou (c ea ed in 2014) in ol ed 28 aces in 22 coun ies on i e
con inen s. I has now been eplaced by he UTMB Wo ld Se ies, un by he UTMB
Regula o y Sys ems wi hin In e na ional Spo 107
G oup in associa ion wi h he I onman G oup, which is owned by Ad ance Publica ions,
which bough he g oup om he Chinese company Wanda in 2020.
17 The IOC said i would accep pa kou only i he FIG educed i s quo a o a hle es in
o he disciplines.
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DOI: 10.4324/9781003462118-5
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
Chap e 3
Global Regula ion Dependen on
Na ional Spo Con igu a ions
Analysing na ional spo s sys ems is key o unde s anding he go e nance ame-
wo k, esou ce po en ial ( inancial, human, ma e ial) and deg ee o p o ession-
alisa ion ha in e na ional spo s o ganisa ions can call upon a he na ional
le el. Indeed, policies d awn up wi hin na ional spo s sys ems shape he way
he IOC, IFs and comme cial o ganise s posi ion hei e en s and hei ac ions
o inc ease pa icipa ion in spo . The quali y o a coun y’s spo s sys em has a
p o ound impac on i s spo ing success, whe he i is measu ed in e ms o spo
pa icipa ion a es, eli e a hle es’ pe o mances, o he public’s gene al in e es
in spo . Finally, he e e - g owing numbe o coun ies using spo o p ojec
hei so powe (e.g., China, Russia, Qa a , Saudi A abia) is shaking up he way
wo ld spo unc ions and h ea ening Eu ope’s and he Uni ed S a es’ his o ical
dominance.
This chap e desc ibes he main o ganisa ional models o spo ound a ound
he wo ld (Sec ion 3.1) and he di e en na ional spo s sys em con igu a ions in
Eu ope (Sec ion 3.2) and elsewhe e a ound he globe (Sec ion 3.3). Whe he a
coun y’s spo s sys em p omo es success in in e na ional compe i ions depends
on en key a iables, as desc ibed by he SPLISS model, as well as he coun y’s
s a egic choices (Sec ion 3.4).
3.1 The Main O ganisa ional Models o Spo
Un il he 1990s he e we e jus h ee main o ganisa ional models wi hin wo ld
spo : he Ame ican model, he Eu opean model and he s a e- un model, mos ly
ound in communis coun ies (Sec ion 3.1.1). Howe e , he all o he So ie
Union in 1991 and he ise o he BRICS coun ies (B azil, Russia, India, China,
Sou h A ica), Gul S a es and MINT coun ies (Mexico, Indonesia, Nige ia,
Tu key) ha e led o he eme gence o new models and o he ways o using spo
(Sec ion 3.1.2).
116 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
The Gul S a es ha e e y cen alised spo s sys ems o e seen by an NOC, bu
he NOC is o en p esided o e by a membe o he coun y’s oyal amily and inal
decision- making powe s emain in he hands o a sheikh o emi . Mo eo e , hese
coun ies’ spo s minis ies do li le mo e han supe ise he cons uc ion and man-
agemen o spo s acili ies. Al hough NFs hold elec ions o choose hei leade s,
he emi o sheikh, o his ep esen a i e a he head o he NOC, holds ul ima e
powe and can dismiss an NF’s p esiden i he is unhappy wi h hei policies o
esul s. The s a e unds he NOC’s and NFs’ spo s policies, while oyal am-
ilies ha e begun in es ing in o eign clubs h ough hei so e eign weal h unds.
These in es men s some imes p ojec in e - s a e i al ies on o he ield o play, as
when Manches e Ci y, owned by Abu Dhabi’s Sheikh Mansou , plays Newcas le
Uni ed, owned by Saudi A abia’s so e eign weal h und. Indeed, he Uni ed A ab
Emi a es and Qa a ha e been i als wi h espec o spo ing so powe since he
ea ly 2000s, wi h Saudi A abia joining he compe i ion in 2016 when i launched i s
‘Vision Saudi 2030’ spo s s a egy. Saudi A abia’s long- e m ambi ion, as s a ed
by Spo s Minis e P ince Abdulaziz ben Tu ki Al- Faisal in 2022, is o build on
he expe ience gained by s aging he 2029 Asian Win e Games o one day hos
he Summe Olympic and Pa alympic Games.4 Ob aining he 2034 Men’s Foo ball
Wo ld Cup will be ano he s ep owa ds ealising his goal (see he In oduc ion o
an o e iew o he Gul S a e’s spo s a egies). Ne e heless, he massi e sums
Gul S a es’ so e eign weal h unds and oyal amilies a e in es ing in Eu ope’s
bigges oo ball clubs5 and in eco d ans e ees o a ac s a playe s o hei
domes ic p o essional leagues a e some imes con es ed in Eu ope. Fo example,
Spain’s oo ball league has lodged a complain wi h he Eu opean Commission
agains alleged Qa a i s a e aid o Pa is- Sain Ge man, which, acco ding o La Liga,
dis o s he Eu opean Union ma ke by allowing he club o pay abo e- ma ke
sums o playe s.
Eme ging coun ies’ huge in es men s in spo , especially in oo ball – buy-
ing majo Eu opean clubs, imp o ing hei domes ic leagues and clubs, hos ing
majo e en s, playing o icial and uno icial oles in con inen al (Asian) and global
(wi hin he Olympic mo emen ) go e nance – could lead o he de elopmen o
new o ms o egula ion, unde he in luence o new ac o s (e.g., es ablishing new
compe i ions, aking con ol o he go e nance o wo ld spo , p i a ising p o es-
sional oo ball).
3.1.3 F agili y and Ins abili y in Leas - De eloped
Coun ies
The Uni ed Na ions Depa men o Economic and Social A ai s de ines leas -
de eloped coun ies as ‘low- income coun ies con on ing se e e s uc u al
impedimen s o sus ainable de elopmen ’.6 Al hough spo is some imes ci ed as a
means o de elopmen and a sou ce o hope o young people, he wo ld’s poo es
coun ies (Sie a Leone, Somalia, Nige , e c.) a e unable o capi alise on spo ’s
po en ial bene i s due o a ch onic lack o spo s acili ies and he i ual absence

Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 117
o school spo . Po e y also p e en s leas - de eloped coun ies om holding on
o hei mos alen ed a hle es, who a e en iced ab oad by he p ospec o a be e
li e (emig a ion7 and na u alisa ion by o he coun ies). These ac o s explain he
g owing gul in spo be ween iche na ions and leas - de eloped coun ies. S a es,
ia hei spo s minis ies, o en ha e s ained o e en con lic ual ela ionships
wi h he local Olympic mo emen , due o he local spo s mo emen and NOC’s
some imes- limi ed poli ical au onomy and low le el o p o essionalisa ion.
Foo ball is by a he bigges spo in many leas - de eloped coun ies, espe-
cially in A ica, and i is la gely disconnec ed om he Olympic mo emen . Mos
unding o o he Olympic spo s comes om he limi ed esou ces alloca ed by
he s a e (no ably o help co e a el expenses o a hle es compe ing in majo
in e na ional compe i ions) and, mos impo an ly, in e na ional solida i y p o-
g ammes un by bodies such as Olympic Solida i y (IOC), oge he wi h aid om
pa ne coun ies (e.g., he Commonweal h, O ganisa ion In e na ionale de la
F ancophonie, China) and pa ne o ganisa ions (e.g., powe ul o eign IFs and
NFs). Some spo s ob ain addi ional unding h ough dona ions om p o essional
oo balle s who made hei o unes ab oad and in es men s by public and p i-
a e bodies, including o eign mul ina ionals ha ob ain con ac s wi hin hese
coun ies. In he case o inancial aid, Lopez (2022) used he e m ‘s adium dip-
lomacy’ o desc ibe China’s in es men s in building mo e han one hund ed s a-
diums in Asia, La in Ame ica and especially A ica (Vond acek, 2019). China’s
policy o in es ing in majo spo s acili ies in A ica is aimed a coun e ing he
o me colonial powe s’ his o ic in luence on he con inen and a accessing new
ma ke s and audiences. I o y Coas is jus one o he policy’s bene icia ies, ha -
ing ecei ed new s adiums in Ko hogo, San Ped o and Abidjan (whose Alassane
Oua a a S adium cos €130 million). In addi ion o inancial aid, leas - de eloped
coun ies also ecei e suppo in he o m o aining, expe ise and he p o ision
o spo s equipmen , acili ies and in as uc u e. In hese coun ies, he NOC and
he spo s mo emen may play a e y modes ole, cen ed ound sending eams o
majo in e na ional compe i ions.
Hence, spo in leas - de eloped coun ies is poo ly s uc u ed, elian on in e -
na ional aid and some imes ba ely ali e, no ably in coun ies bligh ed by a med
con lic (e.g., Somalia, Sou h Sudan, Democ a ic Republic o Congo). I o en su -
e s om he e ec s o poli ical ins abili y and he weakness o he s a e, despi e
i s symbolic impo ance and he ole i is expec ed o play in con olling socie y,
especially young people.
The spo ing cul u es and spo s sys ems o many o me colonial coun ies s ill
bea he s amp o Eu ope’s impe ial powe s, which domina ed he wo ld in he la e
nine een h/ ea ly wen ie h cen u y, when mode n spo began o de elop. C icke ’s
immense popula i y in he Indian sub- con inen , o example, is a legacy o B i ish
ule, while many o me colonies con inue o ollow a F ench- o B i ish- s yle
model o spo and/ o legal amewo k.
The main o ganisa ional models o spo , ou lined abo e, di e in e ms o he
way spo is o ganised and unded and he dominan ac o s in a coun y’s spo s
118 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
sys em. These models shed ligh on he in e nal and ex e nal objec i es coun ies
aim o achie e h ough spo (na ion building, p omo ing he coun y and i s image,
na ion b anding, p ojec ing so powe , diplomacy, g owing ou ism). In bo h cases,
spo may be used o poli ical ends o legi imize he uling egime. Howe e , he e
is g ea a ia ion wi hin hese models, as shown by he ollowing desc ip ion o
na ional spo s sys ems wi hin Eu ope.
3.2 Na ional Spo Con igu a ions in Eu ope
3.2.1 The Cha ac e is ics o Na ional Spo Con igu a ions
Camy e al. (2004, p. 50) de ined a con igu a ion as ‘a se o in e ac ing elemen s
in a ela i ely sus ainable o ma ’, bu which may e ol e unde he in luence o
in e nal o ces and en i onmen al ac o s. They sugges ed ha na ional spo s sys-
ems can be cha ac e ised wi h espec o ou key pa ame e s:
• ‘The ole played by he public au ho i ies in he egula ion o he sys em, pa -
icula ly he S a e as ep esen ed by he Minis y in cha ge’.
• ‘The deg ee and o m o coo dina ion o hose in ol ed in he na ional sys em’.
• ‘The dis ibu ion be ween he h ee ypes o p o ide s: public, olun a y o
comme cial’.
• ‘The sui abili y o he supply o he changes in demand’. (Camy e al.,
2004, p. 52)
The i le gi en o he go e nmen depa men in cha ge o spo and he min-
is y o which i belongs di e be ween Eu opean coun ies. Mos Eu opean coun-
ies include spo wi hin a la ge minis y (e.g., educa ion, cul u e, in e io ), wi h
F ance being an excep ion in ha ing a sepa a e minis y o spo , whose emi is
some imes expanded o co e you h and cha i ies. A spo s minis y’s in luence
on he egula ion o spo depends on i s size and he coun y’s poli ical sys em.
Some spo s minis ies de ine spo ’s mission wi hin he coun y and s uc u e
he na ional spo s sys em by de ining each ac o ’s ole and esponsibili ies. Fo
example, Spain’s and F ance’s spo minis ies equi e hei coun y’s NFs o
ca y ou public se ice missions in e u n o he public suppo hey ecei e.
The spo s minis y may impose condi ions ede a ions mus ul il o bene i om
inancial suppo , publicly unded spo s acili ies and pe sonnel p o ided by he
s a e. I may go as a as se ing amewo ks ha clubs/ NFs mus ollow, including
equi emen s o spo ins uc o s/ supe iso s (e.g., manda o y quali ica ions and
aining o p o essional o high- le el coaches). Analyses o na ional spo s s a -
egies show ha go e nmen s y o o ien spo s o ganisa ions owa ds ce ain
objec i es, no ably inc easing pa icipa ion in spo and achie ing success in eli e
compe i ions.
Howe e , hese objec i es a e gene ally in ended o con ibu e o wide goals,
such as inc easing na ional p es ige and diploma ic in luence, imp o ing educa ion,
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 119
heal h and na ional cohesion, educing inequali y, boos ing he economy and
ou ism, inc easing employmen , acili a ing social- p o essional in eg a ion and
imp o ing quali y o li e in gene al. Whe he a coun y’s go e nmen is cen alised
(as in F ance) o decen alised (as in Ge many and Swi ze land) may explain di -
e en modes o public in e en ion. In he case o ede al s a es (e.g., Ge many,
UK, I aly, Spain), he na ional au ho i ies may ocus on key pa s o he coun y’s
spo s policy (e.g., suppo ing eli e spo and gene al na ional s a egy) bu no
in e e e in he spo s mo emen ’s manage ial ole, e en when he s a e alloca es
la ge sums o public money o spo (as in Ge many and Swi ze land).
The second pa ame e is he deg ee and o m o coo dina ion be ween ac o s
wi hin he na ional sys em. Some coun ies’ spo s sys ems ha e no o mal s uc-
u e and no o ganised coo dina ion be ween ac o s, each o which is o ally
au onomous. O he coun ies ha e highly coo dina ed spo s sys ems. The o m
his coo dina ion akes is also impo an . Coo dina ion may be accomplished by a
supe ising au ho i y o an ad- hoc egula o y body. Many Eu opean coun ies ha e
speci ic and some imes e y de ailed spo s legisla ion. This coo dina ion unc ion
may be accomplished by a speci ic ac o o acco ding o a sha ed model o go e n-
ance, ha is, a consensus eached ollowing de ailed discussions be ween all he
ac o s conce ned.
