S ephen, Ma hew D.
A icle — Published Ve sion
China and he Limi s o Hypo he ical Hegemony
Secu i y S udies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: S ephen, Ma hew D. (2024) : China and he Limi s o Hypo he ical Hegemony,
Secu i y S udies, ISSN 1556-1852, Taylo & F ancis, London, Vol. 33, Iss. 1, pp. 152-159,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09636412.2023.2259801
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China and hegemony: an exChange
152 m. d. STePhen
China and he Limi s o Hypo he ical Hegemony
ma hew d. S ephen
How is China’s ise lea ing i s ma k on he p ac ices, no ms and ins i u ions
o in e na ional poli ics? In hei a icle, “China and he Logic o Illibe al
Hegemony”, Da en J. Lim and G. John Ikenbe y o e a p o oca i e answe
o his ques ion. Lim and Ikenbe y se ou o iden i y “ he logic and
p ac ices o an ideal- ype o de ha mos closely sui s China’s p e e ences.”1
They dis il h ee o ganiza ional p inciples o logics ha could cha ac e ize
a po en ial Chinese model o in e na ional o de : he logic o di e ence,
he logic o win-win, and he logic o pa ne ships. The au ho s a gue ha
while such logics may no be illibe al pe se, by a ac ing au oc a ic s a e
ollowe s and being based on p agma ic in e s a e ba gaining a he han
o mal ins i u ions, hey may gene a e illibe al ou comes o e ime. I his
a gumen a ion holds, i aises conside able doub abou he sus ainabili y
o libe al in e na ional o de in he ace o China’s con inued ise.
Lim and Ikenbe y ad ance a bold a gumen ha is likely o anima e
deba es abou China’s ise in he coming yea s. The claim ha domes ic
s uc u es ma e o he na u e o in e na ional powe ansi ions is
1da en J. Lim and g. John ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony,” Secu i y S udies 32, no.
1 (2023): 1-31.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published wi h license by Taylo & F ancis G oup, LLC.
Ma hew D. S ephen is a senio esea che a he WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e and a membe o he
Heisenbe g P og amme o he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (DFG).
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.
o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k
is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a
eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
China and The LimiTS oF hyPoTheTiCaL hegemony 153
con incing. The iden i ica ion o China wi h a nascen “illibe al hegemony”
is likely o esona e s ongly wi h he eme ging bipa isan consensus in
he Uni ed S a es ha iden i ies China as a “ e isionis powe ” ha seeks
o expo “an illibe al model o in e na ional o de .”2 The ocus on he
ope a ional logics o a po en ial Chinese hegemony is a welcome depa u e
om he ealis p eoccupa ion wi h in e na ional o de ’s dis ibu i e cha -
ac e is ics and he unc ional ins i u ionalis ocus on o de ’s o mal ins i-
u ional cha ac e is ics. Nei he heo y is able o cap u e changes in he
social pu poses ha in e na ional o de se es.
O he aspec s o Lim and Ikenbe y’s analysis should be app oached
mo e c i ically. Fi s , hinking in e ms o i al in e na ional hegemonic
o de s—one Ame ican-led and libe al, one Chinese-led and illibe al—
obscu es he commonali ies ha bo h powe s sha e and makes i di icul
o accoun o he ins i u ional complexi y o he con empo a y powe
shi . Nei he he Uni ed S a es no China is a consis en upholde o he
cu en in e na ional o de , and bo h powe s display dissa is ac ion wi h
he s uc u es, p ac ices, and social pu poses o many o i s es ablished
ins i u ions. An al e na i e app oach is o hink abou China’s o de -building
ac i i ies less as an al e na i e hegemonic sys em han as a laye ed o de
on op o an al eady ins i u ionalized, bu inc easingly con es ed, s a us
quo. This would also highligh he deep o e laps and in e ac ions be ween
US-led and China-led o de s. Second, Lim and Ikenbe y’s ideal- ypical
app oach o heo izing Chinese in e na ional o de -building la gely igno es
he ole ha China has al eady played in building ac ually exis ing ins i-
u ions o in e na ional o de . While hei ideal- ypical model o e s an
in e es ing hough expe imen in o he na u e o a hypo he ical Chinese
hegemony, a mo e empi ical app oach e eals a mo e di e en ia ed pic u e
o Chinese o de -building cha ac e ized by ins i u ional o e lap, in e ac ion,
and o ces o con e gence as well as di e gence. This highligh s he limi s
o Lim and Ikenbe y’s hypo he ical app oach o hegemony.