Camy e al.’s (2004) hi d pa ame e is he dis ibu ion o oles and o ms o col-
labo a ion be ween public, olun a y (non- p o i spo s mo emen ) and comme -
cial spo p o ide s ( anging om p o essional spo s e en o ganise s o o - p o i
leisu e spo p o ide s). In ac , i is he ela i e weigh s o hese h ee componen s
ha cha ac e ise a na ional spo con igu a ion.
The ou h pa ame e is ha he spo o e s he abili y o adap o changes in
demand. Wha is he le el o ine ia when new demands appea ? A e he e mecha-
nisms ha allow he sys em o espond quickly and e ec i ely? How do public,
non- p o i and comme cial ac o s eac ? Wha a e hei espec i e ma ke sha es?
3.2.2 The Fou Mos Typical Con igu a ions in Eu ope8
Camy e al. (2004) used hese pa ame e s o iden i y ou ‘basic’ na ional spo s
con igu a ions ound in Eu ope, which hey labelled bu eauc a ic, missiona y,
en ep eneu ial and social.
A bu eauc a ic spo s sys em is one in which he public au ho i ies ake a leading
ole in egula ing spo and spo is go e ned by speci ic legisla ion. Consequen ly,
he non- p o i spo s mo emen ac s by ‘delega ion’ and is subjec o explici go -
e nmen o e sigh . Social pa ne s (employe o ganisa ions and ade unions) a e
o en weak o non- exis en , and use s/ consume s and p i a e en ep eneu s ha e
li le impac on he implemen a ion o spo policies. The s a e in e enes hea ily in
eli e spo and assis s spo s ha do no ha e la ge enough economies o p o ession-
alise ully (by p o iding inancial aid and expe s a ). Eli e a hle es may be gi en
inancial secu i y h ough employmen con ac s wi h s a e se ices (e.g., in educa-
ion o he a med o ces) o public companies. The bu eauc a ic con igu a ion is he
120 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
mos common con igu a ion in Eu ope, especially since he mid- 2000s, when he
EU admi ed 12 new membe s a es, mos o which ha e bu eauc a ic spo s sys-
ems. Many o hese new EU membe s a e o me membe s o he So ie Bloc, and
hei spo s sys ems e ain many o he cha ac e is ics hey had unde communis
ule when he s a e and he public sec o we e he only ac o s in wha we e ‘pu e’
bu eauc a ic spo s sys ems.
The missiona y con igu a ion is cha ac e ised by he dominan p esence o a
non- p o i spo s mo emen wi h g ea au onomy o make decisions. The s a e and
local au ho i ies delega e esponsibili y o spo policy o he non- p o i spo s
mo emen , al hough he public au ho i ies a e inc easingly equi ing spo s o gani-
sa ions o pu sue public policy objec i es in e u n o he subs an ial public und-
ing hey ecei e. Social pa ne s play li le o no ole in he sys em, and powe is
concen a ed in he hands o unpaid, elec ed o icials. Use s a e a ely conside ed as
consume s, and p i a e en e p ises emain on he ma gins o he dominan sys em,
wi h he impo ance o hei ole depending on he ex en o which spo con ibu es
o he coun y’s ou is indus y. The non- p o i spo s mo emen o e sees mos
eli e spo . Eli e a hle es in indi idual spo s a e esponsible o managing hei
ca ee s, e en i hey ecei e public suppo . Cul u ally, hey a e no conside ed
p oduc s o he s a e, bu as indi idual en ep eneu s o p oduc s o socie y. The
o me pe spec i e ypi ies G ea B i ain and Swi ze land, whe e eli e a hle es a e
seen as ‘sel - made men and women’, whe eas he la e pe spec i e is ypical o
Ge many, whe e people iew spo ing excellence as a ace o social excellence
(Fau e and Suaud, 2015).
A spo s sys em has an en ep eneu ial con igu a ion when egula ion emana es
om he social o economic ‘demand’ o spo , and he e a e ew obs acles p e en -
ing he ma ke om egula ing he o e – demand ela ionship. The public au ho -
i ies’ main ole is o p o ide a amewo k in which ma ke o ces can ope a e. The
non- p o i spo s mo emen mus adap o he ma ke ’s equi emen s, as se by p i-
a e en ep eneu s, and y o main ain i s posi ion in his con ex by sys ema ically
a ionalising and adjus ing i s o e o he demand. This demand is no exclusi ely,
o e en p ima ily, comme cial, bu wha e e i s sou ce he demand compels p o-
ide s o econs uc hei o e . Ne e heless, he au ho i ies may use public and
semi- public money ( om a lo e y and/ o online be ing) o und non- p o essional
eli e spo . Go e nmen s a e inc easingly adop ing his app oach o win medals and
ensu e he coun y has a good in e na ional anking.
The social con igu a ion is cha ac e ised by he p esence o social pa ne s
wi hin a mul i ace ed sys em in which no single ac o is dominan . Ra he , he e
is cohabi a ion/ collabo a ion be ween public, non- p o i and comme cial ac o s.
Unions and employe o ganisa ions play a leading ole in he sys em’s go e nance.
Al hough he e may be majo disag eemen s be ween spo ’s main ac o s, hei
sha ed aim is o maximise he ‘common good’ ha spo b ings.
These con igu a ions a e ideal ypes, and mos coun ies’ spo s sys ems ha e
cha ac e is ics o wo o mo e con igu a ions, e en i one con igu a ion is dom-
inan . In addi ion, some coun ies, especially hose in Eas e n and Cen al Eu ope,
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 121
ha e seen p o ound changes, i no e olu ions, in hei na ional spo s sys ems’
con igu a ions. The bu eauc a ic con igu a ion, in which he s a e (o a public
agency highly dependen on he s a e) plays a key ole, appea s o be he mos
common ype o spo sys em ac oss Eu ope. As Camy e al. (2004, p. 56) no ed,
‘ he a i al o en new membe s a es in he Eu opean Union, all wi h a bu eau-
c a ic con igu a ion, makes his domina ion pa icula ly e iden ’. This is pa ly
because, du ing he So ie e a, all Eas e n and Cen al Eu opean coun ies had
pu e bu eauc a ic con igu a ions in which ‘ he S a e was he nigh- exclusi e playe
in spo ’ (Camy e al., 2004, p. 56). Despi e he quasi- gene alised disman ling o
hese So ie - e a spo s sys ems and he de elopmen o an e e - la ge comme cial
leisu e- spo s sec o , he s a e con inues o play an impo an ole in hese coun-
ies’ spo s sys ems.
The changes occu ing wi hin Wes e n Eu ope’s spo s sys ems a e mo e com-
plex (Camy e al., 2004). Comme cial ac o s a e g owing in impo ance in all hese
coun ies’ spo s sys ems, wha e e hei con igu a ion. In coun ies wi h a mission-
a y con igu a ion and a e y s ong non- p o i spo ing cul u e, such as Denma k,
Sweden, Ge many and Swi ze land, he non- p o i spo s mo emen is pu ing up
s i esis ance. These coun ies ha e a long his o y o opposing he ‘comme cial-
isa ion’ and p o essionalisa ion o spo (ma ked by an inc ease in he numbe o
paid s a ca ying ou impo an asks). Non- p o i spo and i s olun ee cul u e
ha e such a s ong hold on socie y ha he e is cu en ly li le isk o he non- p o i
sec o losing i s posi ion, al hough he ans o ma ion and digi alisa ion o socie ies
could change he si ua ion.
Wes e n Eu opean coun ies wi h bu eauc a ic con igu a ions a e seeing di e -
en changes. Some coun ies a e e ol ing owa ds a hyb id social- bu eauc a ic
con igu a ion. In F ance, o example, social pa ne s ha e had a g ea e say in he
decision- making p ocess since 2006, hanks o a na ional collec i e ag eemen o
spo and he spo s minis y’s desi e o gi e hem an impo an ole in o ganising
spo , especially in he ield o p o essional aining and in inding a mo e consen-
sual go e nance in ol ing all he main ac o s in F ench spo . These mo es ha e
al e ed he balance wi hin F ance’s spo s sys em, e en hough i is s ill domina ed
by he spo s minis y.
Acco ding o Camy e al. (2004, p. 57), in o he coun ies
like Spain, G eece o Belgium, he g owing scale o he comme cial sec o is no
wi hou impac on he way ha adi ional playe s pe cei e hei si ua ion, as a
‘ o ess unde siege’. Howe e , we canno eally alk abou a d i owa ds an
en ep eneu ial con igu a ion – qui e he opposi e, in ac . The S a e o au ono-
mous communi ies in ede al coun ies seem o be consolida ing hei posi ions
and s eamlining he ope a ion o a sec o which, h ough lack o esou ces, had
been adminis a ed ‘minimally’ … The a i al o he social pa ne s is e y lim-
i ed a p esen , e en hough his is becoming mo e ma ked h ough he signing
o collec i e ag eemen s in p o essional spo and he comme cial leisu e sec o ,
in pa icula .

122 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
The e a e also a ew speci ic cases, especially I aly, whose spo s sys em has
a mos ly missiona y con igu a ion, albei wi h simila i ies wi h he bu eauc a ic
con igu a ion. He e, he non- p o i spo mo emen ’s supe iso y body, he
I alian Na ional Olympic Commi ee (CONI), was a public body un il 2004. In
con as o o he coun ies wi h missiona y con igu a ions, such as Ge many and
he Scandina ian coun ies, I aly’s non- p o i ne wo k has ended o be less- well
o ganised, less powe ul and less au onomous. In addi ion, comme cial and semi-
comme cial bodies a e highly p esen , al hough he s a e and egional au ho i ies
con inue o play a majo ole. Fo example, in 2018 he go e nmen passed a law
ha would ha e aken away CONI’s con ol o e he public esou ces i ecei es
o ca y ou i s Olympic missions.9 The ensuing ow be ween CONI and he I alian
go e nmen was e en ually esol ed in CONI’s a ou when he IOC h ea ened o
wi hd aw he 2026 Win e Olympic and Pa alympic Games om Milan- Co ina i
he I alian go e nmen did no back down.
Eu ope’s i s na ional spo s sys ems had missiona y con igu a ions because
hey we e con olled by he ede a ed non- p o i spo s mo emen . The bu eau-
c a ic sys em was he second con igu a ion o appea , eme ging when Wes e n
Eu opean go e nmen s, ollowed by Eu ope’s communis s a es, began using spo
o na ionalis pu poses (win medals). In addi ion, many coun ies ha e inco po-
a ed ‘en ep eneu ial’ (p i a isa ion and comme cialisa ion o leisu e ac i i ies and
spec a o spo ) o ‘social’ (g owing impo ance gi en o social dialogue be ween
employe s’ o ganisa ions and ade unions) posi ions in o hei spo s sys ems.
Howe e , he absence o ex emely la ge o ganisa ions in he spo s sec o , which
comp ises mos ly e y small o ganisa ions ( ewe han en s a ), means ha union
membe ship is low, and employe s ha e li le o ganised ep esen a ion and he e-
o e li le collec i e powe .
The Uni ed S a es is p obably he only coun y o ha e adop ed a p edomin-
an ly en ep eneu ial con igu a ion, which has gi en ise o a lou ishing p o es-
sional sec o and a weak non- p o i - ede a ion sec o cen ed ound compe i ion.
The Uni ed Kingdom, as a esul o Ma ga e Tha che ’s policies, has also le a lo
o space o p i a e en ep eneu s o de elop a spo s se ices ma ke . When Camy
e al. (2004) conduc ed hei s udy, he social con igu a ion was a e y ecen de el-
opmen , because i equi es ei he social pa ne s who a e su icien ly powe ul
wi hin spo o impose hei p esence o he public au ho i ies o gi e social pa -
ne s a cen al ole in he spo s mo emen . Social pa ne s do no need o be he
dominan ac o s in a spo s sys em o i o ha e a social con igu a ion, a he hey
wo k alongside o he ac o s including he non- p o i spo s mo emen , he public
au ho i ies and he ep esen a i es o p o essional and comme cial spo s o gani-
sa ions (Camy e al., 2004). This mo e om a hie a chical app oach o na ional
spo s sys em go e nance o a mo e- ho izon al app oach is also becoming pe cep-
ible, albei o a lesse ex en , in he o he h ee con igu a ions.
The EU’s adop ion o a speci ic spo policy and he publica ion o nume ous
s udies on Eu opean spo (Vocaspo p og amme, E asmus+ Spo p og amme,
e c.) has igge ed a g adual con e gence be ween Eu ope’s na ional spo s
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 123
sys ems, d i en bo h by mimic y (compa ing and sha ing expe iences) and by he
EU’s e o s o p omo e he Eu opean model o spo (e.g., ques o ha monisa ion
and sha ed ope a ing p inciples wi h espec o o ganising p o essional b anches,
social dialogue, p o essional aining and inclusion and educa ion h ough spo ).
Ne e heless, some singula con igu a ions emain due o he weigh o his o ical
ac o s and he impo ance a coun y’s go e nmen a aches o physical and spo -
ing ac i i ies.
3.2.3 Fou Examples: England, F ance, Li huania,
Swi ze land
The ollowing sec ions p esen ou Eu opean coun ies wi h di e en cha ac-
e is ics and con igu a ions, as well as wi h e y di e en ela ionships wi h he
EU: F ance, a ounding membe and his o ic pilla o he EU; Li huania, a o me
So ie epublic ha joined he EU in 2004, a e becoming an independen coun y;
he Uni ed Kingdom, which le he EU in 2021 and whose economic and social
c isis has wo sened since hen; and Swi ze land, which emains ou side he EU bu
coope a es s ongly wi h i . Swi ze land is also home o mos o he wo ld’s IFs.