The Ins i u ional Complexi y o he Con empo a y Powe Shi
The adi ional app oach o in e na ional hegemonic o de -building assumes
a la gely clea space upon which hegemonic o de s can be cons uc ed.3
The key mechanism behind he c ea ion o such clea spaces is hegemonic
wa . Schola s iew such wa s as loosening cons ain s on ac ion and c e-
a ing new dis ibu ions o powe which acili a e “ he ebuilding o o de
2See Whi e house, Na ional Secu i y S a egy o he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica (Washing on d.C.: Whi e
house, 2017), 25, h ps:// umpwhi ehouse.a chi es.go /wp-con en /uploads/2017/12/nSS-Final-12-18-2017-
0905.pd ; and Whi e house, Na ional Secu i y S a egy o he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica (Washing on d.C.:
Whi e house, 2022), 8, h ps://www.whi ehouse.go /wp-con en /uploads/2022/10/Biden-ha is-adminis a ions-
na ional-Secu i y-S a egy-10.2022.pd .
3Robe gilpin, Wa and Change in Wo ld Poli ics (Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 1981).
154 m. d. STePhen
a e majo wa s.”4 Ye , he cu en shi in in e na ional powe has no
(p aise be) gi en ise o a hegemonic wa , and any e o a hegemonic
o de -building needs o depa om an al eady ins i u ionalized in e na-
ional o de .
Lim and Ikenbe y acknowledge his eali y when hey no e ha “[ ]he
absence o a g ea -powe wa and he con inuing global p esence o he
Uni ed S a es makes a clean b eak and a esh s a impossible.”5 Bu hey
ega d he absence o a clean sla e p ima ily as a me hodological challenge
o di ining wha a Chinese-led in e na ional o de would look like unde
ideal condi ions. They la gely se aside he issue o how well hei ideal
ype desc ibes he messy empi ical eali y, which is an ou come no only
o China’s p e e ences bu o he cons ain s o exis ing s uc u es and he
ac ions and eac ions o o he s a es and ac o s.6 This is a missed oppo -
uni y o explo ing he ins i u ional complexi y o he con empo a y
powe shi .
Fi s , while he e is much u h o he claim ha China has eme ged
in a global o de ha embodies a libe al social pu pose de i ing om
p olonged Wes e n dominance,7 i would be a g oss o e simpli ica ion o
assume ha he Uni ed S a es is he upholde o libe al in e na ional o de
while China is seeking o e ise o eplace i .8 Lim and Ikenbe y acknowl-
edge his complexi y bu nei he engage wi h i no in eg a e i in o hei
heo izing. Pu ing aside concep ual objec ions ha he e y no ion o a
singula libe al in e na ional o de obscu es mo e han i e eals,9 nume -
ous schola s ha e shown how bo h he Uni ed S a es and China ejec
some aspec s o es ablished ins i u ions and no ms while suppo ing o h-
e s.10 Fo example, while China ejec s adi ional libe al in e p e a ions
4g. John ikenbe y, A e Vic o y: Ins i u ions, S a egic Res ain , and he Rebuilding o O de A e Majo
Wa s (P ince on: P ince on Uni e si y P ess, 2001).
5Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony,” 10.
6Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 4.
7Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 1-2; ma hew d. S ephen, “eme ging
Powe s and eme ging T ends in global go e nance,” Global Go e nance 23 no. 3 (2017): 483–502; yan
xue ong, “Chinese Values s. Libe alism: Wha ideology Will Shape he in e na ional no ma i e o de ?”
The Chinese Jou nal o In e na ional Poli ics 10, no. 3 (2018): 1–22.
8alas ai iain Johns on, “China in a Wo ld o o de s,” In e na ional Secu i y 44, no. 2 (2019): 9–60; and eas
K uck and Be nha d Zangl, ‘The adjus men o in e na ional ins i u ions o global Powe Shi s: a
F amewo k o analysis’, Global Policy 11, no. S3 (2020): 5–16; ma hew d. S ephen and michael Zü n,
eds., Con es ed Wo ld O de s Rising Powe s, Non-Go e nmen al O ganiza ions, and he Poli ics o Au ho i y
beyond he Na ion S a e (ox o d: ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2019).
9alexande Cooley and daniel nexon, Exi om Hegemony: The Un a eling o he Ame ican Global O de
(ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2020), 21–25; hans Kundnani, “Wha is he Libe al in e na ional o de ?” Ge man
Ma shall Fund o he Uni ed S a es Policy Essay 17 (2017), h ps://www.js o .o g/s able/ es ep18909.