3.2.3.1 F ance: A Bu eauc a ic Con igu a ion in T ansi ion
The ‘F ench model’ o spo has his o ically been cha ac e ised by ex ensi e in e -
en ion by he public au ho i ies and he spo s minis y. The Na ional Agency o
Spo (ANS), c ea ed in 2019, b ings oge he he spo s minis y, he spo s mo e-
men (F ance’s NOC and NFs), egional and local au ho i ies and he business and
social wo lds. I decides he o ien a ions and ules o he agency’s in e en ion
in F ench spo and coo dina es unding o g ass oo s and eli e spo . The ANS
is unded by a 5% le y on spo b oadcas ing igh s (85% o which come om
p o essional oo ball) and a le y on all o ms o spo s be ing in F ance. Local
au ho i ies, especially municipali ies, a e key ac o s in spo because hey own
80% o F ance’s spo acili ies and p o ide mo e han 90% o public suppo o
spo . Despi e he complexi y (he e ogenei y o ac o s) and limi a ions o F ench
spo go e nance (no ably i s highly cen alised sys em and he public au ho i ies’
inabili y o b ing oge he di e en ac o s in he spo and physical ac i i y sec o ),
he F ench model has e ol ed signi ican ly.
The p o essionalisa ion o spo s clubs has accele a ed o e he las h ee dec-
ades, pa ly due o a law equi ing paid ins uc o s/ coaches o ha e a ecognised
quali ica ion and o nume ous publicly unded p og ammes o help spo s o gani-
sa ions, especially non- p o i o ganisa ions, hi e p o essional s a . The numbe o
spo s companies almos doubled be ween 2008 and 2017, and mo e han 160,000
people now wo k in he p i a e sec o , which has 23,000 employe s, 80% o which
a e non- p o i associa ions. A hi d o he people who wo k in his sec o (58,000)
a e non- sala ied (e.g., ski ins uc o s); he emaining wo- hi ds (102,500) a e sal-
a ied (Lepe i and Rougie , 2022). The c ea ion o a na ional collec i e ag eemen
124 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
o spo in 2005 led o a gene al social dialogue in he non- p o i p i a e and com-
me cial sec o s. Al hough hese changes we e accompanied by he in oduc ion
o a mo e- sha ed go e nance model and mo e o p o essionalise spo s clubs, he
F ench sys em emains e y bu eauc a ic wi h s ong s a e con ol o e he spo s
mo emen (Scelles, 2017).
F ench ins i u ional and Olympic spo s ill ob ains mos o i s unding om
public and semi- public sou ces (€20 billion in es ed and 102,000 s a e employees
acco ding o a 2022 s udy by BPCE). Du ing he 2010s he s a e imp o ed i s
social- economic aid o eli e a hle es, especially in e ms o oca ional guidance
(easie access o ce ain highe educa ion p og ammes, help inding wo k wi h
lexible hou s, e c.) and p o ec ion agains he isks associa ed wi h a op- le el
spo ing ca ee (be e social p o ec ion o eli e a hle es in indi idual spo s since
201610).
As well as being home o some o he wo ld’s bigges annual spo s e en s,
including he Roland Ga os ennis ou namen , he Tou de F ance and he Six
Na ions ugby ou namen , F ance has a long- s anding s a egy o bidding o p es-
igious one- o e en s, beginning wi h he 1992 Win e Olympic and Pa alympic
Games. Since hen, he coun y has hos ed, among o he s, he 1998 Men’s Foo ball
Wo ld Cup; 2003 A hle ics Wo ld Championships; 2007, 2014 and 2023 Rugby
Wo ld Cups; 2016 Men’s Eu opean Foo ball Championship; 2018 Ryde Cup;
2019 Women’s Foo ball Wo ld Cup; and many wo ld and Eu opean champion-
ships. I in ends o con inue hos ing in e na ional e en s, no ably he 2030 Win e
Olympics ( o be sha ed be ween he Au e gne Rhône- Alpes and P o ence- Alpes-
Cô e d’Azu egions). A he same ime, F ance has de eloped majo e en s in
se e al new spo s, including he Ul a- T ail du Mon Blanc, Nice I onman and
Mon pellie In e na ional Fes i al o Ex eme Spo s. Hos ci ies/ egions a e keen
o suppo hese e en s as a way o boos ing hei ou ism p o iles in a coun y ha
is al eady he wo ld’s mos popula ou is des ina ion.
F ance d aws on i s s a e- suppo ed model o eli e spo , es ablished in he 1960s,
o s eng hen i s posi ion in he wo ld spo ing hie a chy. To help achie e his goal,
he go e nmen employs 1,600 ‘ echnical spo ad iso s’ o wo k wi hin F ance’s
NFs (79 NFs bene i om his suppo ). In addi ion, six o hese NFs ( oo ball,
ugby, baske ball, olleyball, handball and ice hockey) un p o essional leagues
whose clubs ope a e hei own aining cen es, many o which a e o he highes
in e na ional s anda d. Consequen ly, F ench clubs a e able o expo playe s o
Eu ope’s bigges clubs, a ade ha has g own massi ely since he 1995 Bosman
Ruling on he ee mo emen o a hle es wi hin he EU and become a majo sou ce
o e enue o clubs. F ance’s aining expe ise has also made i one o he wo ld’s
op na ions in mos majo eam spo s, especially oo ball, ugby union and ugby
se ens, baske ball, handball and olleyball. In indi idual spo s, F ance’s eli e-
o ien ed s a e- sponso ed spo model and eli e a hle e aining ins i u e (Na ional
Ins i u e o Spo , Expe ise and Pe o mance – INSEP) ensu e i wins in e na ional
medals in adi ional Olympic spo s, many o which ha e low le els o p o ession-
alisa ion (e.g., canoeing, encing, swimming, ack cycling, moun ain biking and
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 125
judo o he Summe Olympics; downhill skiing, igu e ska ing and, pa icula ly,
bia hlon o he Win e Olympics). Fo example, F ance won 42 medals a he 2016
Rio Olympics and was anked se en h in he medals able. The coun y’s ela i ely
poo pe o mance a Tokyo 2020 (33 medals, including 10 golds, and eigh h place
in he medals able) led he go e nmen o change i s objec i e o he Pa is 2024
Olympic and Pa alympic Games om winning 80 medals, as he spo s minis e
announced when F ance has a ibu ed he Games, o inishing i h o highe in
he medals able. A he s a o 2024, he F ench go e nmen announced i s aim o
u ning F ance in o a ‘spo ing na ion’ by con incing ano he 3 million people o
ake up spo , on op o he 3 million people who s a ed doing spo be ween 2017
and 2024. A ound 1.5 million young people ha e bene i ed om he ‘Pass’Spo ’
scheme, which pays he i s €50 o spo s club membe ship ees o all young
people below he age o 18.
3.2.3.2 Li huania: A ‘Eu ope- Compa ible’ Bu eauc a ic
Con igu a ion11
Li huania, a epublic wi h a popula ion o h ee million people, gained i s independ-
ence om he So ie Union in 1990. In Ap il o ha yea , i se up he Depa men
o Physical Educa ion and Spo (DPES) bu he go e nmen changed he DPES’s
s a us om an independen depa men o a componen o he Minis y o he
In e io in 2010. A new Law on Spo , passed in 2018, ans e ed esponsibili y
o o mula ing, coo dina ing and implemen ing spo policy o he Minis y o
Educa ion, Science and Spo , which now o e sees physical educa ion in all edu-
ca ional es ablishmen s. The law also de ines he oles and compe encies o he
a ious ac o s wi hin Li huania’s spo s sys em.
Li huania is cu en ly implemen ing a spo de elopmen p og amme o 2022–
2030, wi h he objec i e o imp o ing he coun y’s pe o mance in majo compe-
i ions. The o al go e nmen budge o spo is €68.8 million, di ided be ween
high- le el spo (€29.3 million), physical ac i i y (€10.5 million), spo in as uc-
u e in es men and main enance (€25.2 million) and ‘o he ’ (€3.8 million).
The Na ional Spo Agency (NSA), c ea ed in July 2022, has a budge o
€60 million ha i uses o implemen he go e nmen ’s spo and physical ac i i y
policy, which has ou main objec i es: (1) C ea e he condi ions o e ec i e a h-
le e aining; (2) Inc ease physical ac i i y among Li huanians; (3) Imp o e and
expand Li huania’s spo in as uc u e; and (4) C ea e he condi ions needed o
allow spo s o ganisa ions o imp o e he quali y o hei ac i i ies. The NSA also
dis ibu es public unding o 66 NFs ( he amoun each NF ecei es depends on
se e al c i e ia) and o physical ac i i y p ojec s and p og ammes. Ano he o i s
oles is o de elop coope a ion be ween Li huania’s NOC, he Li huanian Union o
Spo Fede a ions and he Associa ion o Li huanian Municipal Spo s Manage s.
I also main ains links wi h he coun y’s 78 NFs and 1,164 spo s clubs (2022).
Li huania’s NFs a e un by elec ed olun ee s, and olun ee s un mos o he coun-
y’s spo s e en s, al hough spo s clubs cu en ly ha e insu icien olun ee s.
132 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
cases, sponso s, pay hese a hle es’ wages, bonuses and pensions. Eli e a hle es
ea n, on a e age, app oxima ely €400 pe mon h, bu s a s can ea n se e al hun-
d ed housand eu os a yea in bonuses.
Since China c ea ed i s eli e spo s sys em in he 1980s, all spo s schools ha e
had excellen aining acili ies (gymnasiums, oo ball pi ches, baske ball cou s,
swimming pools and able ennis cou s). His o ically, hese acili ies we e he
ui o in es men s by local spo s commissions, so membe s o he public also
had access o hem, e en i p io i y was always gi en o aining young a hle es.
E e y p o ince p o ided i s spo s eams wi h a aining camp, usually in he p o-
incial capi al. The e a e also se e al na ional aining cen es in Beijing, and each
na ional eam has i s own aining camp ou side he capi al. These aining camps
ha e i s - class acili ies, unded join ly by he local go e nmen and he gene al
spo s adminis a ion. Uni e si ies also p o ide aining enues and acili ies o
na ional eams, such as he aining cen e c ea ed by Beijing Spo Uni e si y
in 2006.
China has long been p oud o i s eli e spo adminis a ion sys em, aining me h-
ods and s ance on gende equali y, which ha e been e y success ul in b inging
h ough eli e a hle es o bo h sexes. The goal o China’s s a egy is o demons a e
he supe io i y o socialis ideology by ‘p oducing’ excep ional male and emale
a hle es capable o winning gold medals a he Olympic Games and wo ld cham-
pionships. Howe e , China’s eli e spo s sys em has seen wo majo changes since
he 2008 Olympic and Pa alympic Games: he de elopmen o comme cial p o es-
sional championships and he na u alisa ion o eli e a hle es.
The Chinese Foo ball Associa ion launched a new p o essional league in 2004.
Modelled on England’s P emie League, he league’s clubs a e owned by Chinese
companies and unded by ich Chinese en ep eneu s, who a ac ed a la ge amoun
o o eign alen ( he league has now se limi s on he numbe o o eign playe s).
China’s p o essional baske ball league, c ea ed in 1995 and known as he Chinese
Baske ball Associa ion, is un acco ding o NBA ules. China’s hi d p o essional
spo is able ennis, which has deep oo s in China’s spo ing cul u e (be ween
30 million and 50 million compe i o s). The coun y’s p o essional able ennis
league, c ea ed in 1995, has included se e al o eign playe s since he la e 2000s.
I s clubs a e well- unded by public bodies and public companies.
Fo many yea s, China’s na ional eams included only a hle es who had been
bo n in China. This changed in 2016, when he go e nmen decided o g an , unde
ce ain ci cums ances, ci izenship o o eign- bo n oo balle s (China’s p esiden ,
Xi Jinping, who came o powe in 2013, s ongly suppo s oo ball) and a hle es
capable o ensu ing success o China in he 2022 Olympic and Pa alympic Games.
This policy had he g ea es impac on ice hockey, as 15 playe s in China’s men’s
eam and 13 playe s in i s women’s eam o he 2022 Olympics we e bo n ou side
China. In igu e ska ing, Zhu Yi ga e up his Ame ican ci izenship o compe e o
China in Beijing 2022, and he Chinese Ame ican ees yle skie Gu Ailing became
a supe s a a hese Games by winning wo gold medals and a sil e medal o
China. China won a o al o nine gold medals, ou sil e medals and wo b onze

Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 133
medals a he 2022 Win e Olympics o inish in hi d place, jus ahead o he
Uni ed S a es.
A policy documen published by China’s spo s minis y in 2019 se ou i e
a eas he coun y had o p io i ise o i o become a spo ing supe powe : i ness
o all, eli e spo , comme cialising spo , de eloping a spo s cul u e and spo s
diplomacy. China’s de e mina ion o op he Olympic medals able has played an
impo an ole in he coun y’s poli ical li e by demons a ing i s ambi ion o be
no only one o he wo ld’s economic and poli ical supe powe s bu also a spo ing
supe powe .
3.3.3 Tunisia: A Bu eauc a ic Model Weakened by C isis17
Tunisia, a coun y o 12 million people, gained i s independence om F ance in
1956. I has a go e nmen - con olled, au ho i a ian, bu eauc a ic spo s sys em
wi h s ic ules, egula ions and p ocedu es (Zaoui and Bayle, 2018). The Minis y
o You h and Spo implemen s go e nmen policy on you h, spo and physical
educa ion and d aws up plans and p og ammes o p omo e hese sec o s. Following
a 5.63% inc ease compa ed wi h 2022, i s budge o 2023 accoun ed o 1.61%
o he go e nmen ’s o al spending. I alloca ed 22.11% o his budge o you h,
22.29% o spo , 48.88% o physical educa ion and 6.70% o leade ship and sup-
po . In e ms o expendi u e, wage cos s ake up 66% o he budge and admin-
is a ion cos s accoun o a u he 7%, wi h jus 11% alloca ed o in e en ions
and 16% alloca ed o in es men s. This cen alised con ol gi es he go e nmen
ex ensi e in luence o e decisions ela ing o spo and esou ce a ibu ion, allow-
ing i o s i le inno a ion and es ic spo s o ganisa ions’ au onomy. I also enables
he go e nmen o concen a e esou ces on spo s o de elopmen p og ammes
aligned wi h na ional objec i es, which means less- popula spo s and g ass oo s
spo a e neglec ed. Mo eo e , budge a y p ocedu es can c ea e obs acles and
delays in alloca ing esou ces.
Al hough his model can p omo e a eeling o uni y and s abili y in spo go -
e nance, i can also smo he o he opinions and new ideas ha could con ibu e
o a mo e inclusi e and inno a i e de elopmen o spo . Tunisia’s spo s sys em
has a hie a chical s uc u e wi h se e al le els o implemen a ion ia egional
di ec o a es, which ep esen he minis y in he coun y’s 24 go e no a es. The
minis y supe ises and coo dina es Tunisia’s 51 NFs, which manage and egu-
la e spo a he na ional le el. These NFs o e see 1,906 egional and local spo
bodies ha look a e 190,000 a hle es, including 54,000 women a hle es. This
hie a chical s uc u e p o ides a clea chain o command, bu i can lead o bu -
eauc a ic delays and communica ion p oblems. Today, he go e nmen aces a
p essing need o d aw up a spo s policy ha will change pe cep ions o spo
and he way spo is un. Indeed, a 2022 s udy by Tunisia’s Na ional Spo
Obse a o y showed ha 83% o Tunisians do no physical ac i i y. Hiking is he
mos popula ac i i y, bu mo e could be done o de elop i s heal h and ou ism
aspec s.
134 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
Suppo ing Tunisia’s NFs is one o he minis y’s main p io i ies. As pa o he
coun y’s spo s s a egy, some p ojec s ha e begun condi ioning g an alloca ions
on NFs’ and spo associa ions’ good go e nance p ac ices: c ea e an in o ma ion
pla o m o moni o NFs’ adminis a i e, inancial and echnical ac i i ies (se up a
compu e ised managemen sys em wi hin spo s o ganisa ions); egula e he spo s
be ing sec o , no ably by passing a law on Games o chance, gambling and be ing
(clamp down on illegal money and i s impac on he de elopmen o spo ); c ea e
a ca ego y o spo companies ha will p o ide p o essional eams wi h he sup-
plemen a y esou ces hey need o become inancially independen and adop good
managemen p ac ices, especially in e ms o anspa ency and go e nance.
Gi en Tunisia’s poo economic si ua ion, he minis y p o ides a ge ed suppo ,
h ough he NFs, o a ound 20 indi idual a hle es wi h he po en ial o win medals
o inish in he op 10 a he Pa is 2024 Olympic and Pa alympic Games. A join
minis y- NOC commission moni o s hese a hle es closely. Despi e his di icul
con ex , Tunisia con inues o p oduce Olympic, Pa alympic and wo ld champions
in some spo s, including aekwondo (Mohamed Jendoubi), ennis (Ons Jabeu ),
swimming (Ahmed Ha naoui, gold medalis a he Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games
and double gold medalis a he 2023 Wo ld Aqua ics Championships) and a hle ics
(e.g., Raoua Tlili and Walid K ila, gold medalis s a he Tokyo 2020 Pa alympic
Games).
3.3.4 Uganda: A Neglec ed bu E ol ing Spo s Sys em
Uganda has a popula ion o a ound 49 million people, app oxima ely 60% o
whom a e below he age o 16. P esiden Yowe i Muse eni has been in o ice
since 1986 and uns a uni a y dominan pa y sys em o go e nance. Pe - capi a
income – $1,163 – is one o he lowes (163 d) in he wo ld. Al hough spo is
done in schools, academic pe o mance is a much highe p io i y, so mos schools
ha e inadequa e spo s acili ies. Mo eo e , he in e ace be ween na ional spo s
o ganisa ions and he school sys em is limi ed.
In ac , spo has been one o he mos neglec ed sec o s in Uganda since he
coun y gained i s independence in 1962, and na ional spo s o ganisa ions ha e
ecei ed li le o no guidance om ei he he Na ional Council o Spo s (NCS)
o he Minis y o Educa ion and Spo s (MOES). Spo s in Uganda a e egula ed
by he Na ional Spo s Ac 2023 which supe seded he long- s anding Na ional
Council o Spo s Ac o 1964. O he 50 na ional spo s associa ions egis e ed
wi h he NCS, 33 a e a ilia ed o he Uganda Olympic Commi ee/ Commonweal h
Games Uganda. The Uganda Olympic Commi ee’s p ima y esponsibili ies a e
o ep esen he IOC in Uganda, en e eams o he Olympic Games and p omo e
Olympism. I elies on he IOC/ Olympic Solida i y o abou 90% o i s unding
(app ox. $600,000 o e ou yea s) and ecei es almos no suppo om go e n-
men , excep o small sums o a hle es aking pa in Olympic Games. Fo many
yea s, he UOC’s ela ionship wi h he NCS/ MOES was qui e ‘ os y’, bu ela ions
ha e become mo e collabo a i e in ecen yea s.
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 135
As spo ’s egula o , he NCS is manda ed o p o ide suppo o na ional spo s
associa ions. Howe e , a long his o y o inadequa e unding esul ed in na ional
spo s associa ions ecei ing e y li le, i any, unding. Consequen ly, hey had o
seek suppo om hei membe s, hei IFs and co po a e pa ne s and some imes
elied on inpu s o pe sonal unding om hei adminis a o s. This si ua ion has
e ol ed since he end o he 2010s when he go e nmen began ecognising spo ’s
abili y o gal anize you h. Hence, he budge alloca ed o spo s h ough he NCS
has p og essi ely inc eased, ising om 3.1 billion Uganda shillings ($785,000) in
2015 o 48 billion Uganda shillings ($12.1 million) in 2023. This budge co e s all
na ional spo s ac i i ies and p og ammes ac oss he coun y. Foo ball ecei es he
la ges sha e o his unding (app ox. 17.5 billion Uganda shillings, $4.4 million),
while many o he spo s mus s ill end o hemsel es.
In e ms o p o essional spo , Uganda has p o essional oo ball, baske ball
and ugby leagues, and a ew eli e unne s and boxe s ha e manage s. Some ne -
ball, oo ball, baske ball and ugby playe s ha e joined p o essional leagues in he
Uni ed Kingdom, Uni ed S a es o Ame ica and F ance.
Uganda’s colonial- e a spo s sys em and s uc u e collapsed be ween 1970 and
1985 when he coun y wen h ough a pe iod o poli ical ins abili y ha led o
go e nance p oblems such as a decline in skilled manpowe and in as uc u e.
Pa onage, nepo ism, e hnici y, con lic o in e es , abuse o o ice and bad go -
e nance esul ed in Ugandan spo lacking e ec i e spo s go e nance s uc u es
and policies o many yea s. Howe e , s eps a e now being aken o es o e and
ehabili a e he spo s sys em, wi h ecen de elopmen s hin ing a a new dawn o
spo in Uganda. Fo example. Uganda achie ed i s highes - e e medal ally a he
2020 Olympic Games, wi h wo gold medals (Joshua Chep egei in he 5000 m and
Pe u h Chemu ai in he 3000 m s eeplechase), one sil e medal (Joshua Chep egei
in he 10,000 m) and one b onze medal (Jacob Kiplimo in he 10,000 m). Uganda
inished 36 h in he medals able, as he second A ican na ion behind Kenya.
3.3.5 Sou h Ko ea: A Bu eauc a ic Model a he Se ice
o Na ion B anding18
Sou h Ko ea is a young democ acy (since 1987) wi h a popula ion o 51 million
people. The public au ho i ies play a e y ac i e ole in Sou h Ko ean spo , which
is egula ed by he Na ional Spo s P omo ion Ac , i s passed in 1962 and sub-
jec o se e al e isions ( he la es in 2023). The Minis y o Cul u e, Spo s and
Tou ism de ines Sou h Ko ea’s spo s policy, which is implemen ed mos ly by
pa ne spo s o ganisa ions. The Ko ean Spo and Olympic Commi ee (KSOC)
and he Ko ea Spo s P omo ion Founda ion (KSPO) play pi o al oles in he
sys em. The KSOC is he umb ella body o he coun y’s NFs. In addi ion o i s
64 membe s and 7 associa e membe s, i ecognises a u he 12 spo s o ganisa-
ions (on 8 May 2023) and suppo s Ko ea’s 17 p o incial spo councils (e.g.,
Seoul Spo s Council, Incheon Spo s Council). In he pas , i s sole ocus was in e -
na ional spo s compe i ions, suppo ing NFs and aining a hle es wi h he aim
136 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
o keeping he coun y in he op en in he Olympic medals able. Ne e heless,
Ko ea inished jus 16 h a he Tokyo 2020 Summe Olympics and 14 h a he 2022
Beijing Win e Olympics. Since 2016, when i abso bed he Ko ean Council o
Spo o All, he KSOC has also been o icially esponsible o de eloping g ass-
oo s spo , as equi ed by he Na ional Spo s P omo ion Ac .
Founded o pe pe ua e he legacy o he Seoul 1988 Summe Olympic and
Pa alympic Games, he KSPO plays an essen ial ole in ob aining and dis ibu ing
unds o p omo ing spo . I s main ac i i ies a e: (1) unning commemo a i e p o-
jec s o he 1988 Olympic Games; (2) managing spo p omo ion unding, mos o
which comes om he go e nmen and und aising ac i i ies such as cycling aces,
speedboa acing, be ing on cycling and speedboa acing and Ko ea’s ‘Spo s
To o’ gambling game; (3) managing spo s acili ies and eal es a e acquisi ions
and leases; (4) conduc ing spo s science esea ch; and (5) implemen ing o he
ac ions ecognised by he Minis y o Cul u e, Spo s and Tou ism. The Ko ean
Founda ion o Nex Gene a ion Spo s Talen , es ablished in 2007 and a ached o
he KSPO in 2016, p o ides educa ion p og ammes o u u e na ional- eam a h-
le es and spo s adminis a o s.
The Minis y o Cul u e, Spo s and Tou ism o e sees many mo e public
spo s ins i u ions and o ganisa ions, including he Ko ea Spo s Associa ion
o he Disabled, he Ko ea An i- Doping Agency and he Taekwondo P omo ion
Founda ion. In he comme cial sec o , Ko ea’s ou p o essional leagues
( oo ball, baseball, baske ball, olleyball) ha e g own conside ably since he
1980s. Al hough hese leagues can be ca ego ised as sub- o ganisa ions o hei
espec i e NFs, he go e nmen has limi ed con ol o e he mos popula
leagues. Following a change o go e nmen in he la e 1980s, Sou h Ko ea
has adop ed a s a egy o selling he coun y’s image ab oad by hos ing majo
in e na ional e en s, no ably he 1988 Summe Olympics (Seoul), 2002 Men’s
Foo ball Wo ld Cup (Ko ea and Japan), 2011 A hle ics Wo ld Championships
(Daegu), 2018 Win e Olympics (PyeongChang) and 2024 You h Win e
Olympic Games (Gangwon).
3.3.6 S i Lanka: A Non- In eg a ed and Failing Model in an
Eme ging Coun y
S i Lanka is a coun y o 22 million people wi h a complex social, e hnic and
eligious s uc u e. I gained i s independence in 1948 bu emained a dominion
wi hin he B i ish Commonweal h un il 1972 when i became a democ a ic socialis
epublic. I subsequen ly wen h ough a 30- yea ci il wa ha inally came o an
end in 2009.
Al hough S i Lanka’s educa ion and heal h sys ems a e well o ganised and e y
p o essional, his is no he case o i s na ional spo s sys em, which is highly ag-
men ed and poo ly p o essionalised. A law passed in 1973 and e ised in 1993 and
2017 se s ou he na ional spo s amewo k, bu he e is no clea di ision be ween
he oles o he s a e and o he spo and Olympic mo emen , especially in e ms
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 137
o o ganising eli e spo . No is he e an o e all s a egic ision o any s uc u ed
and ins i u ionalised coope a ion and pa ne ship be ween he spo s minis y and
S i Lanka’s NOC and spo ede a ions. Ne e heless, he minis y helps inance
a el o na ional eams compe ing in in e na ional compe i ions and he s aging o
in e na ional compe i ions. S i Lanka hos ed he Sou h Eas Asian Games in 2006
and he Asian Beach Games in 2011, bu i s bid o hos he 2018 Commonweal h
Games was unsuccess ul. Mo eo e , spo appea s o be highly poli icised in a e y
uns able poli ical con ex (c isis in 2022, when he coun y’s p esiden esigned
in he ace o massi e demons a ions, especially by young people). In line wi h
Ga cia and Meie ’s (2022) obse a ion ha spo s o ganisa ion leade s in de elop-
ing coun ies o en ha e close ies wi h poli ical pa ies and he public au ho i ies,
he p esiden o S i Lanka’s NOC un il 2018 also held impo an poli ical and min-
is e ial posi ions.
A majo a ea o con en ion wi h he cu en law on spo s is ha i gi es he
spo s minis e he powe o dissol e a na ional spo ede a ion and eplace i s
elec ed p esiden and execu i e commi ee. Indeed, FIFA suspended S i Lanka’s
NF in 2023 because o poli ical in e e ence. The IOC did no ake simila ac ion,
al hough i has done so o o he coun ies. Gi en he agili y o S i Lanka’s sys em,
i s NOC and NFs a e mos ly sel - inanced and ha e ew esou ces. Ne e heless,
he NOC’s annual e enues ha e enabled i o ec ui a ound en young employ-
ees, al hough o e all coo dina ion emains in he hands o i s elec ed leade s, pa -
icula ly i s sec e a y gene al (who has held he o ice o almos 20 yea s). S i
Lanka’s NOC maximises i s income om Olympic Solida i y by esponding o all
i s calls o p ojec s, whe eas s a e aid p o ides jus 5% o i s income. I emains
mo e ocused on i s Olympic educa ion missions and leade ship aining han on
eli e spo and has ecen ly begun paying conside able a en ion o spo s in eg-
i y policies. Fo example, i has c ea ed, wi h s a e suppo , a e y p o essional
an i- doping agency. In e na ional coope a ion ag eemen s wi h coun ies such as
Aus alia and Sou h Ko ea p o ide suppo in he o m o equipmen dona ions,
aining o coaches and a hle e schola ships and so on. Foo ball is he only S i
Lankan NF ha has managed o p o essionalise e ec i ely, hanks o subs an ial
help om FIFA, al hough S i Lanka emains nea he bo om o FIFA’s anking
(204 h ou o 210 NFs in 2023).