10S e e Chan,, huiyun Feng, Kai he, and Weixing hu, Con es ing Re isionism: China, he Uni ed S a es, and
he T ans o ma ion o In e na ional O de (ox o d: ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2021); Rosema y Foo and
and ew Wal e , China, he Uni ed S a es, and Global O de (Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2011);
Johns on, “China in a Wo ld o o de s”; Sco L. Kas ne , ma ga e m. Pea son, and Chad Rec o , China’s
S a egic Mul ila e alism: In es ing in Global Go e nance. (Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2018);
Jessica Chen Weiss and Je emy L. Wallace, “domes ic Poli ics, China’s Rise, and he Fu u e o he Libe al
in e na ional o de ,” In e na ional O ganiza ion 75, no. 2 (2021): 635-664.
China and The LimiTS oF hyPoTheTiCaL hegemony 155
o human igh s, i consis en ly signals suppo o he au ho i y o he
Uni ed Na ions Secu i y Council.11 Likewise, while he Uni ed S a es la gely
suppo s ins i u ions whe e i enjoys ins i u ional p i ileges, such as he
Wo ld Bank and In e na ional Mone a y Fund, i equen ly challenges
o he ules and ins i u ions associa ed wi h libe al in e na ional o de , such
as he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion (WTO) and he Uni ed Na ions Human
Righ s Council.12 A imes i has e en challenged some o he mos basic
no ms o in e na ional socie y, such as he peace ul se lemen o dispu es.13
The pa ial and selec i e suppo o bo h majo powe s o exis ing in e -
na ional ins i u ions signi ican ly complica es he pic u e o an illibe al
g ea powe ising up in a libe al o de domina ed by a libe al hegemon.
Bo h China and he Uni ed S a es can ac as challenge s o o de ende s
o es ablished o de , depending on he issue a s ake.
Second, he exis ence o a p e-exis ing ins i u ional o de changes he
incen i e s uc u e o a ising China o engage in al e na i e o de -building.
Lim and Ikenbe y make an impo an poin when hey s a e ha he
Chinese s a e seeks o make he in e na ional en i onmen mo e amenable
o i s domes ic go e nance a angemen s. Ye his does no necessa ily
equi e he cons uc ion o an al e na i e in e na ional o de . Ra he , he
p omo ion o new no ms and ins i u ions akes place alongside a emp s
o b ing es ablished p ac ices and ins i u ions mo e closely in o line wi h
China’s p e e ences. The case o he Asian In as uc u e In es men Bank
(AIIB) highligh s ha a he han ins i u ional “c ea ion” being an al e -
na i e choice o ins i u ional “change”,14 bo h s a egies can be pu sued
simul aneously. The di e en s a egies a e o en complemen a y, as bo h
he h ea and ac ual c ea ion o addi ional ins i u ions can inc ease le e -
age o e exis ing ones. The ac ha China con on s an al eady s ongly
ins i u ionalized in e na ional o de limi s bo h he incen i es and he
capaci y o China o cons uc an al e na i e o de . Unde condi ions o
unce ain y, esou ce sca ci y, and sa is icing a he han maximizing, he
p omo ion o an al e na i e Chinese o de seems less likely han he
piecemeal laye ing o addi ional ins i u ions on o exis ing ones.15
11Johns on, “China in a Wo ld o o de s”; Weiss and Wallace, “domes ic Poli ics, China’s Rise, and he
Fu u e o he Libe al in e na ional o de .”
12and eas K uck e al., “disen angling ins i u ional Con es a ion by es ablished Powe s: Types o
Con es a ion F ames and Va ying oppo uni ies o he Re-Legi ima ion o in e na ional ins i u ions,”
Global Cons i u ionalism 11, no. 2 (2022): 344–68.
13ian hu d, ‘B eaking and making no ms: ame ican Re isionism and C ises o Legi imacy’, In e na ional
Poli ics 44, no. 2 (2007): 194–213.
14Joseph Jupille, Wal e ma li, and duncan Snidal, Ins i u ional Choice and Global Comme ce (Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2013).
15La s S. Skålnes, ‘Laye ing and displacemen in de elopmen Finance: The asian in as uc u e in es men
Bank and he Bel and Road ini ia i e’, The Chinese Jou nal o In e na ional Poli ics 14, no. 2 (2021): 257–
88; on laye ing, see Je oen an de heijden, ‘ins i u ional Laye ing: a Re iew o he Use o he Concep ’,
Poli ics 31, no. 1 (2011): 9–18.