Olympic and eli e spo ha e ew esou ces in e ms o in as uc u e and s a ,
and his has undoub edly con ibu ed o S i Lanka’s lack o success a he Olympic
Games, whe e i has won jus wo medals, bo h sil e (in 1984 and 2000). The
A med Fo ces Minis y p o ides suppo o cen al Olympic spo s, especially
a hle ics, by p o iding aining acili ies and coaches and ec ui ing o me mili a y
eli e a hle es, and a ew eli e a hle es ain in Aus alia and he Uni ed S a es ia
hese coun ies’ uni e si y sys ems.
C icke , which is no an Olympic spo o in eg a ed in o he NOC, is by a he
mos popula spo in S i Lanka, whe e i is a e i able eligion and mo e impo an
han any Olympic spo . In ac , S i Lanka is one o he wo ld’s op na ions in
c icke , he coun y’s only uly p o essional and economically de eloped spo .

138 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
The cu en na ional spo s sys em s ill makes insu icien use o he links wi h
c icke and i s economy, and i does li le o build upon he ne wo ks ab oad o e ed
by he S i Lankan diaspo a o de elop and suppo eli e spo . Simila ly, i has no
exploi ed possible in e aces be ween spo / Olympism and i s educa ion sys em
(school spo , you h compe i ions), heal h sys em (highly p o essionalised spo s
medicine sec o ) and ou ism, e en hough he coun y has g ea e po en ial in
hese a eas.
A coun y’s na ional spo s sys em impac s i s abili y o implemen ambi ious
policies p omo ing eli e spo and i s success in majo in e na ional compe i ions
(especially he Olympic Games and wo ld championships). Howe e , spo ing
esul s a e no always ela ed o a coun y’s spo s sys em, as eli e a hle es may
ain in o he coun ies (e.g., h ough he Uni ed S a es’ uni e si y spo s sys em) o
h ough o ganisa ions unconnec ed wi h spo s ede a ions o public bodies (e.g.,
p i a e academies).
3.4 A Na ion’s Spo ing Success
The Spo s Policy Fac o s Leading o In e na ional Spo ing Success (SPLISS)
model, i s d awn up in 2006 and subsequen ly imp o ed (De Bossche e al.,
2015), ou lines he main ac o s ha de e mine a na ion’s spo ing success (Sec ion
3.4.1). Howe e , coun ies mus also make s a egic choices based on hei s eng hs
in e ms o spo ing cul u e and expe ise (Sec ion 3.4.2).
3.4.1 The SPLISS Model
Acco ding o he SPLISS model, a coun y’s eli e spo pe o mance is buil on en
pilla s (Figu e 3.1):
1. Financial suppo
2. O ganisa ion and s uc u e o spo policies
3. Founda ion and pa icipa ion
4. Talen iden i ica ion and de elopmen sys em
5. A hle ic and pos - ca ee suppo
6. T aining acili ies
7. Coaching p o ision and coaching de elopmen
8. In e na ional and na ional compe i ions
9. Scien i ic esea ch
10. Eli e spo en i onmen , media and sponso ing
These en pilla s con ibu e o a na ion’s spo ing pe o mance h ough a p ocess
ha combines injec ing esou ces in o a gi en en i onmen , which may o may no
be a ou able (inpu ), and using hese esou ces o p oduce good esul s in majo
in e na ional compe i ions. This p ocess in ol es a coun y’s NOC, NFs and he
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 139
s a e. I s ul ima e aim is o gene a e posi i e impac s o he na ion, such as aising
i s p o ile and/ o imp o ing i s image, inc easing pa icipa ion in spo , building a
spo ing cul u e, ins illing na ional p ide and c ea ing a eeling o belonging.
The ollowing pa ag aphs p esen each o hese en pilla s, as se ou by he
au ho s o he SPLISS ac ion- esea ch p og amme on s ee ing na ional eli e spo
policies, conduc ed in collabo a ion wi h expe s in eli e spo .
3.4.1.1 Pilla No. 1: Financial Suppo o Eli e Spo
This pilla desc ibes a coun y’s abili y o und spo in gene al and eli e spo in
pa icula (see G ix, 2024). Suppo may be public o p i a e and di ec (subsidies,
p o ision o acili ies and s a ) o indi ec ( iscal a angemen s – e.g., ax exemp-
ions o ede a ions o o g an s o eli e a hle es, p o iding eli e a hle es wi h jobs
in he a med o ces o public companies, e c.). Public subsidies include go e n-
men and local au ho i y unding and injec ing lo e y unding in o eli e spo ( e y
common in Eu ope). Some spo s also ecei e p i a e unding in he o m o media
igh s and sponso ship e enues. Analyses mus conside he ways spo s bodies
(spo s minis y, spo s ede a ions, NOCs, academies, p i a e bodies) dis ibu e
and use his unding o ain a hle es.
Figu e 3.1 The SPLISS Model.
Sou ce: De Bossche e al. (2015).
140 Th ee In e connec ed Regula o y Sys ems
3.4.1.2 Pilla No. 2: O ganisa ion and S uc u e o Spo Policies
Pilla 2 conce ns he way a coun y o ganises eli e spo . Analyses o his pilla
mus include aspec s such as egional policies and bodies o spo ing alen (build-
ing he eli e spo s sec o ), he oles played by di e en ac o s, mechanisms o
pooling compe encies and esou ces, decision- making p ocesses, he in luence
hese p ocesses ha e on policy, and whe he ope a ional policies a e compa ible
wi h achie ing s a egic objec i es. The p esence o app op ia e mechanisms o
ensu e eli e spo bodies collabo a e e ec i ely wi h sponso s and he media is a
key indica o o whe he a coun y has an in eg a ed app oach.
3.4.1.3 Pilla No. 3: Founda ion and Pa icipa ion
Pilla 3 co e s he ex en and in ensi y o pa icipa ion in spo by he popula ion
as a whole and especially by child en h ough school spo and ex a- cu icula
spo . Wha is he place o school spo and how much spo ( equency and leng h
o physical educa ion sessions) do child en do a school? Do clubs p o ide con-
duci e en i onmen s o ying and playing a spo and o de eloping alen ?
A key ac o in p oducing eli e a hle es is o gi e young people he chance o y
nume ous spo s, wi hou p essu ing hem o specialise a oo young an age. Hence,
i is impo an o analyse he di e si y o he school spo o e ed and he numbe
o clubs in each discipline and o each ype o spo p ac ice (compe i ion, leisu e,
e c.). The pe cen age o people in each age g oup and each socio- p o essional ca -
ego y who do spo and he egula i y wi h which hey do spo a e good indica o s
o a coun y’s spo ing cul u e. These da a also indica e which spo s a e he mos
a ac i e o di e en ca ego ies o people and whe he a coun y has a gene al o
mo e specialised spo ing cul u e.
3.4.1.4 Pilla No. 4: Talen Iden i ica ion and De elopmen
Eli e a hle es mus be suppo ed by an eli e spo s sec o and a sys em ha p o ides
ad ice and assis ance h oughou hei spo ing ca ee s. I mus be possible o o e
alen ed young a hle es school p og ammes (special sec ions o young a hle es in
schools, spo - s udy sys ems, adap ed ime ables, e c.) and pe sonal de elopmen
ha a e compa ible wi h he demands o aining and compe i ions. Pa hways o
he op le el mus be indi idualised acco ding o each young a hle e’s si ua ion and
spo ing objec i es.
3.4.1.5 Pilla No. 5: A hle ic and Pos - Ca ee Suppo
To enable a hle es o pe o m a hei bes , he spo s o ganisa ions looking a e
hem ( ede a ion, p i a e academy, educa ional es ablishmen , e c.) mus p o ide
sui able suppo be o e, du ing and a e hei spo ing ca ee s (ca ee ansi ion).
Global Regula ion Dependen on Na ional Spo Con igu a ions 141
Do spo ing, amily and school suppo mechanisms exis and a e hey coo di-
na ed e ec i ely? Suppo may ake a ious o ms, including adap ed s udy p o-
g ammes, nu i ion ad ice, medical supe ision, men al p epa a ion, legal and
inancial ad ice, media aining, o eign language aining and indi idualised exam
p epa a ion. A e people wi h hese skills a ailable o help young people success-
ully manage he h ee aspec s o an a hle e’s li e (spo , school and amily) while
coping wi h he demands o high- le el compe i ion ( a el and ime)? A e a h-
le es o e ed suppo o acili a e hei ca ee ansi ions, no ably e aining and
help inding wo k? Is psychological suppo a ailable o a hle es when hey e i e
om eli e spo , a ansi ion many a hle es ind ex emely di icul ? Being able o
d aw on he expe ience o o me eli e a hle es o help u u e gene a ions is a g ea
ad an age in e ms o p o iding suppo .
3.4.1.6 Pilla No. 6: T aining Facili ies
A comp ehensi e, na ionwide ne wo k o spo acili ies is essen ial o coun ies
wishing o ully ealise hei eli e- le el spo ing po en ial. Ha ing such a ne -
wo k allows a hle es o all le els o ain p ope ly whe e e hey li e. In addi ion,
specialis eli e aining cen es combining spo s acili ies wi h schools, medical
se ices, accommoda ion and ca e ing se ices enable eli e a hle es bo h o ain
e ec i ely and e icien ly (no ime was ed a elling) and o bene i om he e ec s
o pee emula ion. Mos majo spo ing na ions ha e concen a ed knowledge and
expe ise in high- pe o mance aining s uc u es such as na ional aining cen es
(e.g., INSEP in F ance, Macolin in Swi ze land) o ne wo ks o na ional pe o m-
ance cen es (Uni ed Kingdom).
Spo in as uc u e in es men p og ammes mus co e eno a ion wo k on
exis ing ameni ies as well as he cons uc ion o new acili ies. Ca e mus be aken
o calcula e he ope a ing cos s o op- class acili ies as accu a ely as possible o
ensu e hey can unc ion co ec ly. Na ional and egional cen es o speci ic spo s
mus be pa o an o e all aining policy.
3.4.1.7 Pilla No. 7: Coaching P o ision and Coaching De elopmen
Pilla 7 is whe he a coun y has enough coaches o p o ide e ec i e aining
o a spo ’s eli e a hle es. I includes aining sys ems o eli e- le el coaches and
e eshe cou se and con inuing aining mechanisms.
Coaches’ p o iles, compe encies and expe ience a e key o unde s anding hei
abili y o accompany a hle es om he highes egional le el o he in e na ional
le el. Is he wo k done by coaches su icien ly ecognised by employe s? A e he e
possibili ies o ca ee p og ession? Do coaches ha e secu e employmen con-
ac s? Is he e a union o ep esen hem and de end hei in e es s in cases o con-
lic ? These human esou ces issues a e key o unde s anding a coun y’s abili y o
a ac , de elop and e ain alen ed coaches.
244 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
and spo smanship emain sou ces o inspi a ion and exci emen . Ci cui owne s
p o ec hei spo ’s in eg i y by se ing ules o play and codes o conduc / e hics
(beha iou on he ield o play, espec ing opponen s, e e ees and o he ans, e c.)
and imposing sanc ions on a hle es who b eak hese ules ( om ines o exclusion
om compe i ions). E o s o comba h ea s such as doping, ma ch ixing, io-
lence, acism, ha assmen and abuse include sel - egula ion measu es (e.g., edu-
ca ing a hle es abou he need o espec he ules o play and codes o e hics), se ing
up in e na ional wa chdogs (e.g., Wo ld An i- Doping Agency, In e na ional Tes ing
Agency, Cou o A bi a ion o Spo ; see Chap e 1) and passing na ional legis-
la ion. Na ional an i- doping and spo in eg i y agencies also play a ole. In add-
i ion, some spo s ha e se up hei own in e na ional in eg i y sys ems, such as he
A hle ics In eg i y Uni , c ea ed by Wo ld A hle ics in 2017, and he In e na ional
Tennis In eg i y Agency, es ablished by he ATP/ WTA, ITF and G and Slam Boa d
in 2008.
The physical sa e y o a hle es, o icials and spec a o s is ano he impo an
aspec o p o ec ing he game. P o iding sa e condi ions in which o compe e, o i-
cia e and spec a e is becoming inc easingly expensi e o compe i ion o ganise s.
In addi ion, spo s mus p o ec a hle es’ men al and physical heal h by moni o ing
he numbe o ma ches/ compe i ions hey ake pa in, scheduling e en s a imes
o he yea wi h app op ia e wea he condi ions, ac o ing eco e y imes in o com-
pe i ion calenda s and p o iding medical supe ision o p e en and ea speci ic
pa hologies.
A mo e ecen conce n, igge ed by a se ies o majo scandals, is he need o
p o ec young a hle es (especially young women) om po en ially ha m ul ela-
ionships wi h coaches o o he membe s o hei en ou age ( isk o psychological
and sexual abuse). Na ional go e nmen s ha e begun passing legisla ion on hese
issues, while ci cui ope a o s and ede a ions ha e up po als o whis leblowe s,
p o ide in o ma ion and aining, and ensu e young a hle es ha e sepa a e accom-
moda ion om coaches du ing aining camps. Cybe bullying, ia agg essi e o
iolen social- media pos s o ia spo s gamble s h ea ening and p essu ing a h-
le es, is ano he po en ial sou ce o dis ess.