156 m. d. STePhen
Thi d, concep ualizing an al e na i e Chinese o de in ideal- ypical e ms
downplays he ex en o which di e en o de s o e lap and in e ac .
Ins i u ional o e lap exis s when wo o mo e ins i u ions sha e bo h policy
asks and membe ship.16 Hegemonic o de s can o e lap in a simila man-
ne . Lim and Ikenbe y a e p obably co ec o a gue ha au ho i a ian
go e nmen s will ind China’s app oach o in e na ional coope a ion a ac-
i e as i neu alizes challenges o hei poli ical legi imacy and o e s
p agma ic bene i s. Ye , he e is also signi ican e idence ha Chinese
o de -building a ac s ollowe s ega dless o egime ype. Fo example,
mo e han hal o he membe ship o he (China-led) AIIB a e also mem-
be s o he (US- and Japan-led) Asian De elopmen Bank, and bo h ins i-
u ions a e nes ed wi hin he b oade membe ship o he Wo ld Bank
G oup. Few coun ies see hese ins i u ions as mu ually exclusi e, e en as
each ins i u ion exhibi s di e en no ma i e and policy p io i ies.17 Al hough
he Uni ed S a es go e nmen has made some e o o p opaga e a dem-
oc a ic/au ho i a ian di ide as a new ideological clea age in in e na ional
o de , one s udy ound no e idence ha egime ype o domes ic human
igh s p ac ices played a ole in shaping s a es’ pa icipa ion in China’s
Bel and Road Fo um o In e na ional Coope a ion.18 Se e al coun ies
ypically seen as key membe s o he Ame ican hegemonic o de , such as
Aus alia, Japan, New Zealand, and Sou h Ko ea, a e al eady mo e eco-
nomically dependen on China han wi h any o he coun y.19 India, a
majo eme ging powe , insis s on i s s a egic au onomy and combines
membe ship o he China-led Shanghai Coope a ion O ganiza ion (SCO)
wi h membe ship in he US-led Quad ila e al Secu i y Dialogue (Quad).
The exis ence o a la ge deg ee o o e lap complica es he idea o an
al e na i e China-led o de s eng hening illibe alism, and highligh s he
deg ee o in eg a ion and o e lap be ween di e en o de s, each o which
can e lec di e en social pu poses and a ying deg ees o Ame ican o
Chinese leade ship.
16yo am Z. ha el and Tobias Lenz, ‘measu ing ins i u ional o e lap in global go e nance’, The Re iew o
In e na ional O ganiza ions 17, no. 2 (2022): 327.
17ma hew d. S ephen and da id Skidmo e, ‘The aiiB in he Libe al in e na ional o de ’, The Chinese
Jou nal o In e na ional Poli ics 12, no. 1 (2019): 61–91; da a on aiiB and adB membe ships was e ie ed
om h ps://www.aiib.o g/en/abou -aiib/go e nance/membe s-o -bank/index.h ml and h ps://www.adb.
o g/who-we-a e/o ganiza ion/boa d-go e no s (accessed 06 Janua y 2023).
18J. Law ence B oz, Zhiwen Zhang, and gaoyang Wang, ‘explaining Fo eign Suppo o China’s global
economic Leade ship’, In e na ional O ganiza ion 74, no. 3 (2020): 444–45.
19Fo all ou coun ies, China is bo h he la ges expo des ina ion and impo sou ce. Wo ld T ade
o ganiza ion, ‘T ade P o iles’, WTo T ade S a is ics, accessed 2 decembe 2022, h ps://www.w o.o g/
english/ es_e/s a is_e/ ade_p o iles_lis _e.h m.
China and The LimiTS oF hyPoTheTiCaL hegemony 157
China as a Builde o Ac ually Exis ing In e na ional O de
Lim and Ikenbe y’s main aim is “ o explo e he dimensions and unde -
lying logic o a China-led model and conside wha such a model, i
ealized, migh imply o he o e all cha ac e o he esul ing in e na ional
o de — ha is, how China migh build and p eside o e an o de ed sys em
o ela ions wi h o he s a es.”20 The condi ional mood is c ucial. In a
oo no e, hey desc ibe hei ask as “explici ly heo e ical and somewha
specula i e”.21
Wha Lim and Ikenbe y o e is an exe cise in es ima ing China’s ideal
p e e ences ega ding in e na ional o de , al hough i is somewha limi ed
by i s lack o engagemen wi h Chinese sou ces.22 Ye e en i he goal is
pu ely heo e ical, he me hodological app oach is di icul o pa se. They
combine a ious me hodological s a egies, s a ing ha hei model “is
de i ed bo h om ou assump ions abou Beijing’s p e e ences, he in en-
ions mani es in he s a emen s o China’s leade s, and obse ed p ac ices
o China’s exis ing o de -building ac i i y ha , we a gue, s em om China’s
own domes ic model.”23 This combina ion o induc i e and deduc i e
app oaches o iden i ying p e e ences makes i ha d o disce n whe he
hey a e de eloping heo e ical s a emen s ha can be es ed, o p esen ing
empi ical indings ha es such s a emen s. The esul is a hea ily s ylized
pic u e o Chinese illibe al hegemony ha elies on a high le el o ex ap-
ola ion and specula ion.
An al e na i e app oach would be o examine mo e closely he obse -
able p ac ices o China’s o de -building ac i i y, ei he o es compe ing
heo ies o o de -building, o as an induc i e empi ical s ep owa ds heo y
de elopmen . China has al eady pa icipa ed in he c ea ion o nume ous
in e na ional ins i u ions and ini ia i es, whe e China’s p e e ences and
capabili ies ha e con on ed he p ac ical eali ies o o de -building in
collabo a ion wi h o he in e na ional ac o s. These ini ia i es a y widely
in e ms o hei geog aphic scope, issue a ea, le el o ins i u ional o -
mali y, as well as he ex en o Chinese leade ship in ins i u ional c ea ion.24
I is e iden ha no all o hem can be pain ed wi h he same b ush.
They ange om in o mal and la gely Chinese ini ia i es such as he
a ious China-led egional o ums,25 h ough o new o mal
20Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 4.
21Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 6 (no e 22).
22an analysis o Chinese go e nmen ideal p e e ences, d awing ex ensi ely on Chinese sou ces, is Rush
doshi, The Long Game: China’s G and S a egy o Displace Ame ican O de (ox o d: ox o d Uni e si y
P ess, 2021).
23Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 6.
24ma hew d S ephen, ‘China’s new mul ila e al ins i u ions: a F amewo k and Resea ch agenda’,
In e na ional S udies Re iew 23, no. 3 (2021): 807–34.
25Ped o Paulo dos San os, yichao Li, and José al es, ‘The new Face o mul ila e alism: The Case o
“Chinese” Fo ums’, in The Palg a e Handbook o Globaliza ion wi h Chinese Cha ac e is ics: The Case o he
158 m. d. STePhen
in e go e nmen al o ganiza ions, such as he AIIB.26 Some, such as he
Asia-Paci ic Space Coope a ion O ganiza ion (APSCO) o he ASEAN +3
Mac oeconomic Resea ch O ice (AMRO) ha dly i he pic u e o Chinese
hegemony pain ed by Lim and Ikenbe y, bu consis o classical in e go -
e nmen al o ganiza ions ha la gely ep oduce he social pu poses o
exis ing go e nance mechanisms. O he s, such as he Wo ld In e ne
Con e ence and he Sou h-Sou h Human Righ s Fo um, a e much loose
a angemen s and mo e closely e lec China’s no ma i e and policy p e -
e ences. They may he e o e come close o Lim and Ikenbe y’s cha ac-
e iza ion o Chinese hegemony. Bu he a iousness o China’s o de -building
ac i i ies should no be igno ed.