A inal aspec o p o ec ing he game in ol es aking measu es o ensu e a hle es
do no su e om social p eca i y and ulne abili y du ing o a e hei ca ee s.
One way ha spo s can do his is by p o iding a hle es wi h aining ha will help
hem wi h hei ca ee ansi ions when hey can no longe compe e a he highes
le el (social secu i y). Fo example, in 2023 he ATP, in conjunc ion wi h LaLiga
(Spain’s op- ligh oo ball league), launched a Business Educa ion P og amme ‘ o
build ATP playe s’ knowledge o he spo s indus y and open p o essional oppo -
uni ies ollowing hei playing ca ee s’.
6.1.2.4 Finance and Ma ke ing
Finance and ma ke ing mus be a he hea o a spo ’s egula ion i i is o gen-
e a e he economy and media co e age needed o make p o essionalism iable.

P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 245
A ci cui ’s a ac i eness o he media, spec a o s, sponso s and ans, which is a
key ac o in ob aining e enues om hese s akeholde s depends on he spo ’s
enown, he epu a ion o i s e en s and a hle es ( anking, pe sonali y, ame/ image,
e c.) and whe he e en s a e exci ing (which is, by de ini ion, unce ain, as no one
knows wha will happen du ing a ma ch/ compe i ion).
A spo ’s appeal is an essen ial c i e ion o ci cui s and hei componen e en s
o conside when designing hei business models, which gene ally e ol e a ound
cen alised ma ke ing s a egies (as in eam spo s), and nego ia ing wi h s ake-
holde s. In addi ion, ha ing a monopoly o e a spo ’s majo compe i ions gi es
ci cui owne s g ea e ba gaining powe and allows hem o gene a e la ge e -
enues. Ci cui owne s/ manage s gene ally nego ia e media igh s and majo spon-
so ship deals o all he e en s on hei ci cui and hen edis ibu e a p opo ion
o hese e enues o e en o ganise s. Fo example, in 2023 he ATP edis ibu ed
$300,000 o each ATP 250 ou namen o ganise and paid hem $325,000 o he
igh s o playe and ma ch s a is ics, which he ATP could hen sell o online be ing
companies. Local e en o ganise s mus wo k wi hin his amewo k o de elop
a business model ha allows hem o a ain hei objec i es (make a p o i , a ac
pa ne s, g ow he spo , e c.). Ano he aim o ci cui s’ comme cial and ma ke ing
s a egies is o expand hei businesses in e na ionally by en e ing new ma ke s and
a ac ing new ans. The numbe o e en s, he le el o each ou namen and he
amoun o p ize money a ailable mus be chosen wi h he aim o making p o es-
sionalism iable. To his end, he ATP has aised he p ize money a ailable o p o-
essional playe s by inc easing he numbe o ATP 500 e en s o he 2024 season
om 13 o 16 (by me ging ATP 250 ou namen s). Media co e age, ia ei he clas-
sic media o he in e ne and social ne wo ks, and globalisa ion a e key o boos -
ing a ci cui ’s ame and enhancing i s image, while be e quali y images and da a
cap u e sys ems explaining di e ences in a hle es’ pe o mances gi e ans a mo e
imme si e expe ience. Ha ing well- known and well- espec ed champions makes i
easie o ma ke a spo s e en , which is why spo s such as Fo mula 1, cycling and
ennis coope a ed wi h Ne lix o p oduce documen a ies16 showcasing hei bes
and mos bankable a hle es so hey become known o a wide audience (especially
young people and women). By p o iding glimpses in o op a hle es’ li es, s eam-
ing companies a e ollowing cinema’s adi ion o ma ke ing and glamou ising i s
bigges s a s.
Ci cui owne s and e en o ganise s mus c ea e ‘ an expe iences’ ha do no
ely solely on he spo ing spec acle, which is, by i s na u e, unce ain. Momen s o
spo ing d ama emain an impo an pa o an expe iences, bu owne s/ o ganise s
also use non- spo ing a ac ions such as music shows, oppo uni ies o win p izes
(cash, memo abilia, non- ungible okens, e c.) and behind- he- scenes isi s o c e-
a e an loyal y.
How he money a ci cui gene a es is edis ibu ed is a key issue o he ci cui
owne - ope a o o nego ia e wi h e en o ganise s and playe s, as is he dis ibu-
ion o e enues be ween a hle es ( om s a s o mo e modes a hle es). E en s
mus also decide whe he o edis ibu e (usually ia spo ede a ions) some o
246 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
hei e enues o g ass oo s spo as he sou ce o he nex gene a ion o a hle es,
e e ees and olun ee s. A hle es edis ibu e a p opo ion o hei e enues o hei
‘ eam’ (coach, physical aine , men al aine , agen ), unless hey belong o an
academy (some imes he case in ennis) o ha e a manage / agen (o en he case
in a hle ics). Wha is he igh balance o achie e be ween hese ac o s and wha
comp omises should each ac o be p epa ed o make? IFs end o keep a la ge p o-
po ion o he e enues hei compe i ions gene a e and edis ibu e ela i ely small
amoun s o a hle es and local o ganise s. They jus i y his by poin ing ou ha hey
use his money o inance in e na ional compe i ions o young a hle es, which a e
by hei na u e loss- making, and o g ow he spo a ound he wo ld. Howe e ,
a hle es may con es his dis ibu ion gi en he luxu ious wo king condi ions o
some in e na ional spo execu i es (e.g., VIP ea men a e en s), which aises
ques ions abou whe he de elopmen and solida i y unds edis ibu ed o NFs a e
used well. E en o ganise s and a hle es a e be e able o de end hei in e es s in
he case o comme cial ci cui s because hey con ol hei e en s’ go e nance. In
ennis, he ATP, a e aking i s sha e, edis ibu es e enues 50/ 50 be ween play-
e s and ou namen o ganise s. And ennis playe s ha e o ced he G and Slam
ou namen s o edis ibu e mo e o hei e enues o playe s, esul ing in a 14- old
inc ease in p ize money be ween 2000 and 2023.17 Ne e heless, he ou namen
owne s ( he Aus alian, F ench and Ame ican Opens a e owned by hei hos coun-
y’s NF; Wimbledon is owned by a club) s ill ake a much la ge sha e o he p o i s
han he playe s ( a io o app ox. 6 o 1). G and Slam ou namen s now ha e equal
p ize pools o men and women and alloca e mo e p ize money o playe s who in-
ish lowe down he ou namen ankings (quali ie s and i s ound) o help hem
inance hei season. Playe s ha e se e al op ions when i comes o edis ibu ing
e enues o hei en ou age. Gene ally, his edis ibu ion is aligned wi h he a h-
le e’s e enues. Fo example, a playe ’s coach may ecei e a ixed weekly, mon hly
o annual sala y o 10% o p ize money (plus expenses and pe o mance- linked
bonuses) and he playe ’s agen may ecei e 20% o he sponso ship con ac s he
agen nego ia es. In some cases, hese sums a e no ixed and may a y wi hin max-
imum and minimum limi s se by he spo ’s go e ning body o na ional legisla ion.
This is he case in a hle ics, whe e he manage s o A ican long- dis ance unne s
may ake mo e han 50% o he a hle es’ e enues ( om ma a hons and oad aces).
Some ennis playe s in he ATP Top 100 a el wi h a physical aine and physio-
he apis / os eopa h, as well as a coach, and mus he e o e co e hese ex a s a
membe s’ a el expenses.18
In his case, he dominan ac o s’ abili y o concen a e a ci cui ’s e enues is
explained by a combina ion o he ‘winne - akes- all’ and ‘supe s a s’ economic
heo ies. Feuille , Scelles and Du and (2018) ound ha he imbalance in playe s’
e enues is g ea e in men’s ennis han i is in men’s gol , bu his is no due o di -
e ences in he way hese spo s dis ibu e p ize money. Ra he , i is a esul o en-
nis ha ing a lowe u no e in spo ing ankings han gol . Consequen ly, a small
numbe o ennis playe s ea n a pa icula ly high p opo ion o he spo ’s p ize
money o e se e al seasons. Mo e speci ically, du ing he 2010s he lion’s sha e o
P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 247
p ize money, gua an ees,19 exhibi ion ees and wo ldwide indi idual sponso ship
wen o jus ou playe s: Djoko ic, Fede e , Mu ay and Nadal. E en hough each
o hese playe s won mo e han €100 million in p ize money du ing hei ca ee s,
mos o hei e enues came om sponso ship (be ween €20 million and €70 mil-
lion a yea ). Fede e was pa icula ly success ul in mone ising his image, ea n-
ing almos h ee imes as much om sponso ship as Nadal and Djoko ic in 2020.
These sums made him he wo ld’s highes - paid a hle e ha yea , wi h o al ea nings
o mo e han $100 million.
6.1.2.5 Social Responsibili y
Social esponsibili y ac ions enable p o essional spo o jus i y i s place in
socie y and in hos e i o ies and o show ha i can be a esponsible business.
The In e na ional S anda ds O ganisa ion de ines o ganisa ional social esponsi-
bili y as an o ganisa ion’s con ibu ion o sus ainable de elopmen and i s will-
ingness o ake esponsibili y o and epo i s ac i i ies’ impac s on socie y and
he en i onmen (ISO 26000). Fo spo o ganisa ions’ social esponsibili y o be
uly e ec i e, i mus in ol e and be sha ed wi h o he s akeholde s, including
a hle es (some o whom ha e hei own socie al ounda ions), sponso s (e.g., ia
eco- esponsible pa ne ships) and supplie s (choosing supplie s wi h esponsible
managemen p ac ices, such as companies who use/ p o ide o ganic and local
p oduc s).
The Na ional Baske ball Associa ion – p obably he mos ad anced spo o gan-
isa ion in e ms o social esponsibili y (F ançois and Bayle, 2011) – has c ea ed
an in eg a ed and consolida ed social esponsibili y s a egy called NBA Ca es.
P o essional indi idual spo s can d aw up simila s a egies, as he PGA did in
1978 when i ounded he PGA Founda ion o un i s social esponsibili y ac ions.
Howe e , he PGA Founda ion ope a es on a much smalle scale and is less p o es-
sionalised han NBA Ca es.
Social esponsibili y has h ee dimensions: socie al, economic and en i on-
men al. In e ms o he socie al dimension, ci cui owne s mus de elop an in e -
na ional s a egy and p omo e hei e en o ganise s’ ini ia i es and good p ac ices.
E en o ganise s can unde ake ci ic and solida i y ac ions (e.g., make hei
e en s easily accessible o people wi h disabili ies, p o ide ee icke s o young
people in di icul y, suppo and p omo e cha i ies, e c.), p omo e and encou age
ama eu spo (encou age olun ee ism, o ganise spo s demons a ions o young
a hle es, e c.). Many o hese ac ions can be ca ied ou wi h public and p i a e
pa ne s, who can use spo and spo e en s o showcase hei policies and social
esponsibili y.
Economic social esponsibili y in ol es demons a ing an e en ’s bene icial
e ec on i s hos e i o y, o en by conduc ing economic and media impac s ud-
ies whose esul s can be used o jus i y public in es men in he e en (economic
and social e u ns on in es men ). The economic dimension also in ol es de elop-
ing mo e esponsible e en - managemen p ac ices, such as building pa ne ships
248 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
ocused on solida i y and en i onmen al esponsibili y, adop ing a human esou ces
policy based on di e si y, in eg a ion and inclusion (social di e si y, pe cen ages o
women, people wi h disabili ies, young people, olde people) and adop ing espon-
sible pu chasing p ac ices.
Spo s e en s/ ci cui s can demons a e hei en i onmen al social esponsibili y
by educing hei ca bon oo p in s, no ably by encou aging spec a o s, s a and
playe s o use mo e- sus ainable means o anspo (public anspo , non- pollu ing
ehicles, e c.), ecycling was e, educing wa e , elec ici y and gas consump ion,
a oiding plas ics and ca dboa d, and using digi al communica ion a he han
pape . O ganise s can also e iew he li ecycles o he buildings, ma e ials and
p oduc s hey use.
Spo o ganisa ions can seek ce i ica ion o hei social esponsibili y ac ions
by mee ing s anda ds such as ISO 20121, which was concei ed speci ically o
spo s e en s. They can also o malise hei social esponsibili y ac ions by se ing
up a ounda ion o simila mechanism. Pa ne o ganisa ions may con ibu e o a
spo ’s social esponsibili y ac ions, as BNP Pa ibas has done in he case o ennis.
I s ‘Aces du Cœu ’ ini ia i e20 enables he bank o p esen i sel as a ‘pa ne o he
whole o ennis’ om he global o he local le el (eli e ennis, p o essional ennis,
ama eu ennis, women’s ennis, you h ennis, adap i e ennis, socially esponsible
ennis, e c.).
A hle es, especially a spo ’s bigges s a s, mus also demons a e hei social
esponsibili y. Many o he wo ld’s mos amous a hle es ha e se up ounda ions
o ca y ou social and solida i y ac ions – e.g., Tige Woods Founda ion (c ea ed
in 1996), Roge Fede e Founda ion (2003), Nadal Founda ion (2007), Kelly Sla e
Founda ion (2007), Igni e Founda ion (c ea ed by Lewis Hamil on and Me cedes
in 2021) and so on – and/ o become an ambassado o local, na ional o in e -
na ional causes (UNICEF, WWF, e c.).
Table 6.1 summa ises he domains, sub- domains, success ac o s and success
indica o s o he egula ion o p o essional indi idual spo s.
Ci cui owne s mus nego ia e and adap hei ac ions wi hin hese i e domains
in acco dance wi h he in e es s and expec a ions o i s spo ’s key s akeholde s (IF,
e en o ganise s, a hle es, e e ees, agen s, TV, sponso s, ans). Thus, hey mus
egula e hei ci cui s on h ee le els: mac o- le el egula ion conce ns he spo ’s
en i e ecosys em; meso- le el egula ion ocuses on he ci cui ’s e en s, whe he
hey a e o ganised by comme cial ope a o s o by associa i e bodies; and mic o-
le el egula ion conside s a ci cui ’s indi idual componen s (a hle es, agen s, e -
e ees, e en o ganise s) and de ailed ules (e.g., eligibili y igh s/ condi ions o
ci cui s).
Some issues, such as comba ing he socio- economic p eca i y o playe s ou -
side he wo ld’s op 100,21 equi e ci cui owne s o ake ac ion on all h ee le els
o egula ion. On he mac o le el, ci cui owne s could change he way hey dis-
ibu e e enues so mo e money goes o playe s lowe down he wo ld ankings.
Fo example, he ATP could pu aside 10% o he p ize pool o i s la ges ou na-
men s (ATP 1000, 500 and 250) o und a sys em gua an eeing playe s anked
P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 249
(Con inued)
Table 6.1 Summa y o he Success Fac o s and Key Indica o s o he Go e nance
o P o essional Indi idual Spo s
Domain Sub- domain Success ac o s Key indica o s
Go e nance Sys emic In ol e
s akeholde s in
decisions
Dialogue ( ede a ion,
ci cui owne ,
e en o ganise s,
ep esen a i es o
playe s, e e ees,
comme cial
s akeholde s, e c.)
Absence o con lic s
Poli ical In e na ional legal
amewo k
Pa ne ships wi h
and unding om
public bodies
(ci ies/ egions)
Absence o con o e sies
Public suppo (se ices/
subsidies) o
p o essional spo
O ganisa ional S a egic ision Long- e m s a egic plan
Leade ship Expe ience and expe ise
o he leade and boa d
Managemen
sys ems
Quali y o s a egic,
ma ke ing and inancial
in o ma ion sys ems
P o essionalism Numbe o s a and le el
o expe ise
E alua ion o
success and
abili y o explain
success o
s akeholde s
Publica ion o
pe o mance indica o s
(media/ economic
esul s and impac s)
Compe i ion
s uc u e and
ules
Rules Cla i y, uni y and
inno a ions
Uni y and in e na ional
ecogni ion
Absence o con es a ion
by s akeholde s
Calenda Cla i y and
in e na iona-
lisa ion
Numbe and hie a chy o
ou namen s
Geog aphical dis ibu ion
Ha monisa ion wi h he
wo ld championships
and Olympic Games
calenda
Ranking Spo ing
impo ance o
each ou namen
and du ing he
season
Unce ain y o ou comes
and ankings
Easy o unde s and by all
Rankings published
egula ly
Facili ies/
s adiums
Numbe and ypes
o acili ies
Quali y o s adiums and
in as uc u e
Logis ics and
secu i y
O ganise ’s
speci ica ion
Quali y con ol o ensu e
speci ica ion is me

250 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
Domain Sub- domain Success ac o s Key indica o s
P o ec ing he
game
E hics Code o e hics/
conduc
Numbe and na u e o
sanc ions
An i- doping P e en ion and
con ol policy
Numbe o doping cases
and a io o numbe
o con ols o doping
cases
Ma ch ixing P e en ion
and con ol
mechanisms
Numbe and size o cases
o ma ch ixing
O he ( acism,
iolence,
ha assmen ,
co up ion)
P e en ion
and con ol
mechanisms
Numbe o cases o
iolence, acism,
physical/ psychological
ha assmen - abuse, e c.
O e all sa e y
and heal h
Sa e y o acili ies
P e en ion
mechanisms
and medical and
psychological
ca e
Absence o p oblems
o a hle es, o icials,
spec a o s, e c.
Numbe o a hle es
inju ed e e y season
and leng h o
absences
Psychological suppo
(numbe o p oblems
du ing and a e
spo ing ca ee s)
Social and
economic
s a us o
p o essionals
(playe s,
e e ees, e c.)
Social p o ec ion
and socio-
p o essional
suppo
Suppo o
a oid inancial
p eca i y and
ulne abili y
Numbe o a hle es wi h
social secu i y and
legal insu ance and
pension plans
Numbe o a hle es who
ha e ollowed ca ee
e aining
Pos - ca ee si ua ion/
sa is ac ion and
e aining o a hle es
Finance and
ma ke ing
Comme cial
a ac i eness
Re enues
gene a ed
To al e enues
Numbe o icke s sold
Numbe and loyal y o
pa ne s
Di e si ied
business models
P o i abili y o he ci cui
and i s e en s
De elopmen
and
in e na iona-
lisa ion
Gaining new
ma ke s and
audiences,
no ably ia social
ne wo ks and
s eaming si es
Numbe o new ma ke s
and in e na ional
media igh s
Numbe o new ans
Table 6.1 (Con inued)
P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 251
Domain Sub- domain Success ac o s Key indica o s
Media co e age Visibili y ( ame and
image)
Quali y o b oadcas s
Compe i ion’s ame
and image
S a a hle es’ ame
and image
To al wo ldwide
audience – ma ke
sha e and % o audience
Numbe o ans on social
media
Fan expe ience Quali y o he
spo ing spec acle
and o he
expe ience o he
ield o play (e en s,
music, deco ,
s a is ics, e c.)
A hle e line up
Quali y o images
Spec a o sa is ac ion
and loyal y
Sa is ac ion and loyal y o
emo e ans
Redis ibu ion Equi y and
solida i y
To al p ize money
Re enues/ cos s collec ed/
deduc ed by he egula o
Ra io o o ganise s’
e enues o o al
p ize money
Gende pa i y in
p ize money
Fai e dis ibu ion o
p ize money ( educe
he e enue gap
be ween s a s and
o he a hle es)
Funding he nex
gene a ion (seconda y
o junio ci cui )
Social
esponsibili y
Socie al Social and ci ic
engagemen in
and h ough
spo
Numbe o socie al and
ci ic ac ions aken and
p omo ed (ci cui and
playe s)
Funding o and solida i y
wi h ama eu spo
Economic Responsible
economy
Pu chasing, HR, e c.,
measu ed by labels/
no ms and by supplie ’s
labels/ no ms
Economic and media
impac s o he ci cui ’s
e en s
En i onmen al Clima e impac
and biodi e si y
Ca bon oo p in
Numbe o en i onmen al
con o e sies (NGOs,
media, e c.)
Table 6.1 (Con inued)
252 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
be ween 100 and 300 in he wo ld a minimum income and social p o ec ion (social
insu ance/ pension). On he meso le el, he ATP could do mo e o co e a hle es’
and hei coaches’ expenses (boa d and lodging, heal hca e, e c.) a Challenge
ou namen s. On he mic o le el, i could do mo e o imp o e social p o ec ion o
playe s and gi e hem a gua an eed minimum income. Ways o doing his include
app en iceship con ac s o young playe s ying o b eak in o he p o essional ci -
cui and gua an eeing playe s a minimum e enue and a minimum le el o social
p o ec ion, no ably in he case o inju y. These a e issues ha he ATP could nego-
ia e wi h a playe s’ union o ensu e he in e es s o playe s below 100 in he wo ld
anking a e hea d.
In 2020, ennis’s go e ning bodies (ATP, WTA, ITF and he ou G and Slam
ou namen s) ag eed o c ea e a join solida i y und o help playe s acing inancial
ha dship due o he cancella ion o ou namen s du ing he COVID- 19 pandemic.
A he same ime, No ak Djoko ic and Vasek Pospisil ounded a playe s’ union
called he P o essional Tennis Playe s Associa ion (PTPA) wi h he idea o p o-
mo ing he g ow h, inno a ion and de ence o playe s’ igh s o he op 500 singles
playe s and op 200 doubles playe s. One o he PTPA’s main goals is o de end
he in e es s o he ennis wo ld’s leas well- o playe s, no ably by lobbying o a
mo e equi able dis ibu ion o he G and Slam ou namen s’ and ATP’s e enues.
In 2024, he PTPA launched a ee, online medical consul a ion se ice (MedNe )
o all p o essional ennis playe s.
I was undoub edly his h ea ha led he ATP o announce, in Augus 2023,
a h ee- yea ial p og amme o gi e he op 250 singles playe s mo e inancial
secu i y. The p og amme, bap ised ‘Baseline’, has h ee ‘pilla s’. I s i s pilla gua -
an ees playe s minimum income le els, depending on hei anking, so hey ‘can
plan hei seasons wi h g ea e ce ain y’.22 The second pilla in ol es p o iding
suppo o playe s who a e unable o play mo e han nine ATP and Challenge
ou namen s in a season because o inju y.23 The hi d pilla p o ides a boos o
up- and- coming playe s, who will ecei e $200,000 o unding, o se agains u u e
ea nings when hey b eak in o he Top 125.
6.2 A Wide Va ie y o E en s Models
Owne s o ci cui s and majo e en s mus ind eliable local o ganise s wi h he
echnical and inancial esou ces needed o deli e he e en in acco dance wi h
hei speci ica ions. E en o ganise s may be o a ious ypes:
• ‘Local’ spo s e en en ep eneu s.24
• In e na ional e en managemen and a hle e ma ke ing g oups (e.g., Amau y
Spo O ganisa ion, In e na ional Managemen G oup, a subsidia y o Endea o ,
Wanda Spo s, Oc agon).
• Small, gene alis o specialis e en s companies.
• Companies ou side spo ha own and o ganise hei own spo e en s and which
con ol he en i e alue chain. Red Bull, o example, is a spo s e en c ea o
P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 253
(e.g., Cli Di ing Wo ld Se ies, C ashed Ice), b oadcas e (Red Bull TV), oo -
ball club and mo o acing eam owne , ma ke e , commen a o , sponso (o 500
a hle es), a hle e aine (junio eams/ academies) and a hle e p omo e .
• spo ede a ions (which usually delega e he o ganisa ion o hei e en s o
local ope a o s o clubs), local associa ions and bodies c ea ed o o ganise a
speci ic e en .25
• Public bodies (ci y/ egion/ s a e26).
Some e en s (e.g., wo ld championships) a e one- o s and a e alloca ed o hos
ci ies ia a bidding p ocess. O he e en s a e held in he same loca ion a egula
in e als. Comme cial o ganise s un e en s wi h he aim o making a p o i ( e -
enues/ di idends) and/ o o inc easing he company’s ma ke alue be o e selling
all o pa o he company. Non- p o i e en o ganise s aim o balance hei budge s
and possibly make a p o i hey can edis ibu e o de elop he spo and/ o g ow
and p o essionalise he e en .
6.2.1 Types o E en s, Business Models and Pa ne ships
Spo e en o ganise is a isky p o ession because an e en ’s success depends on
he quali y o he spo ing spec acle, which is, by de ini ion, unce ain (p esence
and pe o mance o he bes in e na ional and local/ na ional a hle es) and, in he
case o ou doo e en s, on he wea he ( isk o cancella ion o poo condi ions o
he compe i ion). E en o ganise s canno con ol ei he o hese ac o s, al hough
hey can minimise he i s isk by paying pa icipa ion gua an ees and pe o m-
ance bonuses (e.g., o b eaking eco ds), and hey can ake ou insu ance agains
wea he - ela ed isks and/ o plan indoo al e na i es. Fluc ua ions in he economic
si ua ion a e ano he isk o e en o ganise s, as majo pa ne ship con ac s a e
o en signed o h ee yea s o gi e bo h pa ne s medium- e m isibili y. Finally,
he spo e en business also depends on he s a e o a ci cui (popula i y, epu-
a ion, business model, s a a hle es, e c.) and i s media co e age ( ee- o- iew
o pay- o- iew, on ele ision o ia he in e ne ). Mos e en o ganise s adop a
s a egic posi ion cen ed a ound p omo ing he hos e i o y and deli e ing a
high- quali y and en i onmen ally esponsible e en ha will gi e ans a unique
expe ience.
E en o ganise s’ s a egies depend on he cha ac e is ics o he e en (s) hey
o ganise (one- o / ecu ing, size, legal s a us, owne s’ objec i es, key s akehold-
e s, e c.) and hei socio- economic a ionale.27 The ollowing pa ag aphs ou line
a ypology o he socio- economic a ionales o e en s wi hin indi idual- spo
in e na ional ci cui s, based on he main sou ces o income and objec i es o he
ci cui ’s ‘owne ’. E en s can be di ided in o se en ca ego ies acco ding o he
p e ex o which an e en is used. These p e ex s a e o encou age mass pa ici-
pa ion, p o ide a pla o m o public ela ions, build exclusi e business ela ion-
ships, p oduce spec acula images o b oadcas ing, ma ke he hos e i o y,
aise (geo)poli ical isibili y and p omo e social solida i y/ eco- esponsibili y.
260 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
Iconic mega e en s may a ge he whole popula ion (e.g., Tou de F ance,
Olympic Games) o a mo e selec g oup (e.g., Wimbledon, Roland Ga os, Ryde
Cup, Ame ica’s Cup, G and P ix aces). Because hey ob ain mos o hei e enues
om in e na ional media igh s, hey a e designed o appeal o a wide ele ision
audience. Mo eo e , hey a e subjec o p essu e om bo h go e nmen s and spo s
bodies o ensu e li e co e age and/ o eco ded highligh s a e a ailable on ee- o-
iew ne wo ks. Pa ne ships wi h a small numbe o powe ul mul ina ional co po-
a ions (e.g., IOC’s Top pa ne s) a e ano he impo an sou ce o e enue, so hese
e en s ake g ea pains o ensu e sponso loyal y. In e u n o he la ge sums hey
demand om sponso s (se e al million eu os a yea ), e en s mus p o ide inno a-
i e se ices and oppo uni ies o ensu e hei pa ne s ob ain a wo hwhile e u n
on hei in es men (ad e ising equi alen s and global comme cial bene i s). A
he same ime, long- s anding pa ne s can become dependen on he e en s hey
sponso (e.g., BNP Pa ibas and Roland Ga os, Rolex and ennis and gol , Coca-
Cola and he Olympic Games, C édi Lyonnais and he Tou de F ance), as can he
e i o ies ha hos hem ( ame/ image and ou ism impac s).