I is su p ising ha Lim and Ikenbe y de o e so li le a en ion o such
ins i u ions, especially in ligh o hei p e ious analysis o “China’s ins i-
u ional s a ec a ” h ough he AIIB.27 Despi e he appa en success o
such an ini ia i e, Lim and Ikenbe y main ain ha “in obse ed p ac ice
China consis en ly seeks o sideline mul ila e al mechanisms and ele a e
bila e al app oaches o e issues a ec ing co e na ional in e es s”.28 They
ci e China’s posi ion in ma i ime so e eign y dispu es in he Sou h China
Sea in suppo o his s a emen .29 They claim ha China a o s “a model
o loose, in o mal, and p ima ily bila e al mechanisms o con lic esolu-
ion” which inhe en ly p i ileges powe ul s a es and con e s “a baseline
illibe al cha ac e on he eme ging o de .”30
In con as o hese claims, he Chinese and Ame ican app oaches o mul-
ila e alism ac ually ha e a lo in common. While China has indeed ejec ed
he indings o he in e na ional a bi al ibunal cons i u ed unde he Uni ed
Na ions Con en ion on Law o he Sea (UNCLOS) in ela ion o e i o ial
claims in he Sou h China Sea, he Uni ed S a es is no e en a pa y o he
con en ion.31 Meanwhile, he Uni ed S a es i sel has become he g ea es
h ea o he iabili y o he WTO, a guably he keys one mul ila e al ins i-
u ion o libe al in e na ional o de . F us a ion wi h he WTO has led he
US o impose wide- anging a i s and o scu le he WTO dispu e se lemen
mechanism by blocking he appoin men o Appella e Body judges.32 In a
Bel and Road Ini ia i e, ed. Paulo a onso B. dua e, F ancisco José B. S. Leand o, and en ique ma ínez
galán (Singapo e: Sp inge na u e, 2023), 253–70.
26Wei Liang, ‘China’s ins i u ional S a ec a unde xi Jinping: has he aiiB Se ed China’s in e es ?’, Jou nal
o Con empo a y China 30, no. 128 (2021): 283–98.
27g. John ikenbe y and da en Lim, China’s Eme ging Ins i u ional S a ec a (Washing on d.C.:
B ookings, 2017).
28Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 23.
29Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 23 & 27.
30Lim and ikenbe y, “China and he Logic o illibe al hegemony”, 26-27, no e 126.
31Pe manen Cou o a bi a ion, ‘The Sou h China Sea a bi a ion (The Republic o Philippines . The
People’s Republic o China)’, Pe manen Cou o a bi a ion, 16 Janua y 2023, h ps://pca-cpa.o g/en/
cases/7/.
32ma k a. Pollack, ‘in e na ional Cou Cu bing in gene a: Lessons om he Pa alysis o he WTo appella e
Body’, Go e nance 36, no. 1 (2023): 23–39; daniel C.K. Chow, ‘Uni ed S a es Unila e alism and he Wo ld
T ade o ganiza ion’, Bos on Uni e si y In e na ional Law Jou nal 37, no. 1 (2019): 1–34.
China and The LimiTS oF hyPoTheTiCaL hegemony 159
clea challenge o Lim and Ikenbe y’s claims, China has pa icipa ed in
he Eu opean Union’s ini ia i e o es ablish a olun a y and empo a y
ini ia i e o keep he WTO’s own mechanism o con lic esolu ion a loa .33
I emains oo ea ly o ell i his ini ia i e can sa e he WTO om
he allou o he China-US ade i al y and he widesp ead secu i iza ion
o in e na ional ade and in es men ha has occu ed in esponse o
Russia’s in asion o Uk aine. Ye , i is simply misleading o claim ha
China’s ins umen al app oach o mul ila e alism would dis inguish i s
“illibe al” hegemony om he “libe al” hegemony o he Uni ed S a es.
The e has always been some wiggle oom in he “loosely” ule-based
na u e o Ame ica’s libe al in e na ional o de . While he e clea ly a e
di e ences in he pu poses and ideologies o he wo powe s, a selec i e
and s a egic app oach o mul ila e al ules is common o bo h. Mo eo e ,
he ins i u ions ha China has ac ually c ea ed exis alongside, o e lap
wi h, and laye on o he ins i u ions associa ed wi h libe al in e na ional
o de . This gi es ise o no el in e -o de dynamics. While some o ces
may end owa ds d i ing he o de s apa and encou aging a bi u ca ion
o he global sys em, o he o ces—such as in e -ins i u ional emula ion,
socializa ion, and compe i ion—may encou age he o de s o con e ge.34
The esul migh be a mo e libe al Chinese o de and a less libe al
Ame ican one. Thinking in e ms o i al hegemonic o de s equi es us
o ake he simila i ies as well as di e ences o Chinese and Ame ican
app oaches o in e na ional o de -building in o accoun , and o acknowl-
edge he mu ual o e laps and in e ac ions ha cha ac e ize he con em-
po a y powe shi .
Disclosu e S a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
33olga S a shino a, ‘is he mPia a Solu ion o he WTo appella e Body C isis?’, Jou nal o Wo ld T ade 55,
no. issue 5 (2021): 787–803.
34Fo he o me , see John m owen, ‘Two eme ging in e na ional o de s? China and he Uni ed S a es’,
In e na ional A ai s 97, no. 5 (2021): 1415–31.