Each o he six ca ego ies o e en s desc ibed abo e is an ideal ype, and many
e en s all in o wo o mo e ca ego ies. Fo example, Open 13 P o ence, an ATP
250 ennis ou namen held in Ma seille, is bo h a p e ex o p omo ing he hos
e i o y (Bouches du Rhône dépa emen and he P o ence egion, whe e ou -
ism is an impo an sec o ) and a p e ex o public ela ions o local companies.
The Amundi E ian Championship, one o women’s gol ’s i e majo s, is a p e ex
o building exclusi e business ela ionships (be ween Amundi, Eu ope’s la ges
asse managemen company, and i s clien s) and a p e ex o p omo ing he hos
e i o y (as one o he wo ld’s mos beau i ul gol des ina ions). When he Daka
Rally le Daka , i wan ed o keep he e en ’s name and spi i . Al hough i is
s ill a p e ex o mass pa icipa ion (high en y ee) and b oadcas ing (cen ed
a ound he dese landscape and spo ing di icul y), i has become a p e ex o
e i o ial ma ke ing and o aising he hos e i o y’s geopoli ical p o ile, a he
han a p e ex o solida i y (help he people o A ica escape om ex eme po -
e y, imp o e access o clean d inking wa e ). Indeed, since 2020 he Daka Rally
has aken place in Saudi A abia, which became one o he e en ’s main sponso s
h ough a en- yea con ac wo h €15 million (al hough i con ains an op - ou
clause o bo h pa ne s – he owne - o ganise and Saudi A abia – a e i e yea s).
This sum was la ge enough o he o ganise o accep he isks o being associ-
a ed wi h Saudi A abia (po en ial e o is a acks on he ace, Saudi A abia’s poo
human igh s eco d).
Table 6.3 lis s he di e en ypes o e en owne s, hei e en s’ objec i es and
a che ypal examples o each ca ego y o e en . Some e en s a e ecen c ea ions;
o he s a e much olde and ha e become ‘he i age e en s’ by building e y s ong
associa ions wi h hei hos e i o ies.
An e en ’s socio- economic p e ex (as lis ed in Table 6.3) o ms he co e o
i s business model and de e mines i s esou ce s uc u e and success indica o s.

P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 261
Table 6.3 Socio- Economic P e ex s and Success Fac o s o E en s in Indi idual
Spo s
Socio- economic
p e ex
Types o owne s
(objec i e)
Success ac o s A che ypal examples
(da e c ea ed)
Encou age
mass
pa icipa ion
Small companies
o p i a e
in e na ional
e en s g oups
(comme cial)
A ac la ge
numbe s o
eli e a hle es
and dedica ed
ama eu s o ake
up a spo ing
challenge
Hawaii I onman (1978)
Ul a- T ail du Mon -
Blanc (2003)
Pa ouille des
Glacie s (1943)
Bos on Ma a hon
(1897)
P o ide a
pla o m
o public
ela ions
Small companies
o p i a e
in e na ional
e en s g oups
(comme cial)
A ac p i a e
pa ne s
ATP and WTA ennis
ou namen s
P o essional gol
ou namen s
Build exclusi e
business
ela ionships
Company/ b and
o e en s
company
(comme cial)
S eng hen
ela ionships
be ween he
company o
b and and i s
main pa ne s/
cus ome s
Red Bull Cli Di ing
Wo ld Se ies (2009),
Red Bull BC One
(2005), Rip Cu l WSL
inals; Rolex G and
Slam o Showing
Jumping (2013)
P oduce
spec acula
images o
b oadcas ing
P i a e
in e na ional
e en s g oup
(comme cial)
P oduce beau i ul
and b ea h-
aking images
( o TV,
in e ne , o
social ne wo ks)
F ee ide Wo ld
Tou (2008)
Red Bull
Magni ude (2020)
MMA Ul ima e
Figh ing
Championship
(1993)
S ee League
Ska eboa ding (2010)
Ma ke
he hos
e i o y
P i a e
comme cial
company,
associa ion,
o public body
( ou ism)
P omo e a
e i o y o
po en ial
ou is s
Mon pellie
In e na ional
Fes i al o Ex eme
Spo s (1997)
Gs aad Swiss
Open (1915)
Tou de F ance (1903)
Open 13
P o ence (1993)
X eme Ve bie (1996)
El Gouna In e na ional
Squash Open
(2010)
(Con inued)
262 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
Socio- economic
p e ex
Types o owne s
(objec i e)
Success ac o s A che ypal examples
(da e c ea ed)
Raise he
hos ’s (geo)
poli ical
p o ile
Public body o
body unde
public con ol
(poli ical)
Raise a coun y’s
(and i s leade s’)
in e na ional
p o ile and so
powe
As ana Judo G and
Slam (2014)
Bah ein Fo mula 1
GP (2004)
Glai e de Tallin (1971)
2019 Wo ld A hle ics
Championships,
Doha, Qa a
2022 Wo ld Aqua ics
Championships and
2023 Wo ld A hle ics
Championships,
Budapes , Hunga y
Solida i y and/
o eco-
esponsibili y
Company/
associa ion/
NGO
(philan h opic)
Suppo a wo hy
cause
Eco- Games (2005)
Iconic mega
e en
Non- p o i
o ganisa iona
(non- p o i )
Bene i om he
p es ige g an ed
by hos ing an
excep ional
e en
Summe Olympic
Games (1896)
Win e Olympic
Games (1924)
Ame ica’s Cup (1851)
Wimbledon (1877)
Da is Cup (1900)
24 Hou s o Le
Mans (1923)
Tou de F ance (1903)
B i ish Open (1860)
Ryde Cup (1927)
a The Tou de F ance is an excep ion because i is un by a comme cial company – he
p ess, media and e en s g oup ASO. The e en was c ea ed by he spo s newspape
L’Au o, he o e unne o L’Equipe, which is owned by ASO.
Whe he he esul ing business model is o ien ed owa ds cus ome s (B2C),
owa ds businesses (B2B), o owa ds bo h cus ome s and businesses, depends on
he ype o e en (see Table 6.4).
Spo s e en s o all ypes can be e y p o i able, wi h many comme cial e en s
ha ing g oss ma gins o 20%– 30%. Consequen ly, e en owne s wi h he skills and
expe ise needed o exploi he esou ces a ailable can make la ge sums o money
om hei e en s, ei he di ec ly o by inc easing an e en ’s alue and hen sell-
ing all o pa o i s s ake. The buying and selling o e en s by comme cial, public
and associa i e owne s is g adually leading o spo e en s being concen a ed in
he hands o in e na ional e en - managemen companies con olled by la ge media
Table 6.3 (Con inued)
P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 263
Table 6.4 Business Models Adop ed by Indi idual Spo s Acco ding o Thei Socio- Economic P e ex
Socio- economic p e ex Co e o he business
model ( a ge pa ne s)
S uc u e o he business model Success indica o s
Encou age mass
pa icipa ion
En y ees and consump ion
(B2C)
En y ees (50%), consump ion (20%),
pa ne ships (25%), me chandising (5%)
Numbe o pa icipan s
Sa is ac ion o pa icipan s and hei en ou age
Consump ion by pa icipan s and hei
en ou age
P o ide a pla o m
o public ela ions
Public ela ions (B2B) Pa ne ships- public ela ions (60%), icke ing
(20%), o he e enues (e.g., media igh s)
Numbe and sa is ac ion o sponso s
Quali y o public ela ions
Pa ne loyal y
Clien / ne wo k con ac s
Build exclusi e
business
ela ionships
Funding om he i le
sponso (B2B)
Funding by he i le sponso (50%- 100%),
o he sponso s/ hos ci y (10%- 20%),
icke ing- me chandising e enues (10%- 20%)
Sa is ac ion o he company and i s
spec a o s/ gues s (VIP)
P oduce spec acula
images o
b oadcas ing
Pa ne ships (B2C) o
media igh s
Pa ne ships (90%) o media igh s (80%) TV/ pay- pe - iew audience
Numbe o in e ne iews
Digi al audience and an communi y
Ma ke he hos
e i o y
Public pa ne ships (naming
he e en ) B2B and B2C
Public pa ne ships (50%) and o he pa ne s
linked o public pa ne s and ou ism
Fame and image
Tou ism- ela ed economic bene i s
Raise he hos ’s (geo)
poli ical p o ile
Public pa ne ships (e en
naming) B2C and poli ical
wo ld
Public pa ne ships (60%): coun y, egion,
ci y
Regional, na ional o in e na ional success
wi h he public
Spo washing and/ o spo diplomacy
(wo ld championships in au ho i a ian
coun ies)
Solida i y and/ o
eco- esponsibili y
Eco- esponsible and socially
esponsible pa ne ships
B2B and B2C
Dona ions om pa ne companies and
pa icipan s
Funding and p omo ing a cause
Iconic mega e en Na ional and in e na ional
media igh s
Media igh s o en mo e han 50%, op
sponso s (30%), icke ing (20%)
Spon aneous ecogni ion and
in e na ional image
In e na ional TV and digi al audience and
ma ke sha e
Demand o sponso ship and icke ing
exceeds he o e
newgen pd
264 New Go e nance Challenges o In e na ional Spo O ganisa ions
and en e ainmen g oups. Fo example, Wanda Spo s G oup bough I onman
G oup in 2020 and Endea o bough UFC in 2016, ollowed by Wo ld W es ling
En e ainmen ( he wo ld leade in p o essional w es ling, which has signed a en-
yea , $5- billion con ac wi h Ne lix o b oadcas w es ling ma ches as o 2025).
Wo ld W es ling En e ainmen me ged wi h UFC in 2023 o o m TKO.
6.2.2 Resou ces, Compe encies and Expe ise Associa ed
wi h Di e en Types o E en s
Implemen ing s a egies and de eloping business models equi e e en owne s
o manage ou ypes o esou ces and asse s: pa ne ships, epu a ion, ela ion-
ships and physical asse s (Table 6.5). Manage s mus ha e he compe encies and
expe ise needed o combine and op imise hese esou ces o ensu e hei e en ’s
long- e m u u e by achie ing inancial success (business model/ p o i abili y),
popula success (numbe o spec a o s/ audience size, enown, image, social and
egional bene i s) and sec o al success (di e si y by buying o he ou namen s o
selling expe ise, e c.). An e en ha endu es may become a he i age e en and
make pa ne s dependen on he e en , a he han he e en being dependen on
pa ne s. These esou ces and compe encies may be o ally in e nal (specialis sal-
a ied s a ) o pa ly o comple ely ou sou ced o managemen companies wi h
expe ise in se e al spo s (e.g., ASO) o ha specialise in one spo (e.g., Tennium,
IMG and G and Chelem o ATP ennis ou namen s).
I is wi hin his in e na ional ci cui con ex , wi h i s di e en ypes and le els
o compe i ion, ha a hle es mus build hei p o essional ca ee s. To make he
mos o hei ca ee s, hey mus acqui e (inc easingly) specialis ca ee manage-
men compe encies and skills.
6.3 The Need o Eli e A hle es o be En ep eneu s
P o essional a hle es in indi idual spo s o en ha e complex socio- economic s a-
uses due o hei hyb id legal si ua ions and di e se sou ces o e enue. Mo eo e ,
a hle es in indi idual spo s mus manage hei own ca ee s, as do inc easing
numbe s o a hle es in p o essional eam spo s, al hough his la e g oup has he
ad an age o a egula sala y. As a esul , a a e y young age hey ind hemsel es
a he head o a small ‘spo ing- media- inancial’ en e p ise ha hey mus decide
how o manage (pay expe s, whe he o coo dina e spo ing, adminis a i e and
ma ke ing aspec s hemsel es o engage specialis s o do hese asks, e c.).
6.3.1 Di e si y and Hyb idi y o A hle es’ Socio- Economic
S a uses
Top- class a hle es in indi idual spo s may ha e se e al socio- economic s a uses
depending on he esou ces hey can ea n om hei spo , which depends on hei
spo ’s economy. These s a uses a e as ollows:
P i a e Ci cui s s. Fede a ion E en s in Indi idual Spo s 265
Table 6.5 Resou ces, Compe encies and Success Fac o s o E en Owne s
Resou ce Cha ac e is ics Compe encies and expe ise Key success indica o s
Pa ne ships Con ac / speci ica ion
wi h he e en o ganise
Sponso ship
Public pa ne ships
Find and e ain pa ne s Numbe o pa ne s
Pa ne sa is ac ion
Pa ne loyal y
Amoun o di ec and indi ec
in es men a
Se ices deli e ed in line wi h he
speci ica ion
Repu a ion E en
Ac o
Si e
Build a las ing epu a ion Age
Rank among playe s’ a ou i e
ou namen s
Repu a ion o he ou namen
o ganise and di ec o
P o essionalism o he eams
Beau y and unc ionali y o he si e
Rela ionships Social capi al
Ne wo ks
Public ela ions
A ac cha isma ic a hle es and/ o a hle es
wi h po en ial (le el and pe sonali y) – ies
wi h hei agen s – and ensu e suppo
om key ac o s (public decision- make s,
sponso s, company heads)
Quan i y and quali y o ela ionships
wi h key s akeholde s (owne ,
di ec o , specialis manage ) in he
a hle e, poli ical and business ields
Physical/
e i o ial
In as uc u e, cul u e Ensu e acili ies a e good enough o deli e
a quali y e en and alo ise/ s eng hen he
egion’s spo ing cul u e
Func ionali y
Adap abili y
Cos / e enue a io
Absence o p oblems
The spo ’s place wi hin he egion
(popula i y, numbe o playe s, e c.)
a Spo s g ound o spo s hall p o ided by a local au ho i y ei he ee o cha ge o a a educed a e. The local au ho i y may also co e unning
cos s (e.g., in e ne access, ligh ing, cleaning).
newgen pd

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